UNIVERSITY 
CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


THE 


NEW 
NATURAL    HISTORY 


By 

RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S. 


and 

R.    BOWDLER    SHARPE,     H.    A.    MAcPHERSON,    F.    O.    PICKARD-CAM- 
BRIDGE,  W.  R.  OGILVIE  GRANT,   C.  J.  GAHAN,   F.  A.  BATHER, 
EDGAR   A.    SMITH,     R.  I.   POCOCK,     M.    BERNARD, 
H.   BERNARD    AND    R.  KIRKPATRICK. 


Wiih  Preface  by 

JOEL   A.  ALLEN 

CURATOR   OF   AMERICAN   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL   HISTORY 


Illustrated  with 
SEI/ENTY-TU/O   COLOURED   PLATES  AND   SIXTEEN  HUNDRED   ENGRAVINGS 


VOLUME  IL 


NEW  YORK 
MERRILL   &   BAKER 

PUBLISHERS 

LTF.RARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


CONTENTS 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER  XVI.  —  CARNIVORES,— continued. 

PAGE 

BEARS  (Ursidce). — General  Characteristics— Distribution — The  Typical  Bears  (Ursus) — Polar 
Bear — Brown  Bear — Crowther's  Bear — Grizzly  Bear — American  Black  Bear — Hima- 
layan Black  Bear — Spectacled  Bear — Malayan  Bear- — Extinct  Cave-Bear — The  Sloth- 
Bear  (Melursus) — -The  Parti-Coloured  Bear  (&luropus) — Extinct  Bear-like  Genera,  .  1 

CHAPTER  XVII.—  CARNIVORES, — -continued, 

THE  RACCOON  TRIBE  (Procyonidce). — -Distinctive  Features  of  Raccoons — Their  Peculiar  Distri- 
bution— The  Panda  (t'Kliirus) — Raccoons  (Procyon) — Habits — Crab-Eating  Raccoon — 
Cacomistles  (Bassaris) — Coatis  (Nasua) — The  Kinkajou  (Cercoleptes),  .  .  .35 

CHAPTER  XVIII.— CARNIVORES,  —continued. 

THE  WEASEL  TRIBE  (Mnxklida) — Characteristics  and  Distribution — Tayra  and  Grison  (Galictis) 
— Martens,  Polecats,  and  Weasels  (Mustela) — Pine-Marten — Beech-Marten—Sable — 
American  Marten — Fisher-Marten—Indian  Marten — Polecat  —  Sarmatian  Polecat — 
Black-Footed  Polecat — Ferret — Weasel — Stoat  or  Ermine — Other  Species — Extinct 
Forms  —  Mink — Its  Fur  in  commerce  —  Siberian  Mink  —  South  African  Weasel 
(Pcecilocjale) — Glutton  or  Wolverene  (Gulo) — The  Skunks  (Mephitis  and  Conepattu) — 
Common  Skunk — Long- Tailed  Skunk — Lesser  Skunk— White-Backed  Skunk— Fossil 
Skunks — The  Cape  Polecat  (Ictonyx) — Ferret-Badgers  (Helictis) — Ratels  (Mdlivora) — 
Fossil  Species  —  The  American  Badger  (Taxidea) — Common  Badger  (Meles)  —  The 
Malayan  Badger  (Mydaus) — The  Sand-Badger  (Arctonyx) — Otters  (Lutra)—  European 
Otter — Habits — Tame  Otters — Otter-Hunting — North  American  Otter  —  Brazilian 
Otter— Feline  Otter— Smooth  Indian  Otter— Hairy-Nosed  Otter— Clawless  Otter — 
African  Otters  -Spotted  -  Necked  Otter— Extinct  Otters— The  Sea-Otter  (Latax),  .  46 
VOL.  II 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XIX.—  CARNIVORES,— concluded. 

EARED  SEALS,  WALRUSES,  AND  SEALS  (Otariidce,  Trichechidce,  and  Phocidce). — Distinctive 
Characters  of  the  Group — The  Eared  Seals  (Otariidce) — Habits — Hair-Seals  and  Fur- 
Seals — Southern  Sea- Lion — Distribution  and  Habits — Northern  Sea-Lion — Distribution 
— Californian  Sea-Lion — Hooker's  Sea-Lion — Australian  Hair-Seal — The  Northern 
Sea-Bear — Seal-Rookeries — Southern  Fur-Seals — South  American  Fur-Seal — Cape 
Fur-Seal — New  Zealand  Fur-Seal — The  Walrus  (TrichecJms) — The  True,  or  Earless 
Seals  (Phocidce) — Their  Distinctive  Features,  Distribution,  and  Habits — The  Grey  Seal 
(Halichosrus) — Common  and  Greenland  Seals  (Phoca) — Allied  Species — The  Monk-Seal 
(Monachus)— West  Indian  Seal — The  Leopard-Seal  (Ogmorhinus) — Crab-Eating  Seal 
(Lobodon) — Weddell's  Seal  (Leptonychotes) — Ross's  Seal  (Ommatophocci) — Crested  Seal 
(Oystophora) — Elephant-Seal  (Macrorhinus) — Seal-Hunting — The  Primitive  Carnivores,  102 

CHAPTER  XX. — THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS, — Order  Ungulata. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS  (Bovidce). — Characters  of  Ungulates— Their  Feet — Odd- 
Toed  and  Even- Toed  Groups — Structure  of  Teeth — Characteristics — Size — Horns — 
Distribution  —  Hollow-Horned  Ruminants  — •  Even-Toed  Ungulates  —  Oxen  (Bos) — 
Characters,  Distribution,  Habits,  and  Specialisation- — Aurochs  and  Domestic  Oxen — 
Domestication — Park  Cattle — Chillingham  Cattle — Cadzow  Cattle — Chartley  Cattle — 
Other  Herds — Shetland  Cattle — Highland  Breed — Welsh  Breed — Kerry  Breed — Polled 
Angus — Galloways — Polled  Suffolk  —  Alderneys  and  Jerseys — Ayrshire — Devons — 
Heref ords — Longhorns —  Shorthorns — Continental  Breeds — Indian  Cattle — American 
and  Australian  Cattle — Humped  Cattle — Galla  Cattle — Extinct  Species — The  Gaur 
—The  Gayal — The  Banting — The  Yak — -European  Bison — The  American  Bison — 
Extinct  Bison — The  Cape  Buffalo — Short-Horned  Buffalo — Extinct  Forms — The  Indian 
Buffalo — Fossil  Indian  Species — The  Tamarao — The  Anoa — The  Musk-Ox  (Ovibos) — 
Its  Distribution  and  Habits — -Sheep  (Ovis)  —  Their  Characters  and  Distribution — 
American  and  Kamschatkan  Wild  Sheep — The  Mongolian  and  Tibetan  Argalis — The 
Pamir  Wild  Sheep — The  Urial  or  Sha — Armenian,  and  Cyprian  Sheep — The  Moufioii 
— Domestic  Sheep — Flat-Tailed  Sheep — Shetland  Breed — Scotch  Breeds — Welsh  Sheep 
— Irish  Breeds — Heath  Breed — Cheviots — Norfolk  Breed — Moor  Breeds — Southdowns 
—  Dorsets  — Merino  and  Long-Woolled  Breeds — The  Bharal — Barbary  Sheep— The 
Goats  (Capra)—  Their  Characteristics  and  Distribution — Caucasian  Wild  Goats,  or  Tur 
— Pallas's  Tur — Caucasian  Tur — Severtzow's  Tur — Spanish  Wild  Goat— Persian  Wild 
Goat — Domestic  Goats — Angora  Breed — Kashmir  Goat— Syrian  Goat — Egyptian  Goat 
— Sudan  Goat — Feral  Goats  —  Ibex — Alpine  Ibex — -Himalayan  Ibex — Arabian  Ibex 
— Abyssinian  Ibex — The  Markhor — The  Tahr  and  Nilgiri  Wild  Goat  (Hemitmcjus) 
— The  Gorals  (Cemas)— The  Serows  (Nemorhcedus) — The  Takin  (Budorcas)— Rocky 
Mountain  Goat  (/fapZoeeros)— The  Chamois  (Rupicapra) — Eland  (Orias)— Character 
and  Distribution  of  Antelopes — Size,  Distribution,  and  Habits  of  Eland — Derbian 
Eland — -Kudu  (Strepsiceros) — Common  and  Lesser  Kudu — Harnessed  Antelopes  (Trag- 
elaphus) — -Bongo — Nyala — West  African  Harnessed  Antelope — Nakong — Guib — The 
Nilgai (Boselaphus)— The  Addax(^<Max)— Oryx(0rp;)— Gemsbok — Beisa — East  African 
Oryx— Beatrix  Antelope — Sabre-Horned  Antelope — Extinct  Forms — Sable  Antelope 
and  Roan  Antelope  (Hippotrcujus) — Blaubok — Baker's  Antelope — Extinct  Species,  .  151 


CHAPTER  XXL—  UNGULATES,— continued. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS, — continued. — The  Gazelles  (Gazella) — Springbok — Dorcas 
Gazelle — Indian  Gazelle — Persian  Ga/elle — Grant's  Gazelle — Thomson's  Gazelle — Other 
Species — Clarke's  Antelope  (Ammodorcas)— Gerenuk  (Lithocranius) — Chiru,  or  Tibetan 
Antelope  (Pantholops) — The  Saiga  (Saiga) — Palas  (JEpyceros) — Lesser  Pala — Angola 


CONTENTS  vil 

PAGE 

Pala — Black  Buck  (Antilope) — Reitbok  (Cervicapra) — Water-Buck,  Lichi,  etc.  (Cobus) — 
Sing-Sing — Puku — Rhebok  (Pelea) — Klipspringer  (Oreotragus) — Steinboks  (Nanotragus) 
— Oribi — Grysbok — Salt's  Antelope  (Neotragus) — Duikerbok  (Cephalophus) — Red  Buck 
— Blue  Buck — Zebra-Antelope — Wood -Antelope — Four-Horned  Antelope  (Tetraceros) 
— Wildebeests  (Connochcetes) — Hartebeests,  Blessbok,  and  Bontebok  (Bubalis) — Titel — 
Hartebeest — Cooke's  Hartebeest — Konzi — Herota — Korigum  —  Sassabi — Blessbok — 
Extinct  Species  ..........  289 

CHAPTER  XXIL— UNGULATES,— continued. 

THE  PRONGBUCK  (Antilocapridce),  and  the  Giraffe  (CHraffidce) — The  Prongbuck  (Antilojcapra) 
— Shedding  and  Renewal  of  Horns — Habits — Hunting — Extinct  Forms — The  Giraffe 
(Giraffa) — Distribution — Habits — Hunting—  Extinct  Mammals  allied  to  the  Giraffe — 
Samothere — Sivathere,  .........  325 

CHAPTER  XXIII. — UNGULATES, — continued. 

THE  DEER-TRIBE  (Oervidce) — Nature  and  Growth  of  Antlers — Other  Characters — The  Red 
Deer  Group  (Cervus  elaphus,  etc.) — Characters  and  Habits  of  Red  Deer — Allied  Species 
— Hangul — Shou — Maral — Wapiti — The  Japanese  Deer  Group  (G.  sika,  etc.) — Mant- 
ch.urian  Deer — Dybowski's  Deer — Formosan  Deer — Caspian  Deer — Indian  Spotted 
Deer,  or  Chital  (G.  axis) — The  Sambar  Group  (G.  unicolor,  etc.) — Allied  Species — Hog- 
Deer — The.  Swamp-Deer  Group  (G.  duvauceli,  etc.) — Schomburgk's  Deer — Eld's  Deer — 
David's  Deer  (G.  davidianus) — Fallow  Deer  Group  (G.  dama,  etc.) — Persian  Fallow 
Deer — Extinct  Irish  Deer — The  Muntjacs  (Gervulus) — The  Tufted  Deer  (Elaphodus) — 
The  Reindeer  (Ranyifer) — Caribou — The  Elk,  or  Moose  (Alces) — Distribution — Habits 
— Hunting— The  Roe  Deer  (Gapreolus) — Tartarian  Roe — Chinese  Water-Deer  (Hydro- 
potes) — The  American  Deer  (Cariacus) — Characters  of  their  Antlers — Brockets — Costa 
Rica  Deer — Guemals — Pampas  Deer — Marsh-Deer — •Virginian  Deer— Naked-Eared 
Deer — Mule-Deer — Black-Tailed  Deer — The  Pudu  Deer  (Pudua)—  The  Musk-Deer 
(Moschus),  ...........  338 

CHAPTER  XXIV.— UNGULATES,— continued. 

CHEVROTAINS  AND  CAMELS  (Tragulidce  and  Gamelidre). — The  Chev-rotains — True  Chevrotains 
(Tragulus) — Water-Chevrotain  (DorcatJierium) — Camels  and  Llamas — Their  Distinctive 
Characters — The  Camels  (Camelus) — Arabian  Camel — Its  Various  Breeds — Bactrian 
Camel — The  Llamas  (Lama) — Vicuuia — Guanaco — Llama — Alpaca — Extinct  Camel- 
like  Ungulates,  ..........  398 

CHAPTER  XXV. — UNGULATES, — continued. 

THE  PIG-LIKE  UNGULATES,  PIGS,  PECCARIES,  AND  HIPPOPOTAMI. — The  Pigs  (Suid(e)— The 
True  Pigs  (Sus) — European  and  Indian  Wild  Boars— Andaman  Pig — Pigmy  Hog — 
Malayan  Pigs  —  Domestic  Swine  —  European  Breeds — Masked  Swine — Bush-Pigs— 
Extinct  Pigs — The  Babirusa  (Babirusa) — Its  Remarkable  Tusks — The  Wart-Hogs 
(Phacochcertis) — The  Peccaries  (Dicotylidce) — Extinct  Types — Hippopotami  (Hippopo- 
tamidw) — Common  Hippopotamus — Its  Distribution  and  Habits — Hunting — The 
Pigmy  Hippopotamus — Extinct  Species,  .......  420 

CHAPTER  XXVI.— UNGULATES,— continued. 

TAPIRS,  RHINOCEROSES,  AND  HORSES.— Characteristics  of  Odd-Toed  Ungulates— The  Tapirs 
(Tapiridcf) — Characters  and  Distribution — Malayan  Tapir — American  Tapirs — Habits 
— Hunting — The  Rhinoceroses  (Rhinocerotidce) — Characteristics — Teeth — Horns — 
Habits — The  Asiatic  Rhinoceroses — Indian  Rhinoceros — Javan  Rhinoceros — Allied 


viii  CONTENTS 


PAOE 


Extinct  Species — Sumatran  Species — African  Rhinoceroses — Common  African  Species 
— Size  of  Horns — Habits — Hunting — Burchell's  Rhinoceros — Holmwood's  Rhinoceros 
— Extinct  Rhinoceroses — The  Horse-Tribe  (Equidce) — Characteristics — Specialisation — 
Equus — Nomenclature  of  Limbs — Indications  of  Age — The  Horse— Its  Distribution — 
Tarpan — Prejevalski's  Horse — Domestication — In.  America — In  Australia — Barbs  and 
Arabs — Arab — Levant  and  Persian  Horses — English  Race-Horse — Hunters,  etc. — 
Leaping  Powers — American  Trotter — Shetland,  and  other  Ponies — Cart-Horses — 
Shire-Horse — Clydesdale — Suffolk  Punch — Foreign  Breeds — The  Zebras — True  Zebra 
— Burchell's  Zebra — Grevy's  Zebra— Quagga — The  Asses— Asiatic  Wild  Ass — Varieties, 
Distribution,  and  Habits — African  Wild  Ass — Domestic  Ass — Mule — Fossil  Horses — 
Other  Extinct  Odd-Toed  Ungulates — Ancestry  of  the  Horse — Palseotheres  and  Lophio- 
dons — Titanotheres  and  Chalicotheres — Palseosyops,  .....  454 

CHAPTER  XXVII.— UNGULATES,— conceded 

HYRACES,  ELEPHANTS,  ETC. — Characters  of  Foot  in  the  Elephants  and  their  Allies — The  Hyraces 
(Hyracoidea) — Characters  of  the  Procaviidce — Distribution — Abyssinian  Hyraces — 
Cape  Hyrax — Syrian  Hyrax — Tree-Hyraces — Elephants  (Proboscidea) — Characters  of 
the  Elephantidce — The  Skull  and  Teeth — -Habits — Indian  Elephant — Distribution — 
Habits — Breeding — -Elephant  -  Shooting — Modes  of  Capture — Value  and  Uses  of 
Elephants — The  Mammoth — The  African  Elephant — Distribution — Habits — Hunting 
— Mode  of  Capture — Extinct  Elephants — Sutledje  Elephant — Narbada  Elephant — 
Straight-Tusked  Elephant — Pigmy  Species — Southern  Elephant — Stegodont  Elephants 
— The  Mastodons — The  Dinothere — Short-Footed  Ungulates  (A  mblypoda) — The  Macrau- 
chenia  and  its  Allies  (Litopterna) — The  Astrapotheres  and  their  Kin  (Astrapothcria) — 
The  Toxodonts  (Toxodoiriia),  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .517 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.— MANATLS  AND  DUGONGS,— Order  SIRENIA. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  GROUP. — Mode  of  Life — Distribution — Classification — Manatis 
(Manatus) — Distribution  and  Number  of  Species — Habits — The  Dugong  (Halicore) — 
Distribution— Habits — Northern  Sea-Cow  (Rhytina) — Distribution  and  Habits — 
Extermination — Tertiary  Sirenians,  .......  567 

INDEX,       ...  .577 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLOURED    PLATES 


THE  EUROPEAN  BISON,     , 

WHITE-NOSED  COATI, 

EUROPEAN  OTTER, 

HOOKER'S  SEA-LION, 

LEOPARD-SEAL, 

BHARAL,     . 

DORCAS  GAZELLE, 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  GIRAFFES, 

FALLOW  DEER, 

INDIAN  RHINOCEROS, 

ZEBRA, 

AFRICAN  ELEPHANT, 


Frontispiece 
Facing  pnge  44 
93 
108 
144 
232 
289 
332 
364 
464 
505 
545 


PAGE    PLATES 


POLAR  BEARS  AND  THEIR  PREY, 

THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR, 

SLOTH-BEARS  IN  A  FOREST  GLADE, 

A  FAMILY  PARTY  OF  SOUTHERN  SEA-LIONS, 

WILD  CATTLE  OF  CADZOW  PARK, 

DOMESTIC  YAK,     .... 

ALPINE  IBEX, 

CHAMOIS  AT  BAY, 

MALE  AND  FEMALE  KUDU, 

GROUP  OF  AFRICAN  ANTELOPES, 

A  FAMILY  OF  RED  DEKR, 

ARABIAN  CAMEL,  .... 

A  FAMILY  OF  EUROPEAN  WILD  SWINE, 

INDIAN  ELEPHANT, 

THE  HAUNT  OF  THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT, 


Page  7 

„  15 

„  28 

„  103 

„  165 

„  184 

„  246 

„  264 

„  272 

„  317 

„  342 

„  405 

,,  423 

„  531 
547 


TEXT    ENGRAVINGS 


Brown  Bears  on  the  March, 
Skeleton  of  Bear,    . 
Polar  Bear  Climbing  a  Floe, 
The  Brown  Bear,    . 
Head  of  Brown  Bear, 
The  American  Black  Bear, 


PAOE 
1 

2 

5 

10 

11 
18 


The  Himalayan  Black  Bear, 

The  Malayan  Bear, 

Skull  of  Cave-Bear, 

The  Parti-Coloured  Bear,  . 

Jaw  of  Ar.  :  othere, 

Molar  Teeth  of  Hyacnarctus, 


PAGE 

21 
24 
25 
33 
34 
34 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Palate  of  the  Cacomistlc,    .            .  .35 
The  Panda,              ....         37 

Skeleton  of  Raccoon,          .             .  .39 

The  Common  Raccoon,       .             .  .40 

The  Cacomistle,      .             .             .  .42 

The  Kinkajou,        .             .             .  .45 

Skeleton  of  Weasel,            .            .  .46 

The  Tayra,              .             .             .  .48 

The  Pine-Marten,  .  51 

The  Beech-Marten,             .             .  .53 

The  Sable,                        •    .  .55 

Skeleton  of  Polecat,            .             .  .58 

The  Polecat,            .             .             .  .59 

The  Ferret,             .             .             .  .61 

The  Weasel,  .  .  .  .63 
The  Stoat,  or  Ermine,  in  Winter  Dress,  .  65 

European  Mink,     .             .             .  .68 

The  Glutton,  or  Wolverene,           .  .         71 

White-Backed  Skunk,  .  .  .76 
The  Cape  Polecat,  ....  79 

The  Cape  Ratel,      .             .             .  .81 

Palate  of  Fossil  Indian  Ratel,        .  .82 

Skeleton  of  Badger,            .             .  .84 

The  Common  Badger,         .             .  .85 

The  Malayan  Badger,  .  .  85 
Palate  of  Clawless  Otter,  ...  91 

Skeleton  of  Otter,  .  .92 
Tooth  of  Extinct  Otter,  ...  97 

The  Sea-Otter,        .             .             .  .98 

Northern  Sea-Lion,             .             .  .111 

Head  of  Calif ornian  Sea-Lion,       .  .       113 

Northern  Sea-Bear,             ,  .116 

Skeleton  of  Walrus,            .             .  .124 

Head  of  Walrus,     .  .125 

Walruses  on  the  Ice,           .             .  .126 

Flippers  of  Ringed  Seal,     .  .132 

Skeleton  of  Seal,     .                         .  .136 

Common  Seal,         .                         .  .137 

Greenland  Seal,      .             .             .  .138 

Seals  Swimming,    .             .             .  .140 

Skull  of  Leopard -Seal,        .             .  .142 

Crested  Seal,           .             .             .  .144 

Teeth  of  Elephant-Seal,  .  .  .146 
Bones  of  Wrist  and  Foot  of  Coryphodon,  .  152 
Bones  of  the  Left  Wrist  and  Foot  of 

Titanothere,        .             .             .  .152 
Bones  of  Left  Fore-Foot  of  Three-toed  and 

Four-toed  Horse-like  Animals,  .  .153 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Horse  and  Deer,  .       154 

Teeth  of  Nilgai  and  Merycopotamus,  .       155 

Teeth  of  Four-Horned  Antelope,  .       158 

Skeleton  of  European  Bison,          .  .       158 

Skull  of  Swayne's  Hartebeest,        .  .159 

Skull  of  Aurochs,  .             .             .  .162 


PAGE 

Durham  Shorthorn,  .  .  .167 

Friburg  Bull,  ....  169 
Dutch  Cow,  .  .  .  .171 

Skull  of  Galla  Ox,  .       173 

Indian  Humped  Bull,        .  .  .174 

Galla  Bull,.  .  .  .  .175 

Bull  Gaur,  ...  176 

Cow  Gayals,  .  ..  .  .180 

The  Banting,  .  .  .  .182 

Skull  of  Domestic  Yak,      .  .  .186 

American  Bison,     .  .  .  .192 

Head  of  Bull  Bison,  .  .  .       ]  94 

Cape  Buffalo,          .  .  .199 

Short-Horned  Buffalo,       .  .  .       201 

Congo  Variety  of  Buffalo,  .  .  .       203 

Indian  Buffalo,  ....  204 
The  Anoa,  .....  207 
The  Musk-Ox,  .  .209 

Head  of  Bull  Musk-Ox,      .  .  .       210 

Musk-Oxen  at  Bay,  .  .  .211 

Skeleton  of  Mouflon,          .  .  .212 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Sheep,      .  .  .213 

Skull  of  Kamschatkan  Wild  Sheep,  .       214 

American  Wild  Sheep,  or  Bighorn,  .       215 

Head  of  Kamschatkan  Wild  Sheep,  .       216 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Tibetan  Argali,  .  218 
Pamir  Wild  Sheep,  .  .  .  221 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Pamir  Sheep,  .       222 

Head  of  Cyprian  Sheep,     .  .  .       225 

The  Mouflon,  ....  226 
Black-Headed  Sheep,  .  .  .  228 

Head  of  Merino  Rani,         .  .  .       230 

Barbary  Sheep,  ....  233 
Skeleton  of  Ibex,  ....  235 
Horns  of  Pallas's  Tur,  .  .  .  236 

Spanish  Wild  Goat,  .  .  .       238 

Persian  Wild  Goat,  .  .  .       240 

Angora  Goat,  ....  242 
Head  of  Himalayan  Ibex,  .  .  .  248 

Arabian  Ibex,  ....  249 
The  Markhor,  Cabul  Variety,  .  .251 

Head  of  Pir  Panjal  Markhor,         .  .       253 

The  Himalayan  Tahr,        .  .  .       255 

The  Goral,  .  .  .  .267 

Horns  of  Himalayan  Serow,  .  .       259 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Takin,  .  .       260 

The  Chamois,  ....  262 
The  Leap  of  the  Chamois,  .  .  266 

Head  of  Bull  Eland,  .  .  .267 

The  Eland,  .  .268 

Skeleton  of  Addax,  .  .  .       269 

Head  of  Kudu,       .  .  .  .273 

Head  of  West  African  Harnessed  Antelope,  ^70 
Male  and  Female  Guib,  .  .  .277 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


PAGE 

[•he  Nilgai,  .  .279 

[Tie  Ad. lax,  ..  .  .  .280 

Head  of  Gemsbok,  .  .  .282 

The  Beisa,  .  .  .  .  .283 

Sabre-Horned  Antelope,  .  .  284 

Sal ilc  Antelope  and  Roan  Antelope,  .  286 

Head  of  Fringe-Eared  Oryx,  etc.,  .  .  287 

Head  of  Sable  Antelope,  .  .  .288 

A  "  Trek  "  of  Springbok,  .  .  .289 

Head  of  Grant's  Gazelle,  .  .  .290 

The  Springbok,  .  .  .291 

Dorcas  Gazelle,  .  .  .  .292 

Skull  of  Indian  Gazelle,  .  .  .293 

Horns  of  Thomson's  Gazelle,  .  .  294 

Head  of  Clarke's  Antelope,  .  .  295 

Head  and  Neck  of  the  Gerenuk,  .  .  296 

Head  of  Chiru,  .  .  .  .297 

The  Saiga,  .  .  .  .  .298 

Head  of  Pala,  .  .  .299 

Male  and  Female  Black-Buck,  .  .  300 

Skull  of  Black-Buck,  .  .  .301 

Head  of  Water-Buck,  .  .  .303 

The  Puku,  .  .  .  304 

Male  and  Female  Klipspringer,  .  .  306 

The  Oribi,  .  .  .  .  .308 

The  Duikerbok,  .  .  .  .309 
Male  and  Female  Four-Horned  Antelopes,  311 

Skull  of  Four-Horned  Antelope,  .  .  312 

White-Tailed  Wildebeest,  .  .  .313 

Blue  Wildebeest,  .  .  .  .314 

Wildebeests  curveting  round  a  Waggon,  .  315 
Hartebeest,  ....  319 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Cooke's  Hartebeest,  .  320 

Head  of  Swayne's  Hartebeest,  .  .321 

Head  of  Hunter's  Hartebeest,  .  .  322 

Head  of  Korigum  or  Senegal  Antelope,  323 

Group  of  Prongbuck,  .  .  .  326 
Head  of  Prongbuck,  with  newly -growing 

Horns,  .....  328 

Giraffes  at  a  Pool,  .  .  .  .331 

Skeleton  of  Giraffe,  .  .  .332 

South  African  Giraffe,  .  .  .  334 

Skull  of  Samothere,  .  .  337 

Skull  of  Sivathere,  .  .  337 

Skeleton  of  Male  Red  Deer,  .  338 
Head  of  Red  Deer  with  new  Antlers  in 

the  "  Velvet,"  .  .  .339 

Left  Antlers  of  Asiatic  Deer,  .  .  340 

Aiiil.-r  of  Red  Deer,  .  .  .344 

l  Deer  at  a  Pool,  .  .  .346 

Wapiti  Chased  by  Wolves,  .  .  349 
Antlers  of  Spotted  Deer,  Swamp-Deer, 

and  Sanibar,  ....  353 

Indian  Spotted  Deer,  .  .  355 


PAOE 

The  Sambar,           .            .  .357 

Head  of  Schomburgk's  Deer,          .  .361 

Antlers  of  Irish  Deer,        .  .       365 

The  Indian  Muntjac,          .             .  .       366 

Head  of  Hairy-Fronted  Muntjac,  .  .       367 

Michie's  Deer,         .             .             .  368 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Roebuck,              .  .       370 

Foot  of  Reindeer,   .  .370 

Reindeer,    .             .                          .  .371 

Foot  of  Elk,            .  .376 

A  Family  of  Elk,  .  .377 
A  Moose- Yard,  ....  379 

Male  and  Female  Roe  Deer           .  .       382 

Skull  of  Chinese  Water  Deer,  .  .  384 
Antlers  of  Marsh,  Virginian,  and  Mule  Deer,  385 

The  Red  Brocket,  .  .  .  .386 
Pampas  Deer,  ....  388 
Virginian  Deer,  ....  390 

Virginian  Deer  Swimming,            .  .       392 

Head  of  Mule-Deer,            .             .  .393 

Head  and  Shoulders  of  Pudu  Deer,  .       395 

Male  and  Female  Musk  Deer,        .  .       396 

Bones  and  Foot  of  Chevrotains,     .  .       399 

The  Smaller  Malayan  Chevrotain,  .       400 

Skeleton  of  Arabian  Camel,           .  .       402 

Bones  of  Camel's  Foot,       .             .  .       403 

Water-Cells  in  Camel's  Stomach,  .  .       403 

The  Bactrian  Camel,           .             .  .410 

A  Drove  of  Vicunias,          .             .  .       412 

The  Llama,             .            .            .  .416 

The  Alpaca,            .            .            .  .418 

Skeleton  of  Wild  Boar,  .  .  .420 
Molar  Teeth  of  Extinct  Pig-like  Animals,  421 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Pig,                       .  .       422 

Skull  of  Bearded  Pig,         .             .  .422 

Molar  Tooth  of  Pig,           .            .  .425 

A  "Sounder  "of  Wild  Swine,       .  .       427 

Berkshire  Pig,  .  .  .  .428 
Harrison  Pig,  ....  430 

Dwarf  Chinese  Pig,            .  .       432 

Masked  Japanese  Pig,         .             .  .       434 

The  Red  Bush-Pig,             .             .  ,435 

The  Babirusa,         .             .  .437 

Skull  of  Babirusa,              .            .  .438 

.Elian's  Wart-Hog,              .             .  .439 

Head  of  Pallas's  Wart-Hog,           .  .       440 

The  Collared  Peccary  and  Young,  .       442 

Skeleton  of  Hippopotamus?,            .  .       445 

A  Family  Party  of  Hippopotami,  .       447 

Hippopotami  at  Home,       .             .  .451 

Skeleton  of  Malayan  Tapir,            .  .       454 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Rhinoceros,          .  .       455 

Teeth  of  the  Anchithere,  .  .  .  455 
Malayan  Tapir,  ....  458 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


I'AliK 

American  Tapir,     ....       460 

Teeth  of  Rhinoceroses,        .             .  .       464 
Indian  Rhinoceros  in  Zoological  Gardens,       466 

The  Indian  Rhinoceros,     .             .  .       468 

The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros,             .  .       471 

The  Common  African  Rhinoceros,  .       473 

Head  of  Common  African  Rhinoceros,  .       474 

Burchell's  Rhinoceros,        .             .  .       480 

Head  of  Burchell's  Rhinoceros,      .  .       482 

Skull  of  Extinct  Rhinoceros,          .  .       484 
Teeth  of  Anchithere,  Horse,  and  Hipparion,       487 

Skull  of  Three-Toed  Horse,  .       488 

Shire  Stallion,         .            .             .  .489 

Teeth  of  the  Horse  at  Various  Ages,  .       490 

English  Race- Horse  ("  Doncaster ")  .       492 

The  Tarpan,            .             .             .  .494 

English  Race-Horse  ("Bend-Or")  .       496 

German  Half-Bred  Horse,              .  .       498 

Percheron  Cart- Horse,        .             .  .       501 

Clydesdale  Mare,    .             .             .  .502 

Burchell's  Zebra,    .             .  .504 

Grevy's  Zebra,         .  .       506 

TheQuagga,           .            .  .507 

Tibetan  Wild  Ass,  or  Kiang,         .  .       508 

A  Troop  of  Persian  Wild  Asses,     .  .       510 

The  African  Wild  Asses,    .            .  .511 

Domestic  Ass,         .             .             .  .513 

Cheek-Teeth  of  Palseothere,           .  .      515 


PAGE 

Molar  Teeth  of  Palseosyops,            .  .       516 

Foot-Bones  of  Elephant,     .  .       517 

Skeleton  of  Cape  Hyrax,    .             .  .518 

Foot-Bones  of  Hyrax,         .             .  .       519 
Syrian  Hyrax,        ....       520 

Tree-Hyrax,            .             .             .  .521 

Skeleton  of  Indian  Elephant,         .  .       523 

Molar  Teeth  of  Mammoth,  .       525 

Molar  Tooth  of  Cliffs  Elephant,    .  .       526 

Molar  Tooth  of  Elephant, .             .  .       528 

Indian  Elephant  Drinking,            .  .       533 
Indian  Elephants  Enjoying  Themselves,  .       535 

Indian  Elephant  Kneeling,            .  .       540 

Elephant  Carrying  Timber,           .  .       542 

Molar  Tooth  of  African  Elephant,  .       545 

Last  Molar  Teeth  of  Mastodons,    .  .       556 

Molars  of  Mastodons,         .             .  .       557 

Skull  of  Dinothere,            .             .  .       559 

Cheek-Teeth  of  Uintathere,           .  .       560 

Palate  of  Homalodontothere,         .  .       562 

Lower  Jaw  of  Astrapothere,           .  .       563 

Skeleton  of  Toxodon,         .             .  .565 

Skull  of  Nesodon,  .             .             .  .566 

Skeleton  of  Manati,            .             .  .       568 

The  American  Manati,       .             .  .       570 
The  Dugong,           ....       573 

Skeleton  of  Northern  Sea-Cow,     .  .       574 

Head  of  the  African  Elephant,      .  .       576 


^  ^aW^v*/^* 

Jt^^^rit 

.0  Ottomar'Ansc/iiM.z- 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

CARNIVORES, — continued. 

BEARS. 
Family   UnsiDJE. 

THE  bears  are  so  different  in  appearance  from  the  other  Carnivores  that  no  one 
could  fail  to  recognise  their  representatives  at  a  glance,  or  would  hesitate  to  admit 
that,  so  far  at  least  as  living  forms  are  concerned,  they  are  entitled  to  constitute  a 
group  by  themselves.  The  number  of  species  included  in  the  family  is  compara- 
tively small;  and  the  whole  of  them  are  arranged  under  three  genera,  two  of 
which  are  represented  by  but  a  single  species  each. 

Bears  differ  from  the  Carnivores  hitherto  noticed  in  an  important  feature 
connected  with  the  hinder-part  of  t;he  under-surface  of  the  skull.  Thus,  whereas 
in  all  the  preceding  families  the  so-called  tympanic  bulla  at  the  base  of  the 
internal  portion  of  the  ear  forms  an  inflated  bladder-like  capsule,  which  is 

VOL.  II. — I 


2  CARNIVORES. 

generally  divided  internally  by  a  larger  or  smaller  bony  partition,  in  the  bears 
(as  well  as  in  the  following  families  of  the  raccoons  and  weasels),  this  bulla  is 
depressed  and  flattened,  and  has  no  trace  of  an  internal  partition ;  and  its  mouth, 
leading  to  the  external  ear,  is  produced  much  further  outwards.  There  are 
also  other  characters  connected  with  the  skull  which  help  to  distinguish  the  bears 
and  the  members  of  the  next  two  families  from  the  Carnivores  hitherto  described, 
but  the  bulla  alone  is  sufficient  to  determine  at  a  glance  to  which  of  the  two  groups 
any  given  skull  may  belong,  and  the  reader  will  accordingly  perceive  how  import- 
ant is  this  apparently  insignificant  feature.  The  degree  of  inflation  of  the  bulla 
of  the  skull  is  doubtless  associated  with  the  acuteness  of  hearing ;  the  Carnivores 
with  the  longest  ears,  like  the  African  fennec,  having  larger  bullge  than  their  nearest 


SKELETON   OF  BEAR. 


relatives.  Bears  are  notoriously  deficient  in  the  sense  of  hearing ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  raccoons  and  weasels  are  also  less  acute  in  this  respect  than  cats,  civets,  and 
dogs.  Although  many  of  the  Carnivores  with  inflated  bullse  have,  like  the  cats,  com- 
paratively small  ears,  it  is  noteworthy  that  no  bear,  raccoon,  or  weasel  has  these 
organs  of  very  large  dimensions,  while  in  some  instances  they  are  almost  absent. 

The  members  of  the  bear  family  are  characterised  by  their  heavy  and  massive 
build,  their  thick  limbs,  extremely  short  tails,  and  the  presence  of  five  toes, 
armed  with  powerful  claws,  on  both  the  fore  and  hind -feet.  Moreover,  when 
walking,  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground,  in  the  old-fashioned 
plantigrade  manner,  so  that  the  impression  of  a  bear's  foot  presents  a  considerable 
superficial  resemblance  to  that  of  a  man.  The  claws  of  the  feet  are  incapable 
of  being  retracted,  and  are  well  adapted  for  digging,  although  no  members  of 
the  family  are  in  the  habit  of  constructing  burrows  for  themselves  after  the 
manner  of  foxes.  In  most  bears  the  under  surface  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is 


BEARS,  3 

mpletely  devoid  of  hair ;  and  the  ordinary  gait  is  peculiarly  slow  and  measured. 
All  the  bears  are  of  considerable  bodily  size,  while  some  of  them  are  among  the 
largest  of  the  Carnivores. 

The.  living  species  of  bears,  with  which  alone  we  are  at  present  dealing,  are 
likewise  readily  distinguished  from  other  Carnivores  by  the  characters  of  their 
teeth.  They  agree  with  the  true  dogs  in  having  two  pairs  of  molars  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  three  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw,  but  the  shape  of  these  teeth  is  different;  the 
crowns  being  nearly  flat,  very  broad,  and  mainly  adapted  for  grinding,  while  those  of 
the  upper  jaw  are  either  oblong  or  square,  and,  therefore,  quite  unlike  the  triangular 
upper  molars  of  the  dogs.  Then,  again,  the  flesh-tooth  in  both  jaws  is  very  unlike 
that  of  ordinary  Carnivores ;  the  upper  one  being  small,  and  having  no  inner  root, 
and  its  crown  looking  much  like  that  of  a  molar.  Similarly,  the  lower  flesh-tooth 
(which  we  may  once  more  remind  our  readers  is  the  first  of  the  molar  series,  while 
the  upper  one  is  a  premolar)  is  very  like  the  two  molars  by  which  it  is  followed. 
A  third  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  first  three  premolar  teeth  in  both  jaws  are 
exceedingly  minute,  and  are  very  generally  shed  when  their  owner  attains  maturity. 

The  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  cheek-teeth  clearly  indicate  that  the  food 
of  the  bears  is  very  different  from  that  of  other  Carnivores ;  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  majority  of  these  animals  subsist  on  a  vegetable  diet,  or  on  insects,  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  on  flesh.  From  their  evident  descent  (as  we  shall  fully 
indicate  later  on)  from  dog-like  animals,  it  is  clear  that  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
dentition  of  the  bears  have  been  acquired ;  and  we  may  hence  regard  these  animals, 
so  far  as  their  teeth  are  concerned,  as  highly  specialised.  The  loss  of  the  tail  is 
likewise  a  specialised  feature.  On  the  other  hand,  in  their  retention  of  the  old- 
fashioned  plantigrade  mode  of  walking,  bears  are  much  more  generalised  animals 
than  dogs,  and  in  this  respect  retain  a  feature  which  was  present  in  the  ancestral 
types  from  which  the  two  groups  have  sprung. 

The  whole  of  the  members  of  the  family  have  a  marked  resemblance  to  one 
another,  so  that  the  characters  by  which  the  different  species  are  distinguished  are 
apparently  somewhat  trivial.  Their  fur  is  coarse,  and  generally  long,  thick,  and 
shaggy,  although  it  may  be  short  and  thinner  in  some  of  the  tropical  species.  Except 
for  the  not  unfrequent  presence  of  a  white  collar  round  the  throat,  the  fur  is 
nearly  always  of  one  colour,  and  generally  some  shade  of  either  brown  or  black.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  that  the  Polar  bear  is  a  marked  exception  to  this  rule,  but  in  this 
case  the  colour  of  the  fur  has  evidently  been  specially  modified  to  suit  the  natural 
surroundings.  The  great  prevalence  of  black  among  the  bears  is  a  feature  unknown 
in  any  other  group  of  Carnivores,  and  is,  indeed,  rare  among  Mammals  in  general. 

Bears  have  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  occurring  throughout  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  while  one  species  inhabits  the  South  American  Andes, 
and  another  the  African  Atlas.  South,  however,  of  the  Atlas  not  a  single  member 
of  the  family  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Africa.  Geologi- 
cally speaking,  true  bears,  that  is  to  say  those  which  can  be  referred  to  the 
genera  now  living,  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  none  being  yet  known 
before  the  Pliocene,  while  it  is  not  till  the  succeeding  period  that  they  became 
abundant.  This  late  appearance  of  the  bears  is  in  harmony  with  what  we  have 
already  stated  as  to  their  specialisation. 


4  CARNIVORES. 

THE  TYPICAL  BEARS. 
Genus  Ursus. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Indian  sloth-bear  and  a  peculiar  species  from 
Tibet,  all  the  bears  are  now  generally  included  in  the  genus  Ursus.  This  genus  is 
characterised  by  having  a  total  of  42  teeth  (when  all  the  small  premolars  are 
present),  of  which  f  are  incisors,  |  canines,  £  premolars,  and  §  molars  on  each  side. 
In  the  adults,  as  already  mentioned,  several  or  all  of  the  three  anterior  premolars 
may  disappear  from  both  jaws,  although  the  one  immediately  behind  the  tusk 
may  remain  longer  than  the  others.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterised  by  their 
crowns  being  longer  than  they  are  broad;  the  last  upper  molar  being  a  much 
elongated  tooth,  while  in  the  lower  jaw  the  last  molar  is  shorter  than  the  tooth 
which  precedes  it.  As  a  rule,  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  naked ;  and  the  claws  are 
of  moderate  length  and  curvature.  As  in  the  other  genera  of  the  family,  the  ears 
are  small,  erect,  and  thickly  haired ;  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  the  genus  is  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family. 

THE  POLAR  BEAR  (Ursus  maritimus). 

Not  only  does  the  Polar  bear  differ  from  all  other  bears  by  its  pure  white  coat, 
but  it  is  also  distinguished  from  the  greater  number  of  white  Mammals  in  that  this 
colour  is  retained  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  instead  of  being  exchanged  in  summer 
for  a  darker  tint.  In  addition  to  this  distinctive  white  coloration,  the  Polar  bear  is 
further  characterised  by  the  relatively  small  size  and  extremely  elongated  form  of 
its  head,  as  well  as  by  the  molar  teeth  being  relatively  smaller  and  narrower  than 
in  the  other  members  of  the  genus.  Moreover,  the  soles  of  the  feet  have  a  certain 
amount  of  hair  growing  upon  them,  doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the 
animal  to  have  a  better  hold  upon  the  ice.  The  neck  is  also  longer  than  in  other 
bears,  while  the  ears  are  unusually  small.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  members  of 
the  group,  not  unfrequently  attaining  a  length  of  close  upon  9  feet,  although 
exact  measurements  from  recently  killed  wild  examples  are  but  few. 

The  Polar  bear  is  found  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 
It  is  now  rare  on  the  south-western  coasts  of  Spitzbergen  and  Novaia  Zemlia, 
where  the  ice  almost  completely  disappears  in  summer.  According  to  Baron 
Nordenskiold,  it  is  more  common  on  the  northern  parts  of  those  islands,  where  there 
is  perpetual  ice.  On  the  north  coasts  of  America  and  Asia  it  is  found  everywhere, 
and  becomes  more  and  more  numerous  as  we  travel  northwards.  In  Labrador, 
where  it  is  now  very  rare,  there  is  evidence  that  it  was  once  comparatively  common, 
and  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard  is  of  opinion  that  its  range  originally  extended  even  down 
into  the  State  of  Maine.  The  white  bears  seen  by  John  Cabot  in  the  year  1497 
are  believed  by  Dr.  Packard  to  have  been  observed  in  Newfoundland ;  while 
further  evidence  of  their  former  existence  is  afforded  by  the  observations  of 
Corte  Real  in  1500  and  Cartierin  1534.  The  bones  found  in  the  shell-mounds  of 
Goose  Island,  Casco  Bay,  Maine,  are  considered  to  belong  to  the  present  species, 
and  thereby  indicate  the  probability  of  its  range  having  extended  thus  far  south. 


BEARS.  5 

[n  Southern  I^abrador  the  Polar  bear  seems  to  be  totally  extinct,  the  last  specimen 
it  was  seen  on  the  shores  of  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  (dividing  Labrador  from 
lewfoundland)  having  been  killed  in  the  year  1849.  In  Labrador  the  range  of 
the  white  bear  overlaps  that  of  the  American  black  bear. 

Baron  Nordenskiold  states  that  the  Polar  bear  generally  lives  on 
such  coasts  and  islands  as  are  surrounded  by  ice,  while  it  is  often 
found  on  the  ice-fields  far  out  at  sea,  which  form  its  best  hunting-grounds.     In 
3gard  to  the  numbers  of  these  animals,  he  states  that  the  Norwegian  "  vessels  from 
"romsoe  brought  home  in  1868  twenty,  in  1869  fifty-three,  in  1870  ninety-eight, 
1871  seventy-four,  and  in  1873  thirty-three  bears.     It  may  be  inferred  from 
this  that  the  Norwegian  walrus-hunters  kill  yearly  on  an   average   at   least  a 


Habits. 


POLAR  BEAR  CLIMBING  A  FLOE. 


hundred  bears.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  this  large  number  a  pregnant  female  or 
one  with  newly -born  young  is  never  found.  The  female  bear  appears  to  keep  her- 
self well  concealed  during  the  time  she  is  pregnant, — perhaps  in  some  ice-hole  in 
the  interior  of  the  country." 

In  Nordenskiold's  opinion  it  is  uncertain  if  the  Polar  bear  hibernates,  although 
there  are  several  circumstances  indicating  that  it  probably  does  so.  In  the  most 
northerly  wintering-stations  of  ships,  the  bears  almost  completely  disappear  during 
the  long  arctic  winter,  while  there  are  cases  where  some  of  them  have  been 
found  concealed  in  holes.  It  will,  however,  be  obvious  that  this  disappearance 
from  the  more  northern  regions  in  winter  may  well  be  due  to  migration,  while 
the  individuals  found  in  concealment  may  all  have  been  females,  which  are  known 
to  bring  forth  their  young  beneath  the  snow.  Other  writers,  as  we  shall  see 
below,  definitely  state  that  in  many  districts  males  and  young  cubs  are  to  be 


6  CARNIVORES. 

found  in  active  life  throughout  the  winter ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  most 
northern  portions  of  its  range  both  sexes  may  habitually  hibernate.  According 
to  Eskimo  accounts,  the  female  bears  are  very  fat  at  the  time  they  retire  beneath 
the  snow.  During  their  extended  excursions  after  prey,  the  male  and  the  female, 
the  latter  generally  attended  by  one  or  two  good-sized  young  ones,  keep  each  other 
company.  More  are  seldom  seen  together,  unless  at  places  where  many  carcases 
of  walruses,  seals,  or  white  whales  are  lying.  Formerly  the  sight  of  a  bear  created 
dismay  in  Arctic  travellers,  but  now  the  walrus-hunters  do  not  hesitate  a  moment 
to  attack,  lance  in  hand,  considerable  numbers  of  bears.  The  bear's  principal 
food  consists  of  the  seal  and  walrus.  There  is  not  the  least  doubt,  continues 
Nordenskiold,  "that,  along  with  flesh,  the  bear  also  eats  vegetable  substances, 
as  seaweed,  grass,  and  lichens.  The  flesh  of  the  bear,  if  he  is  not  too  old  or  has 
not  recently  eaten  putrid  seal-flesh,  is  very  eatable,  being  intermediate  in  taste 
between  pork  and  beef.  The  flesh  of  the  young  bear  is  white,  and  resembles  veal." 
In  addition  to  seals  and  walruses,  the  Polar  bear  also  subsists  on  the  flesh  of 
certain  Cetaceans,  and  our  illustration  represents  a  female  carrying  a  porpoise  in 
her  mouth.  In  some  districts  the  Polar  bear  consumes  a  large  quantity  of  fish, 
more  especially  salmon.  It  is  in  summer  that  it  resorts  to  a  vegetable  diet. 

From  the  personal  experience  of  Dr.  Robert  Brown  it  appears  that  the  ac- 
counts given  by  the  older  voyagers  of  the  ferocity  of  the  Polar  bear  were  con- 
siderably exaggerated,  although  at  close  quarters  it  is  a  formidable  foe.  "  Unlike 
its  congeners,"  writes  Dr.  Brown,  "  it  does  not  hug  but  bites ;  and  it  will  not  eat 
its  prey  till  it  is  dead,  playing  with  it  like  a  cat  with  a  mouse.  I  have  known 
several  men  who,  while  sitting  watching  or  skinning  seals,  have  had  its  rough 
hands  laid  on  their  shoulders.  Their  only  chance  then  has  been  to  feign  being  dead, 
and  manage  to  shoot  it  while  the  bear  was  sitting  at  a  distance  watching  its 
intended  victim.  Though  Eskimo  are  often  seen  who  have  been  scared  by  it, 
yet,  unless  attacked  or  rendered  fierce  by  hunger,  it  rarely  attacks  man.  During 
our  last  trip  to  Greenland  none  of  our  party  saw  one ;  indeed,  they  are  only 
killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Disco  Bay  during  the  winter  or  spring,  when  they 
have  either  come  or  drifted  south  on  the  ice-floes." 

Much  the  same  account  is  given  by  Mr.  G.  S.  M'Tavish,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  who  states  that  in  his  district  it  is  only  occasionally  that  a  Polar  bear 
will  attack  first.  This  observer  writes  that  "  although  the  Polar  bear  is  synony- 
mously termed  the  white  bear,  they  are  not  all  white.  Those  that  are  most  likely 
to  run  away  from  the  hunter  are  pure  white.  From  the  smallest  to  the  largest 
size  these  white  bears  are  timid,  and  I  have  noticed,  on  their  being  killed,  they  are 
the  fattest.  The  most  dangerous  and  aggressive  kinds,  other  than  females  with 
cubs,  is  the  large-sized  male  bear  of  a  yellowish,  dirty  colour.  .  .  .  Another  sort  is 
the  small-sized  bear,  of  both  sexes,  neither  white  nor  yellow,  but  rather  dirty- 
looking  ;  and  these  are  likewise  the  best  runners." 

Mr.  M'Tavish  proceeds  to  observe  that  the  pace  of  a  Polar  bear  is  considerable, 
and  that  he  has  known  instances  where  they  have  overtaken  and  killed  Indians  in 
a  fair  chase.  Their  fleetness  depends,  however,  largely  upon  their  condition  at 
the  time,  the  thinner  they  are  the  greater  being  their  speed.  The  weight  of  a  large 
and  fat  Polar  bear  is  estimated  at  from  600  to  700  Ibs. 


POLAR  BEARS   AND   THEIR   PREY. 


BEARS.  9 

In  the  Hudson's  Bay  district,  the  female  bears  proceed  to  their  winter 
hibernation  for  the  purpose  of  producing  their  young  at  the  end  of  September 
or  beginning  of  October,  and  return  in  March,  April,  or  May.  The  hibernation 
always  takes  place  some  distance  inland,  and  the  males  accompany  their  consorts 
to  their  resting-places,  after  which  they  come  back  to  the  coast,  where  they  hunt 
throughout  the  winter.  Generally  two  cubs  are  produced  at  a  birth,  but  the 
number  may  be  sometimes  diminished  to  one,  and  occasionally  increased  to 
three. 

Mr.  M'Tavish  gives  the  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  these  bears 
capture  their  prey : — "  The  bear  having  discovered  a  seal  asleep  on  an  ice-floe 
immediately  slips  into  the  water  if  he  himself  be  on  another  ice-floe.  Diving, 
he  swims  under  water  for  a  distance,  then  reappears  and  takes  observations. 
Alternately  diving  and  swimming,  he  approaches  close  to  his  victim.  Before  his 
final  disappearance  he  seems  to  measure  the  intervening  distance,  and  when  he 
next  appears  it  is  alongside  of  the  seal.  Then,  either  getting  on  the  ice,  or 
pouncing  upon  the  seal  as  it  tries  to  escape,  he  secures  it.  Both  seals  and 
porpoises  are  not  unfrequently  met  with,  bearing  the  marks  of  a  bear's  claws  upon 
their  backs." 

THE  BROWN  BEAR  ( f/rsus  arctos). 

With  the  brown  bear  we  come  to  the  typical  and  best  known  representative 
of  the  entire  group.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Polar  bear,  not  only  by  its 
colour,  but  also  by  its  larger  and  wider  head,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  shorter,  the 
profile  more  curved,  and  the  ears  larger.  The  neck  is  also  shorter  and  thicker,  the 
teeth  are  relatively  larger,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  entirely  naked. 

Owing  to  variations  in  colour  several  so-called  species,  such  as  the  Syrian 
bear  and  the  snow  or  isabelline  bear  of  the  Himalaya,  have  been  established  on 
what  are  now  known  to  be  merely  local  races  of  the  brown  bear. 

Including  all  these  varieties,  the  brown  bear  may  be  described  as  one  of  the 
largest  species  of  the  genus,  furnished  in  winter  with  long,  thick,  shaggy,  and  soft 
fur,  beneath  which  is  a  thick  and  woolly  under-fur ;  the  ears  being  of  moderate 
size,  and  covered  with  long  hair.  The  colour  is  generally  some  shade  of  brown, 
although  subject  to  great  individual  and  local  variation.  In  general  it  varies 
from  very  pale  to  very  dark  brown,  some  of  the  lighter  varieties  being  almost 
cream-coloured  in  certain  parts ;  while,  in  a  variety  from  Eastern  Tibet,  the  fur  on 
the  back  and  limbs  is  blackish,  with  tawny  tips  to  the  hairs.  In  other  varieties, 
again,  the  fur  has  a  silw  tinge,  owing  to  the  hairs  being  tipped  with  white ; 
while  some  specimens  have  a  decidedly  reddish  tinge.  In  the  light  Himalayan 
variety  the  colour  deepens  with  age,  this  darkening  being  generally  most  developed 
in  old  males,  which  are  frequently  indistinguishable  in  colour  from  the  ordinary 
European  form.  Young  animals  have  a  white  collar  on  the  throat,  traces  of  which 
may  frequently  be  observed  in  the  newly-grown  fur  of  the  adult.  The  summer 
coat  is  much  shorter  and  thinner  than  the  winter  dress,  and  is  likewise  darker 
in  colour.  The  claws  are  of  moderate  length,  and  their  colour  varies  from  brown 
to  nearly  white. 

Mr.   Blanford  suggests  that  the  generally  lighter  colour  of  the  Himalayan 


10 


CARNIVORES. 


brown  bear  may  be  due  to  the  circumstance  that  it  inhabits  more  open  ground 
than  the  European  variety.  To  this  I  would  add  that  the  silver-barked  birch, 
among  which  these  bears  are  so  often  found,  suggests  another  reason  why  their 
colour  should  so  generally  be  comparatively  light,  as  among  such  surroundings  a 
dark  animal  would  be  conspicuous.  Moreover,  it  may  be  that  the  snow  lies 
longer  on  the  ground  in  the  regions  frequented  by  the  Himalayan  bear  than  is  the 


THE  SHOWN  BEAK 


case  in  the  habitats  of  the  European  bear.  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that 
Himalayan  bears  are  decidedly  lighter  when  they  issue  from  their  winter  sleeping- 
places  than  they  are  later  on  in  the  season  ;  and  as  it  is  then  that  they  are 
generally  shot,  on  account  of  the  fur  being  in  its  best  condition,  the  prevalent 
idea  as  to  their  extremely  light  colour  has  been  intensified. 

Although,  as  in  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  the  males  are  considerably 
larger  than  the  females,  there  is  nearly  as  much  variation  in  point  of  size  in  the 
brown  bear  as  there  is  in  respect  of  colour.  As  a  rule,  the  Himalayan  race  is 


BEARS. 


IT 


laller   than   the  European.     Exact  measurements  of  large  European  examples 

not  easy  to  obtain,  but  it  is  probable  that  some  specimens  reach  at  least 
feet  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  In  the  Himalaya  the 
same  dimensions  are  not  generally  more  than  5  or  5j  feet,  but  large  specimens 
reach  about  7  feet,  and  one  has  been  recorded  of  7|  feet  in  length  and  3  feet  5 
inches  in  height.  The  tail  does  not  measure  more  than  2  or  3  inches. 

The  brown  bear  may  be  regarded  as  an  inhabitant  of  almost  the  whole  of 
Europe,  and  of  Asia  northwards  of  the  Himalaya ;  its  former  range  extending 
from  the  British  Islands  and  Spain  in  the  west  to  Kamschatka  in  the  east. 
Bears  are  still  found  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  are  comparatively  common  in  many 
parts  of  Scandinavia,  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Russia.  At  what  date  they 
finally  disappeared  from  the  British  Islands  cannot  be  determined.  Mr.  Harting, 
however,  adduces  evi- 
dence to  show  that  bears 
were  still  in  existence  in 
the  eighth  century;  and, 
in  the  time  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  the  town  of 
Norwich  had  to  furnish 
annually  one  bear  to  the 
king.  There  is  no  decisive 
historical  evidence  as  to 
the  existence  of  bears  in 
Ireland,  but  remains  have 
been  found  there  in 
various  parts,  which  in  all 
probability  belonged  to 
the  present  species,  al- 
though they  have  been 
referred  by  some  to  the 
American  grizzly  bear. 

In  the  Himalaya  the 

brown  bear  is  found  from  Afghanistan  in  the  west  to  Nipal  in  the  east.  It  does 
not  occur  in  the  more  or  less  Tibetan  districts  of  Zanskar  and  Ladak,  but 
extends  up  the  valley  of  the  Indus  as  far  as  Gilgit.  In  the  mountains  around  the 
valley  of  Kashmir  brown  bears  were  once  very  numerous,  but  they  have,  I  believe, 
become  much  rarer  now.  When  I  first  knew  Kashmir,  in  1874,  it  was  no 
uncommon  event  in -the  Tilel  district  to  see  several  at  once,  when  standing  on  a 
mountain  ridge ;  but  eight  years  later  I  saw  but  very  few  the  whole  time  I  was 
there,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  hear  the  reports  of  sportsmen  who  have 
recently  visited  Tilel  and  the  neighbouring  valleys. 

In  Kamschatka,  Dr.  Guillemard,  in  the  Cruise  of  the  Marchesa,  speaks  of 
brown  bears  being  extremely  plentiful  and  attaining  large  dimensions.  The 
country  near  the  rivers  is  there  covered  by  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle,  but  the 
bears  manage  to  force  themselves  through  it  without  much  apparent  difficulty. 
"  Just  inside  the  forest,"  writes  Dr.  Guillemard,  "  at  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet 


HEAD  OF  BROWN  BEAR.     (From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1867.) 


12  CARNIVORES. 

from  the  river-bank,  is  a  firmly-trodden  path  some  two  feet  in  width,  made 
entirely  by  these  animals ;  and,  as  these  paths  are  to  be  found  without  a  break 
on  either  side  of  the  river  in  its  whole  course  through  the  forest  country — a  dis- 
tance of  about  five  hundred  miles — it  will  be  understood  why  bears'  skins  do  not 
command  a  very  high  price  in  the  peninsula." 

The  brown  bear  is  a  comparatively  unsociable  animal,  though  not  unfrequently 
a  male  and  a  female  may  be  seen  together,  while  the  females  are,  of  course, 
accompanied  by  their  cubs.  Their  favourite  haunts  are  wooded,  hilly  districts. 
In  the  Himalaya  the  brown  bear  is  to  be  found  at  considerable  elevations,  in  the 
spring  haunting  the  higher  birch  and  deodar  forests,  while  in  the  late  summer  it 
ascends  to  the  open  grass-lands  above,  where  it  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen 
grazing  close  to  herds  of  ponies  and  flocks  of  sheep  or  goats.  Both  in  these  regions, 
and  the  colder  districts  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  these  bears  regularly 
hibernate ;  and  while  they  are  extremely  fat  at  the  commencement  of  their  winter 
sleep,  they  are  reduced  to  little  more  than  skin  and  bone  at  its  conclusion.  In 
the  Himalaya  the  winter's  sleep  generally  lasts  till  April  or  May,  but  varies  some- 
what in  different  districts  according  to  the  date  at  which  the  snow  melts.  The 
cubs  are  generally  born  during  the  latter  part  of  the  hibernation,  and  accompany 
the  mother  when  she  issues  forth.  They  are  almost  invariably  two  in  number, 
and  are  born  blind  and  naked,  in  which  condition  they  remain  for  about 
four  weeks.  In  Europe  the  brown  bear  not  unfrequently  kills  and  eats  other 
animals,  its  depredations  extending,  it  is  said,  even  to  cattle  and  ponies ;  but  in  the 
Himalaya,  except  when  carcases  come  in  its  way,  the  animal  is  almost  exclusively 
an  insect  and  vegetable  feeder.  There  it  is  fond  of  the  numerous  species  of 
bulbous  plants  growing  on  the  mountains  around  Kashmir;  but  it  will  also 
descend  into  the  orchards  of  the  upland  villages  to  plunder  the  crops  of 
mulberries,  apricots,  walnuts,  etc.  On  such  occasions  it  ascends  the  trees  readily 
enough,  although  it  is  by  no  means  such  a  good  climber  as  its  cousin  the  Himalayan 
black  bear.  It  seeks  for  insects  by  overturning  stones. 

In  Kamschatka  the  brown  bear  is  stated  to  subsist  for  a  certain  portion 
of  the  year  upon  salmon ;  Dr.  Guillemard  observing  that  in  some  places  he 
met  with  numerous  half-eaten  fish  left  by  the  bears,  and  adding  that  he  found 
in  almost  every  instance  that  "  though  the  head  had  been  crunched  up,  it  had, 
together  with  the  tail  and  intestines,  invariably  been  rejected.  We  were  never 
fortunate  enough  to  witness  these  animals  fishing,  but  we  were  told  that  they 
walk  slowly  into  the  water,  where  it  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  depth,  and,  facing 
down  stream,  motionless  await  their  prey.  The  incautious  fish,  swimming  heed- 
lessly up  the  river,  doubtless  mistake  the  bear's  broad  legs  for  a  rock  or  tree-stump, 
and  those  who  have  once  witnessed  the  almost  lightning-like  rapidity  of  a  stroke 
from  Bruin's  fore-paws  will  have  no  difficulty  whatever  in  completing  the  drama 
for  themselves.  The  fish  is  apparently  always  taken  to  the  bank  to  be  devoured, 
for  even  the  small  ones  do  not  appear  to  be  eaten  whole." 

As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  brown  bear,  in  common  with 
its  relatives,  is  dull  of  hearing,  and  it  is  also  by  no  means  well  gifted  as  regards 
sight.  What  it  lacks  in  these  respects  it  makes  up  for,  however,  in  the  great 
development  of  the  sense  of  smell.  Owing  to  this  deficiency  of  hearing,  a  bear  can 


BEARS.  13 

be  approached  from  the  leeward  to  within  a  very  short  distance,  and  the  writer 

shot  many  in  the  Himalaya  with  a  smooth-bore  gun.  Care  should,  however, 
always  be  taken  to  approach  a  bear  from  above,  as  a  wounded  one  rolling  down 
hill  on  to  the  hunter  is  a  very  dangerous  object.  If  two  bears  are  feeding  together 
and  one  is  hit  by  a  bullet,  it  will  not  unfrequently  turn  fiercely  on  its  companion, 
apparently  under  the  impression  that  the  latter  was  its  aggressor.  In  the 
Himalaya,  at  least,  the  brown  bear  never  voluntarily  attacks  human  beings  if 
unmolested,  and  it  rarely  turns  on  them  when  wounded,  unless  brought  to  close 
quarters.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  current  stories  of  the  fierceness  of 
the  European  bear  are  exaggerated.  In  regard  to  the  proverbial  "hug,"  Mr. 
Blanford  observes  that  the  story  is  apparently  devoid  of  foundation.  "  A  bear, 
from  its  anatomical  structure,  strikes  round  with  its  paws,  as  if  grasping,  and 
the  blow  of  its  powerful  arm  drives  its  claws  into  the  body  of  its  victim,  causing 
terrible  wounds,  but  the  idea  of  its  'hugging'  appears  not  confirmed  by  recent 
observers." 

At  the  best,  a  brown  bear  is  uncouth  and  grotesque  in  its  movements, 
and  in  no  case  is  this  more  marked  than  when  one  of  these  animals  suddenly 
catches  a  whiff  of  human  scent,  and  starts  off  with  a  loud  "  whuff"  at  a 
shambling  gallop.  In  spite,  however,  of  their  uncouthness,  bears  can  travel 
pretty  quickly  when  so  minded,  although  their  usual  gait  is  deliberate  in  the 
extreme. 

The  brown  bear  is  easily  tamed,  and  both  in  Europe  and  India  is  the  companion 
of  itinerant  showmen,  by  whom  it  is  taught  to  dance,  and  go  through  various 
other  performances.  Formerly  native  English  bears,  and  subsequently  foreign 
ones  imported  for  the  purpose,  were  kept  in  England  for  the  purpose  of  "  bear- 
baiting,"  and  the  office  of  Master  of  the  Bears  was  a  Crown  post,  while  every 
nobleman  kept  his  "  bear- ward."  Bear-baiting  was  continued  up  to  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  well-known  bear-garden  at  Berne  in  Switzerland  is  doubtless 
a  survival  of  the  mediaeval  establishments  kept  up  for  this  so-called  sport.  As 
showing  the  age  to  which  the  brown  bear  may  live,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that 
one  kept  in  the  garden  at  Berne  survived  for  upwards  of  forty-seven  years,  while 
it  is  on  record  that  a  female  gave  birth  to  young  at  the  age  of  thirty-one  years. 
From  the  beauty  of  their  colour,  and  the  length  of  their  fur,  the  skins  of  the 
Himalayan  brown  bear,  if  procured  early  in  the  spring,  are  held  in  high 
estimation. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  fossil  remains,  referred  to  the  brown  bear, 
have  been  found  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  Ireland ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
bones  and  teeth  undoubtedly  belonging  to  this  species  occur  in  the  fens,  brick- 
earths,  and  caverns  of  this  country,  as  well  as  the  corresponding  deposits  of  the 
continent.  Whether  the  remains  from  the  same  formations  that  have  been 
assigned  to  the  grizzly  bear  do  not  likewise  belong  to  the  European  species,  may, 
we  think,  be  a  subject  of  doubt. 

Crowther's  bear  (U.  crowtheri}  is  a  closely-allied  if  not  identical  form  from 
the  Atlas  Mountains,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  bear  exists  in  Morocco  and  Algeria 
which  may  be  either  the  common  brown  bear  or  Crowther's  bear,  if  the  latter  be 
distinct. 


14  CARNIVORES. 

THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR  (  Ursus  horribilis). 

The  gigantic  grizzly  bear  of  Western  North  America,  whose  range  extends 
from  Alaska  through  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Mexico,  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
species  distinct  from  the  brown  bear,  although  there  can  be  no  question  but  that 
the  two  are  very  closely  related.  There  are,  however,some  slight  differences  in  the 
characters  of  the  skull  and  cheek-teeth  in  the  two  forms,  while  the  grizzly  bear 
is  generally  larger  in  size,  greyer  in  colour,  and  has  shorter  and  less  valuable  fur 
than  its  European  cousin.  Some  of  the  brown  bears  from  Northern  Asia  are 
probably  nearly  or  quite  as  large  as  an  average-sized  grizzly  ;  while  the  difference 
in  this  respect  between  brown  bears  from  different  districts  indicates  that  mere 
size  cannot  be  a  matter  of  much  importance.  All  the  American  hunters  recognise 
several  varieties  of  greyish  bears,  respectively  known  as  the  "  silver-tip,"  "  roach- 
back,"  and  the  "  barren-ground "  bear,  in  addition  to  the  typical  grizzly ;  and  Dr. 
Hart  Merriam  is  disposed  to  regard  the  last  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name 
of  U.  richardsoni.  We  prefer,  however,  to  adopt  the  view  that  there  are  but  two 
distinct  species  of  North  American  bears.  Occasionally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  black 
bear,  there  may  be  cinnamon-coloured  varieties  of  the  grizzly ;  and  it  was  at  one 
time  considered  that  such  yellow-haired  bears  constituted  a  distinct  species — the 
so-called  cinnamon  bear  ( U.  cinnamomus),  but  it  is  now  known  that  such  colora- 
tion is  merely  a  phase  common  to  each  species.  Dr.  W.  S.  Rainsford  states,  indeed, 
that  he  has  seen  a  female  grizzly  with  three  cubs,  of  which  one  was  almost 
yellow,  a  second  nearly  black,  and  the  third  grey.  The  so-called  barren-ground 
bear  of  Arctic  America  is  stated  to  come  very  close  to  the  European  brown  bear, 
and  may  indeed  prove  to  be  the  connecting  link  between  it  and  the  typical  grizzly. 
Whether,  then,  the  grizzly  bear  be  rightly  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  or 
whether  it  be  merely  a  well-marked  race  of  the  brown  bear,  we  take  it  to  include 
all  the  grey  and  brownish  bears  of  North  America.  In  addition  to  this  wide  range 
in  colour,  there  are  considerable  differences  in  form.  Thus  some  have  a  well- 
marked  hump  at  the  back  of  the  head,  extending  to  the  shoulders,  which  is 
totally  wanting  in  others ;  while  the  width  of  the  sole  of  the  hind-foot  is  subject 
to  great  individual  variation. 

The  accounts  of  the  size  and  weight  of  the  grizzly  are  very 
Dimensions. 

discrepant,  and  have  probably  been  much  exaggerated ;  most  of  the 

measurements  having  been  taken  from  pegged-out  skins,  while  the  weights  are 
mere  estimates.  It  is  said  that  the  finest  grizzlies  hail  from  Alaska,  but  it  is 
probable  that  those  formerly  inhabiting  the  Pacific  flanks  of  the  high  Sierra 
Nevada  were  really  the  largest.  These,  however,  have  been  nearly  or  completely 
exterminated  by  the  shepherds,  who  poisoned  them  on  account  of  the  ravages 
they  committed  on  their  flocks.  These  Sierra  grizzlies  are  reported  to  have  been 
of  the  enormous  weight  of  1800  Ibs. ;  and  there  seems  no  doubt  that  instances  of 
1400  and  1200  have  been  reached.  Dr.  Rainsford  states,  however,  that  he 
estimates  the  weight  of  the  largest  grizzly  with  which  he  was  acquainted  at 
1000  Ibs.,  and  gives  900  Ibs.  as  that  of  an  unusually  large  male.  The  skin  of  this 
animal  measured  9  feet  3  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  hind-foot,  when  pegged  out 
without  undue  stretching;  another  skin  measured  in  the  same  manner  reached 


THE    GRIZZLY    BEAR. 


BEARS.  17 

feet,  while  a  third  was  still  larger.     Unfortunately  the  length  from  the  nose  to 
e  root  of  the  tail  is  not  given,  but  it  is  probable  that  in  large  specimens  this  must 
close  on  9  feet. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the   grizzly  is  found   from  Alaska 
Distribution.  ,_      .  J 

to  Mexico ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  rrom  east  to  west  it  reaches 

from  the  Coast  Range  across  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the  Big-Horn  Range  in 
Wyoming,  and  some  distance  on  to  the  plains  at  its  foot.  Its  distribution  is,  how- 
ever, becoming  gradually  more  and  more  restricted.  In  1868  bears  were  to  be 
found  on  the  plains  for  several  hundred  miles  eastward  of  the  Big-Horn,  but  they 
arc  now  rare  even  in  that  range  itself.  Similarly,  they  have  greatly  diminished 
in  numbers  in  Southern  California  and  the  parallel  valleys  of  the  Coast  hills 
further  to  the  northward. 

That  the  grizzly  bear  will  eat  flesh  whenever  it  has  the  chance 
is  admitted  by  all,  but  there  is  some  discrepancy  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  it  ever  kills  large  mammals  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh.  Thus  while  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  denies  that  they  ever  do  so,  Dr.  Rainsford  relates  a  case  where  his 
hunter  saw  a  grizzly  attack  one  of  three  bisons.  Wherever  wapiti  are  abundant 
there  will  grizzly  bears  be  found.  Failing  meat,  they,  according  to  Dr.  Rainsford, 
thrive  on  nuts,  acorns,  etc. ;  "  and,"  he  says,  "  the  fattest  grizzlies  I  ever  killed  were 
those  that  had  been  feeding  for  weeks  on  the  pine-nuts  that  the  mountain  squirrels 
stow  away  in  such  great  plenty  in  the  little  colonies  on  the  upper  hillsides. 
Where  the  nut-pine  is  plentiful,  you  may  also  expect  to  find  bears."  The  grizzly 
is  a  bad  climber,  and  seldom  resorts  to  trees  at  all.  Its  strength  is,  however, 
prodigious.  One  has  been  seen  to  break  the  neck  of  a  tall  bison  with  a  single 
blow  of  its  paw ;  another  has  bodily  carried  off,  over  very  rough  ground,  a  male 
wapiti,  weighing  nearly  1000  Ibs. 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  states  that  a  frequent  practice  in  bear-shooting  is  to  kill 
several  deer,  and  leave  them  untouched  on  the  ground  as  baits.  "  At  daybreak  on 
the  following  morning  the  hunter  visits  his  baits,  and  he  will  probably  find  that 
the  bears  have  been  extremely  busy  during  the  night  in  scratching  a  hole  some- 
what like  a  shallow  grave  or  trench,  in  which  they  have  rolled  the  carcase ;  they 
have  then  covered  it  with  earth  and  grass,  and  in  many  cases  the  bears  may  be  dis- 
covered either  in  the  act  of  working,  or,  having  completed  their  labour,  they  may 
be  found  lying  down  asleep,  half  gorged  with  flesh." 

In  the  northern  part  of  its  range  the  grizzly  bear  hibernates,  but  it  is  probable 
that  in  the  south  it  remains  active  throughout  the  winter.  When  it  first  comes 
out  in  the  spring,  it  has  a  habit  of  standing  upright  against  a  pine  or  other 
tree  and  scoring  its  bark  with  its  claws.  Very  incorrect  conclusions  have  been 
drawn  from  these  marks  as  to  the  size  of  the  bears  by  which  they  were  made, 
it  having  been  forgotten  that  the  animals  were  generally  standing  on  from  three 
to  five  feet  of  snow  when  they  thus  scored  the  trees. 

The  grizzly  has  been  accredited  with  extreme  ferocity  towards  man;  but, 
granting  that  its  great  strength  and  extreme  tenacity  of  life  make  it  a  most 
formidable  foe  when  brought  to  close  quarters,  Dr.  Rainsford  is  inclined  to  think 
that  there  has  been  considerable  exaggeration  on  this  point,  and  many  of  the  stories 
of  these  animals  charging  is  due  to  their  rolling  downhill  upon  the  hunter  who 

VOL.  II. — 2 


i8 


CARNIVORES. 


has  incautiously  fired  at  them  from  below  instead  of  from  above.  The  same  writei 
also  considers  that  at  the  present  day  Winchester  repeaters  and  other  rifles  have 
established  in  the  grizzly  a  wholesome  dread  of  man,  and  that  it  is  now  altogether 
a  more  cautious  and  timid  animal  than  formerly. 

THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  BEAR  ( Ursus  americanus). 

The  American  black  bear  is  a  well-marked  species,  differing  from  the  brown 
bear  much  more  decidedly  than  does  the  grizzly.  It  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the 
brown  bear,  from  which  it  differs  by  the  proportionately  smaller  head,  the  sharper 


BLACK.  BKAK  (i's  Uat.  size). 


muzzle,  and  more  regularly  convex  profile  of  the  face,  as  well  as  by  the  much 
shorter  hind-foot.  In  length  this  bear  seldom  exceeds  5  feet.  The  fur  is  less 
shaggy,  and  altogether  smoother  and  more  glossy  than  that  of  either  the  brown  or 
grizzly  bear  ;  being  typically  of  a  uniformly  black  colour,  except  on  the  muzzle, 
where  it  becomes  tawny  yellow.  Occasionally,  however,  specimens  are  found  with 
white  margins  to  the  lips  and  white  streaks  on  the  chest.  The  smaller  size  of  the 
hind-feet  of  this  species  renders  its  trail  distinguishable  at  a  glance  from  that  of 
the  grizzly  bear.  As  already  mentioned,  the  so-called  cinnamon  bear  may  be  a 
pale-coloured  variety,  either  of  the  black  bear  or  of  the  grizzly. 

The  black  bear  formerly  had  a  wider  distribution  than  the  grizzly,  extending 
from  Labrador  and  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  east  to  the  west 
coasts  of  the  continent.  Colonel  D.  G.  Alexander  states  that  it  frequented  "  all 


BEARS.  19 

ie  mountains,  the  thickets  of  the  vast  plains,  and  every  creek,  river,  and  bay 
or  bottom.  At  the  present  day  its  habitat  is,  however,  confined  to  some  portions 
of  the  various  ranges  of  mountains  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and,  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  to  parts  of  those  portions  of  the 
Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries  which  are  yet  unsettled,  and  where  it  has 
l>rru  able  to  escape  destruction  from  hunters.  Some  few  are  yet  found  in  the 
druse  thickets  of  the  Colorado,  Trinity,  and  Brazor  rivers."  As  with  other  bears, 
the  male  of  this  species  is  much  larger  than  the  female ;  when  full  grown  the 
former,  according  to  Colonel  Alexander,  will  stand  about  3  feet  in  height,  and 
will  often  turn  the  scale  at  from  600  to  700  Ibs. 

According  to  Dr.  Merriam,  the  food  of  the  American  black  bear  "  consists  not 
only  of  mice  and  other  small  mammals,  turtles,  frogs,  and  fish,  but  also,  and 
largely,  of  ants  and  their  eggs,  bees  and  their  honey,  cherries,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, blueberries,  and  various  other  fruits,  vegetables,  and  roots.  He  sometimes 
makes  devastating  raids  upon  the  barn-yard,  slaying  and  devouring  sheep,  calves, 
pigs,  and  poultry."  Another  writer,  Mr.  C.  C.  Ward,  states,  as  the  result  of  his 
own  experience,  that  the  black  bear  "  is  growing  more  carnivorous  and  discontented 
with  a  diet  of  herbs.  Assuredly,  he  is  growing  bolder.  He  is  also  developing  a 
propensity  to  destroy  more  than  he  can  eat,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  his 
posterity  may  cease  to  be  frugi-carnivorous.  It  is  fortunate  that  an  animal  of  the 
strength  and  ferocity  which  he  displays  when  aroused  seldom  attacks  man.  The 
formation  of  his  powerful  jaws  and  terrible  canine  teeth  are  well  adapted  to  seize 
and  hold  his  prey,  and  his  molars  are  strong  enough  to  crush  the  bones  of  an  ox. 
His  great  strength,  however,  lies  in  his  fore-arms  and  paws.  His  mode  of  attacking 
his  prey  is  not  to  seize  it  with  his  teeth,  but  to  strike  terrific  blows  with  his  fore- 
]>;i\vs.  His  weakness  is  for  pork,  and  to  obtain  it  he  will  run  any  risk.  When  the 
farmers,  after  suffering  severe  losses  at  his  hands,  become  unusually  alert,  he  retires 
to  the  depths  of  the  forest  and  solaces  himself  with  a  young  moose,  caribou,  or 
deer.  He  seldom  or  never  attacks  a  full-grown  moose,  but  traces  of  desperate 
encounters,  in  which  the  cow-moose  has  battled  for  her  offspring,  are  frequently 
met  with  in  the  woods."  Dr.  Merriam  states  that  the  black  bears  visit  the  Adiron- 
dacks  from  the  wooded  districts  about  twenty  miles  to  the  westward  in  Lewis 
County  during  the  autumn,  crossing  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  valley.  They 
are  good  climbers,  but,  from  their  weight,  are  unable  to  ascend  to  the  tree-tops  or 
climb  far  out  on  the  branches,  although  they  will  ascend  straight  stems  for  a 
considerable  height  after  honey.  They  are  also  excellent  swimmers,  many  being 
killed  while  swimming  in  the  lakes.  We  likewise  learn  that,  as  a  rule,  the  black 
bear  hibernates,  although  its  torpor  is  not  deep,  and  the  time  of  entering  upon 
the  winter  repose  depends  upon  the  severity  of  the  season,  and  the  amount  of 
food-supply.  And  it  appears  that  the  males  will  remain  active  in  any  weather, 
so  long  as  they  can  find  abundance  of  food.  The  female  is,  however,  compelled  to 
seek  shelter  sooner  on  account  of  her  prospective  family.  The  winter  den  of  a 
black  bear  is  generally  a  partial  excavation  under  the  upturned  roots  of 
a  fallen  tree,  or  beneath  a  pile  of  logs,  with  perhaps  a  few  bushes  and  leaves 
scraped  together  by  way  of  a  bed,  while  to  the  first  snowstorm  is  left  the 
task  of  completing  the  roof  and  filling  the  remaining  chinks.  Not  unfrequently 


20  CARNIVORES. 

the  den  is  a  great  hole  or  cave  dug  into  the  side  of  a  knoll,  and  generally  under 
some  standing  tree,  whose  roots  serve  as  side-posts  to  the  entrance.  The  amoun 
of  labour  bestowed  upon  it  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  the  bear  expects  to 
hibernate.  If  the  prospects  point  towards  a  severe  winter,  and  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  food,  they  "  den  "  early,  and  take  pains  to  make  a  comfortable  nest ;  but  when 
they  stay  out  late,  and  then  "  den  "  in  a  hurry,  they  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  fix 
up  their  nests  at  all.  At  such  times  they  simply  crawl  into  any  convenient  shelter 
without  gathering  so  much  as  a  branch  of  moss  to  soften  their  bed.  Snow  com 
pletes  the  covering,  and  as  their  breath  condenses  and  freezes  into  it  an  icy  wal 
begins  to  form,  and  increases  in  thickness  and  extent  day  by  day  till  they  are  soon 
unable  to  escape,  even  if  they  would,  and  are  obliged  to  remain  in  this  icy  cell  til 
liberated  by  the  sun  in  April  or  May. 

The  young  are  born  about  January  or  February,  and  are  usually  two  or  three  in 
number,  although  four  have  been  found  in  a  litter.  It  is  believed  that  the  female 
does  not  give  birth  to  young  oftener  than  every  alternate  year. 

The  black  bear  was  pursued  by  the  early  colonists  of  North  America  by  "  still 
hunting,"  or  what  would  be  called  in  England  stalking ;  and  it  appears  that  thi 
requires  much  more  care  than  in  the  case  with  other  bears,  since  the  American 
black  bear  is  very  acute  of  hearing.  A  favourite  expedient  was  to  watch  a  herd 
of  pigs  in  the  cultivated  districts,  upon  which  the  bears  would  make  a  raid, 
and  could  then  be  shot  with  ease.  Mr.  C.  C.  Ward  writes  that  "  sometimes  the 
black  bear  is  hunted  with  dogs  trained  for  the  purpose.  The  dogs  are  not  taught 
to  seize  the  bear,  but  to  nip  his  heels,  yelp  around  him,  and  retard  his  progress, 
until  the  hunters  come  up  and  despatch  him  with  their  rifles.  Common  yelping 
curs  possessed  of  the  requisite  pluck  are  best  adapted  for  the  purpose.  Large  dogs 
with  sufficient  courage  to  seize  a  bear  would  have  but  a  small  chance  with  him,  for 
he  could  disable  them  with  one  blow  of  his  powerful  paw.  Another  way  of 
hunting  is  to  track  Bruin  to  his  winter  den,  and  either  smoke  or  dig  him  out,  when 
he  may  be  despatched  by  a  blow  on  the  head  with  the  pole  of  an  axe  as  he  struggles 
out.  Various  kinds  of  traps,  set-guns,  and  dead-falls  are  also  employed  against  him." 

THE  HIMALAYAN  BLACK  BEAR  (Ursus  torquatus). 

With  the  black  bear  of  the  Himalaya  we  come  to  a  very  different  animal, 
readily  recognised  by  the  white  chevron  or  inverted  crescent  on  the  chest,  from  which 
it  takes  its  scientific  title,  and  which  stands  out  in  marked  contrast  to  the  jetty 
black  of  the  remainder  of  the  fur.  This  species  does  not  attain  by  any  means  such 
large  dimensions  as  the  brown  or  grizzly  bear ;  the  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout 
to  the  root  of  the  tail  usually  averaging  in  Nipalese  examples  from  about  4f  to  5| 
feet,  although  one  specimen  has  been  recorded  measuring  6  feet  5  inches.  We  think, 
however,  that  bears  of  this  species  from  Kashmir  would  average  somewhat  larger. 

The  fur  is  very  different  to  that  of  either  of  the  three  preceding  species,  being 
short  and  smooth,  without  any  under  fur,  and  becoming  very  thin  in  summer.  In 
winter  the  hair  on  the  shoulders  becomes  considerably  elongated,  so  as  to  produce 
the  appearance  of  a  kind  of  hump.  The  ears  are  relatively  large,  and  covered  with 
rather  long  hair.  In  addition  to  the  white  mark  on  the  chest,  the  chin  is  also 


BEARS. 


21 


\vhite ;  while  the  upper  lip  may  be  whitish,  and  the  nose  reddish-brown, 
claws  are  comparatively  short,  and  black  in  colour. 

Mr.  Blanford  gives  the  weight  of  full-grown  males  as  varying  from  200  to 
-2~i()  Ibs.;  but  these  weights  are  probably  exceeded  in  autumn,  when  the  Himalayan 


The 


SSSi. 

THE   HIMALAYAN   BLACK   BEAR  (^  nat.  Size). 


black  bear  becomes  enormously  fat,  the  thickness  of  the  fat  on  the  haunches 
reaching  several  inches.  At  such  seasons  the  skin — never  very  valuable — becomes 
utterly  useless,  from  being  saturated  with  oil.  The  skull  of  this  bear  has  a 
relatively  shorter  muzzle  and  a  longer  portion  behind  the  eye  than  that  of  the 
brown  bear ;  from  which  it  may  also  be  distinguished  by  the  slight  development 
of  the  bony  ridge  along  the  middle  of  the  brain-case. 


22  CARNIVORES. 

The  Himalayan  black  bear  is  an  exclusively  forest-dwelling  animal,  except  in 
Baluchistan,  where  it  inhabits  open  country.  Its  range  extends  from  about  the 
eastern  portion  of  Persia  through  Baluchistan  into  Afghanistan  and  Sind;  and 
thence  through  the  forest-clad  portions  of  the  Himalaya  to  Assam,  and  so  on  into 
Burma.  The  species  is  also  found  in  the  south  of  China  and  the  islands  of  Hainan 
and  Formosa,  but  in  Ladak  and  Tibet  it  is  quite  unknown. 

The  black  bear  may  be  found  in  the  Himalaya,  from  near  the  foot 
to  elevations  of  some  ten  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet  in  summer. 
It  is,  perhaps,  most  abundant  in  the  dense  chestnut  and  oak  woods  surrounding  the 
valley  of  Kashmir,  whence  it  issues  forth  at  night  to  make  extensive  depredations 
on  the  crops  and  orchards  of  the  natives.  Although,  according  to  General  Kinloch, 
the  black  bear  will  at  times  take  to  killing  sheep,  cattle,  and  ponies,  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
a  vegetable  feeder.  In  the  forest  the  chief  food  of  these  bears  consists  of  chest- 
nuts, acorns,  roots,  berries,  ants,  and  honey.  Whenever  they  raid  the  cultivated 
grounds,  they  consume  maize,  rice,  buckwheat,  and  a  number  of  fruits,  such  as 
mulberries,  apples,  pears,  apricots,  and  walnuts — the  latter  being  especial  favourites. 
The  gourds  and  melons  which  are  cultivated  in  many  of  the  gardens  in  Kashmir 
are  also  sometimes  eaten  by  these  bears.  So  numerous  are  they  that  it  is  by  no 
means  unfrequent  to  see  two,  three,  or  even  more,  up  a  single  fruit  tree  in  some  of 
the  less  frequented  districts  of  Kashmir.  They  are,  indeed,  excellent  climbers; 
and  their  short  claws  are  much  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than  for  digging. 
When  in  the  forests  they  may  be  stalked  during  the  day  with  comparative  ease, 
and  will  generally  be  found  feeding  on  roots  or  wild  fruits.  This  sport,  as  the 
writer  can  state  from  personal  experience,  is  by  no  means  very  exciting,  as 
they  are  easy  of  approach.  Another  method  of  hunting  is  by  beating  small 
patches  of  jungle  on  the  hills — from  below  upwards — when  the  bears  will  be 
driven  out.  They  very  frequently  go  in  family  parties,  comprising  the  two 
parents,  the  two  youngest  cubs,  and  one  or  perhaps  two  cubs  of  the  preceding 
litter.  When  driven  from  the  forest,  the  \vhole  party  emerges  in  single  file, 
headed  by  the  male,  who  is  followed  by  the  female,  after  which  come  the  cubs 
according  to  seniority.  They  always  break  cover  with  the  usual  deliberate  and 
sober  pace  characteristic  of  all  bears,  and  when  the  party  comprises  five  or  six 
individuals  the  sight  is  ludicrous  in  the  extreme. 

The  black  bear,  which  is  known  in  Kashmir  as  the  Siyah  Haput  (in 
contradistinction  to  the  Kunea  Haput,  or  brown  bear),  does  not  thoroughly 
hibernate,  but,  according  to  General  Kinloch,  "  appears  to  pass  a  great  deal  of  his 
time  during  the  cold  months  in  a  state  of  semi-torpor ;  occasionally  wandering  out 
in  search  of  food,  when  an  unusually  mild  day  thaws  his  blood  and  awakens  him 
to  the  sense  of  hunger." 

Like  its  similarly-coloured  relative  in  North  America,  the  black  Himalayan 
bear  is  sharper  in  hearing  than  the  brown  bear,  and  it  may  be  that  the  black 
coloration  has  some  connection  with  the  greater  development  of  this  sense.  In 
disposition  the  black  bear  is  decidedly  more  savage  and  prone  to  attack  man  than 
the  brown  bear ;  and  in  the  fruit-season  a  large  number  of  natives  are  annually 
badly  mauled  in  Kashmir  by  its  talons.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  these 
wounds  are  largely  due  to  the  foolhardiness  of  the  natives  themselves,  who  will 


BEARS.  23 

)t  hesitate  to  drive  off  the  bears  from  their  crops  and  orchards  when  armed 
solely  with  a  stick.  In  addition  to  its  skill  as  a  climber  this  bear  is  a  good 
swimmer.  The  young,  which  are  nearly  always  two  in  number,  are  born  in  the 
spring. 

The  small  variety  from  Baluchistan,  locally  known  as  the  Mam, 

Allied  Forms.  .    .  J  J  ' 

and  originally  described  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  or   u. 

(jcilrosianus,  is  chiefly  interesting  as  inhabiting  a  country  of  such  a  totally 
different  nature  from  the  typical  habitat  of  the  present  species.  The  Japanese 
black  bear  ( U.  japonicus)  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Himalayan  species  that  it  is 
regarded  by  some  writers  merely  as  a  local  variety,  mainly  characterised  by 
the  white  mark  on  the  throat  being  less  distinct.  It  appears  to  be  very  common 
in  Northern  Japan,  where  it  is  of  great  importance  to  the  Ainos,  who  use  its  skin 
for  clothing,  its  flesh  for  food,  and  the  stones  in  its  gall-bladder  for  medicine. 
Aino  houses  are  commonly  decorated  with  the  skulls  of  these  bears ;  and,  according 
to  Miss  Bird,  "  the  Ainos  may  be  distinguished  as  bear- worshippers,  and  their  great 
religious  festival,  or  saturnalia,  as  the  Festival  of  the  Bear.  .  .  In  all  Aino  houses, 
specially  near  the  chief's  house,  there  are  several  tall  poles  with  the  fleshless  skull 
of  a  bear  on  the  top  of  each ;  and  in  most  there  is  also  a  large  cage,  made  gridiron 
fashion  of  stout  timbers,  and  raised  two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground.  At  the 
present  time  such  cages  contain  young  but  well-grown  bears,  captured  when  quite 
small  in  the  early  spring.  After  the  capture  the  bear  cub  is  introduced  into  a 
dwelling-house,  generally  that  of  the  chief  or  sub-chief,  when  it  is  suckled  by  a 
woman,  and  played  with  by  the  children,  till  it  grows  too  big  and  rough  for 
domestic  life,  and  is  placed  in  a  strong  cage,  in  which  it  is  fed  and  cared  for,  as  I 
understand,  till  the  autumn  of  the  following  year,  when,  being  strong  and  well- 
grown,  the  Festival  of  the  Bear  is  celebrated.  The  customs  of  this  festival  vary 
considerably,  and  the  manner  of  the  bear's  death  differs  among  the  mountain  and 
coast  Ainos ;  but  everywhere  there  is  a  general  gathering  of  the  people,  and  it  is 
the  occasion  of  a  great  feast,  accompanied  by  much  sake,  and  a  curious  dance,  in 
which  men  alone  take  part.  Yells  and  shouts  are  used  to  excite  the  bear,  and 
when  he  becomes  much  agitated  a  chief  shoots  him  with  an  arrow,  inflicting  a 
slight  wound  which  maddens  him,  on  which  the  bars  of  the  cage  are  raised,  and  he 
springs  forth,  very  furious.  At  this  stage  the  Ainos  run  upon  it  with  various 
weapons,  each  one  striving  to  inflict  a  wound,  as  it  brings  good  luck  to  draw  his 
blood.  As  soon  as  he  falls  down  exhausted,  his  head  is  cut  off,  and  the  weapons 
with  which  he  has  been  wounded  are  offered  to  it,  and  he  is  asked  to  avenge 
himself  upon  them.  Afterwards  the  carcase,  amidst  a  frenzied  uproar,  is  distri- 
buted among  the  people,  and  amidst  feasting  and  riot  the  head,  placed  upon  a  pole, 
is  worshipped,  i.e.  it  receives  libations  of  sake,  and  the  festival  closes  with  general 
intoxication."  In  another  part  of  the  country  the  neck  of  the  bear  is  broken  by 
means  of  a  pole  placed  across  it,  upon  which  a  number  of  men  bring  their  weight 
together.  Somewhat  similar  customs  used  to  take  place  in  Norway  when  a  brown 
bear  was  killed. 

The  spectacled          The  spectacled  bear  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  ( Ursus  ornatus), 

which  is   the  sole    representative   of   the    family   inhabiting  South 

America,  is  a  small-sized  black  species,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  tawny 


24  CARNIVORES. 

rings  or  semicircles  round  the  eyes,  whereby  a  most  grotesque  appearance  is 
communicated  to  the  whole  physiognomy.  The  jaws,  cheeks,  throat,  and  chest 
are  white ;  and  the  whole  length  of  the  animal  is  only  about  3i  feet.  It  has  been 
generally  considered  that  this  bear  is  nearly  related  to  the  next  species ;  but,  al- 
though specimens  have  been  exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens, 
little  or  no  information  exists  as  to  its  habits  in  the  native  state. 


Ij 


THE   MALAYAN   BEAK   (fa  nat.  Size). 


The  Malayan  The  small  black   Malayan   bear  ( Ursus  malayanus)  is   a  very 

Bear.         well-marked   species,  distinguished   by  its  small  and  rounded  ears, 

covered  with  short  hair,  its  much  elongated  and  almost  prehensile  tongue,  its  very 

short  and  wide  molar  teeth,  and  the  shortness  and  breadth  of  the  skull,  in  which 


SEARS. 


ic  nose  is  but  slightly  produced.  The  claws  are  considerably  curved,  and  pale 
in  colour.  The  fur  of  this  species  is  very  short  and  coarse,  and  is  mostly  black, 
although  tending  to  brown  in  some  parts ;  the  whole  of  the  muzzle  is  paler,  or 
whitish,  and  the  light  band  on  the  chest  varies  from  white  to  orange,  and  is 
subject  to  considerable  diversity  of  form,  sometimes  extending  as  a  streak  on  to 
the  under-part  of  the  body.  The  general  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  only 
about  4  feet,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  never  exceeds  4|  feet.  A  female 
mentioned  by  the  same  writer,  although  fully  adult,  had  a  length  of  only  3£  feet, 
and  did  not  weigh  more  than  60  Ibs.  This  species  is  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  and  also  extends  through  Burma 
into  the  Garo  Hills  in  North-Eastern  India.  Of  its  habits,  Mr.  Blanford  states 
that  little  is  known  except  in  captivity.  It  is  a  purely  forest  animal,  and  an 
admirable  climber.  It  is  essentially  frugivorous,  but  like  other  bears  occasionally 
kills  and  eats  mammals  and  birds.  It  is  said  to  be  very  fond  of  honey,  and  it 
probably  devours  insects  and  larvae.  When  caught  young,  it  is  generally  easily 
tamed,  and  is  usually  gentle  and  amusing  when  in  captivity.  Its  general  pace  is 
much  quicker  than  that  of  other  bears,  and  a  specimen  kept  some  years  ago  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  used  to  pace  up  and  down  its  cage  with  great 
rapidity,  turning  very  suddenly  every  time  it  came  to  the  end  of  its  track.  A 
fragment  of  the  jaw  of  an  extinct  bear,  obtained  from  the  gravels  of  the  Narbada 
Valley,  in  India,  appears  to  indicate  a  more  or  less  closely  allied  species. 

THE  EXTINCT  CAVE-BEAR  (Ursus  spelceus). 

No  account  of  the  typical  bears  would  be  complete  without  some  reference  to 
the  great  extinct  cave-bear,  of  which  the  remains  are  found  in  such  profusion  in 
the  caverns  of  Europe,  and 
less  commonly  in  the  brick - 
earths  and  other  superficial 
deposits.  This  gigantic 
species,  of  which  the  skull  is 
represented  in  the  annexed 
figure,  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  mammoth  and  early 
human  inhabitants  of  Europe. 
The  skull  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  all 
other  species  by  the  great 
prominence  immediately 

above  the  eyes ;  while  the  molar  teeth  are  characterised  by  the  extremely  fine 
tuberculation  of  their  crowns,  in  which,  when  unworn,  the  enamel  has  a  kind  of 
wavy  pattern. 

The  cave-bear,  although  it  had  a  wide  range  in  Europe,  is  unknown  both  in 
the  extreme  north  and  the  extreme  south  of  that  continent;  it  is  found  in  the 
British  Isles  as  far  north  as  Yorkshire,  but  is  not  definitely  known  to  occur  in 
Ireland.  The  number  of  individuals  inhabiting  Brixham  Cave,  near  Torquay,  and 


SIDE-VIEW  OF  SKULL  OF  CAVE-BEAK 


26  CARNIVORES. 

the  celebrated  cavern  of  Gailenreuth  in  Franconia,  must  have  been  prodigious, 
although  it  will  be  obvious  that  all  of  these  did  not  exist  at  one  time.  From  its 
size,  which  exceeded  that  of  the  largest  grizzly,  as  well  as  from  its  numbers,  it 
must  have  been  a  formidable  foe  to  the  early  hunters  of  Europe,  armed  only  with 
flint  hatchets  and  spears.  In  the  earlier  Pliocene  deposits  of  Europe  there  occur  the 
remains  of  the  Etruscan  bear  (  U.  arvernensis),  which  was  considerably  inferior  in 
size  to  the  brown  bear.  The  extinct  Theobald's  bear  (U.  theobaldi)  from  the 
Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India,  appears  to  have  been  a  species  closely  connecting 
the  typical  bears  with  the  one  next  on  our  list. 

THE  SLOTH-BEAR. 
Genus  Melursus. 

The  well-known  Indian  sloth-bear  (Melursus  ursinus),  commonly  known  in 
its  native  country  by  the  name  of  Bhalu,  but  by  the  Mahrattas  termed  the  Aswal, 
differs  so  remarkably  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  that  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  forming  a  genus  by  itself.  It  differs  from  all  the  typical  bears  by 
having  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  or  front-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  so  that  the  total 
number  of  teeth  is  forty  instead  of  forty-two.  Moreover,  all  the  cheek-teeth  are 
much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  skull  than  in  other  bears,  while  the 
palate  of  the  skull  is  deeply  concave,  instead  of  being  nearly  flat.  The  claws  are 
also  unusually  large  and  powerful,  and  the  snout  and  lower  lip  are  much  elongated 
and  very  mobile.  The  sloth-bear  is,  at  best,  but  an  ugly-looking  animal,  and 
is  generally  of  smaller  size  and  less  bulk  than  the  Himalayan  black  bear.  It  is 
covered  with  very  long  and  coarse  fur,  which  attains  its  greatest  length  on  the 
shoulders.  With  the  exception  of  the  end  of  the  muzzle  being  dirty  grey,  and  of 
the  white  chevron  on  the  chest,  the  colour  of  the  fur  is  black,  but  the  long  claws 
are  white.  As  regards  size,  this  species  measures  from  about  4|  feet  to  5  feet  8 
inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  the  tail  generally  measuring  from  4  to 
5  inches,  exclusive  of  the  hair;  the  height  at  the  shoulder  varying  from  2  feet 
2  inches  to  about  2  feet  9  inches.  Large  males  may  weigh  as  much  as  280  Ibs., 
while  there  is  one  instance  recorded  of  a  specimen  weighing  as  much  as  320  Ibs. 

The  sloth-bear  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  characteristic,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  mammals  of  India.  It  is  found  in  Ceylon, 
and  in  the  peninsula  of  India  from  Cape  Comorin  nearly  to  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  it  ranges  as  far  west  as  the  province  of 
Katiawar,  and  is  also  occasionally  found  in  Cutch,  while  to  the  northwards  its  range 
is  probably  limited  by  the  great  Indian  desert.  It  occurs  in  North-Eastern  Bengal, 
but  how  far  its  range  extends  in  this  direction  is  not  fully  ascertained,  there 
being  some  doubt  whether  the  large  black  bear  found  in  the  plains  of  Assam  is  this 
species  or  the  Himalayan  black  bear.  Within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  it  has 
been  completely  exterminated  from  some  parts  of  Bengal  and  the  Deccan. 

Habits  Perhaps  the  best  account  of  the  habits  of  this  bear  is  one  drawn 

up  by  Mr.  Blanford,  partly  from  the  results  of  his  own  observations 

and  partly  from  those  of  others.     It  is  there  stated  that  these  bears  "  are  generally 


SLOTH-BEARS    IN    A    FOREST    GLADE. 


BEARS.  29 

mnd  solitary  or  in  pairs,  or  three  together ;  in  the  latter  case  a  female  with  two 
ibs,  often  nearly  or  quite  full-grown.  Occasionally  four  or  five  are  met  with  in 
company.  They  inhabit  bush  and  forest,  jungle  and  hills,  and  are  particularly 
fond  of  caves  in  the  hot  season  and  monsoon,  and  also  when  they  have  young. 
Throughout  several  parts  of  the  peninsula  of  India  there  are  numerous  hills  of  a 
granitoid  gneiss  that  weathers  into  huge  loose  rounded  masses.  These  blocks 
remain  piled  on  each  other,  and  the  great  cavities  beneath  them  are  favourite 
resorts  of  bears,  as  in  such,  places  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  some  of  the  insects  that 
are  most  troublesome  in  the  monsoon  can  be  avoided.  In  the  cold  season,  and  at 
other  times  when  no  caves  are  available,  this  animal  passes  the  day  in  grass  or 
bushes,  or  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  ravines.  It  roams  in  search  of  food  at  night, 
and  near  human  habitations  is  hardly  seen  in  the  daytime;  but,  in  wild  tracts 
uninhabited  by  man,  it  may  be  found  wandering  about  as  late  as  eight  or  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  again  an  hour  or  even  more  before  sunset  in  the 
afternoon.  In  wet  or  cloudy  weather,  as  in  the  monsoon,  it  will  sometimes  keep 
on  the  move  all  day.  But  the  sloth-bear,  although,  like  most  other  Indian  animals, 
it  shuns  the  midday  sun,  appears  by  no  means  so  sensitive  to  heat  as  might  be 
expected  from  its  black  fur,  and  it  appears  far  less  reluctant  to  expose  itself  at 
noonday  than  is  the  tiger.  I  have  seen  a  family  of  bears  asleep  at  midday  in  May 
on  a  hillside  in  the  sun.  They  had  lain  down  in  the  shade  of  a  small  tree,  but  the 
.shade  had  shifted  without  their  being  disturbed.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe 
that  this  bear  does  not  hibernate.  Owing  to  its  long,  shaggy,  coarse  fur,  its 
peculiarly  shaped  head,  its  long  mobile  snout,  and  its  short  hind-legs,  this  is 
probably  the  most  uncouth  in  appearance  of  all  the  bears,  and  its  antics  are  as 
comical  as  its  appearance.  Its  usual  pace  is  a  quick  walk,  but  if  alarmed  or 
hurried  it  breaks  into  a  clumsy  gallop,  so  rough  that  when  the  animal  is  going 
away  it  looks  almost  as  if  propelled  from  behind  and  rolled  over  and  over.  It 
climbs  over  rocks  well,  and,  like  other  bears,  if  alarmed  or  fired  at  on  a  steep 
hillside,  not  unfrequently  rolls  head-over-heels  down  hill.  It  climbs  trees,  but 
slowly  and  heavily;  the  unmistakable  scratches  left  on  the  bark  showing  how 
often  its  feet  have  slipped  back  some  inches  before  a  firm  hold  was  obtained." 

As  might  have  been  predicted  from  the  small  size  and  half -rudimentary 
condition  of  its  molar  teeth,  the  food  of  the  sloth-bear  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  fruits,  flowers,  and  insects,  together  with  honey.  Its  favourite  fruits  appear  to  be 
those  of  the  ebony  tree,  the  jujube-plum,  several  kinds  of  figs,  and  the  long  pods  of  the 
cassia.  Whether  grapes,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  form  also  part  of  the  diet  of 
these  bears,  or  whether  this  is  merely  a  fancy  on  the  part  of  the  artist,  we  are  unaware. 
During  the  months  of  February  and  March,  in  many  parts  of  India,  the  beautiful 
fleshy  scarlet  flowers  of  the  mowha  tree  are  nightly  shed  in  great  profusion,  and 
form  a  rich  feast  for  many  denizens  of  the  jungle,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
sloth-bear,  by  whom  these  flowers  are  greatly  relished.  In  addition  to  beetles  and 
their  larvae,  as  well  as  young  bees  and  honey,  the  sloth-bear  is  also  passionately 
fond  of  white  ants  or  termites.  On  this  point  Colonel  Tickell,  as  abridged  by  Dr. 
Jerdon,  observes  that  "  the  power  of  suction  in  this  bear,  as  well  as  of  propelling 
wind  from  its  mouth,  is  very  great.  It  is  by  this  means  it  is  enabled  to  procure 
its  common  food  of  white  ants  and  larvae  with  ease.  On  arriving  at  an  ant-hill, 


30  CARNIVORES. 

the  bear  scrapes  away  with  the  fore-feet  until  he  reaches  the  large  combs  at  the 
bottom  of  the  galleries.  He  then  with  violent  puffs  dissipates  the  dust  and 
crumbled  particles  of  the  nest,  and  sucks  out  the  inhabitants  of  the  comb  by  such 
forcible  inhalations  as  to  be  heard  at  two  hundred  yards'  distance  or  more.  Large 
larvae  are  in  this  way  sucked  out  from  great  depths  under  the  soil.  Where  bears 
abound,  their  vicinity  may  be  readily  known  by  numbers  of  these  uprooted  ants' 
nests  and  excavations,  in  which  the  marks  of  their  claws  are  plainly  visible.  They 
occasionally  rob  birds'  nests  and  devour  the  eggs.  .  .  .  The  sucking  of  the  paw, 
accompanied  by  a  drumming  noise  when  at  rest,  and  especially  after  meals,  is 
common  to  all  bears,  and  during  the  heat  of  the  day  they  may  often  be  heard 
humming  and  puffing  far  down  in  caverns  and  fissures  of  rocks." 

Like  the  fox-bats  and  the  palm-civets,  the  sloth-bear  will  often  visit  the 
vessels  hung  on  the  palm-trees  for  the  sake  of  their  juice,  and  is  said  frequently  to 
become  very  drunk  in  consequence.  Sugar-cane  is  likewise  a  favourite  dainty  of 
these  bears,  which  frequently  do  a  large  amount  of  damage  to  such  crops. 
Although  they  generally  subsist  entirely  on  vegetable  substances  and  insects, 
it  seems  that  they  will  occasionally  eat  flesh ;  Sanderson  mentioning  an  instance 
where  one  of  them  devoured  the  carcase  of  a  recently-killed  muntjac  deer,  the 
proof  that  a  bear  was  the  devourer  being  afforded  by  the  imprints  of  its  feet  in 
the  wet  soil.  The  same  observer  also  mentions  that  he  has  known  bears  gnaw 
the  dry  bones  of  cattle  that  have  died  in  the  jungle. 

With  the  exception  of  the  puffing  and  humming  noises  already  mentioned,  the 
Indian  sloth-bear  is  generally  a  silent  animal.  Mr.  Blanford  states,  however,  that 
'•'  occasionally  they  make  the  most  startling  noise,  whether  connected  with  pairing 
or  not  I  cannot  say.  I  have  only  heard  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season, 
which  is  not  their  usual  pairing-time.  They  occasionally  fight  under  fruit-trees, 
but  I  think  the  noise  then  made  is  rather  different." 

Like  most  other  members  of  the  family,  the  sloth-bear  has  the  sense  of 
hearing  but  poorly  developed,  and  its  eyesight  is  also  far  from  good ;  and  hence 
it  has  a  peculiarly  comical  way  of  peering  about  when  it  suspects  intruders, 
as  though  it  were  short-sighted.  From  these  deficiencies  of  sense  it  can  be 
approached  very  closely  from  the  leeward  side.  Its  sense  of  smell,  is,  however, 
wonderfully  acute,  and  by  its  aid  it  is  enabled  to  detect  concealed  supplies  of 
honey,  and  also  to  scent  out  ants'  nests  when  situated  far  below  the  ground. 

The  number  of  cubs  produced  at  a  birth  is,  as  in  most  bears,  usually  two,  but 
it  appears  that  there  may  sometimes  be  three.  The  young  cubs  are  generally 
carried  on  the  back  of  the  female  when  the  animals  are  on  the  move ;  and  the 
author  last  mentioned  observes  that  it  is  an  amusing  sight  to  watch  the  cubs 
dismount  at  the  feeding-grounds,  and  scramble  back  to  their  seat  at  the  first 
alarm.  We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Sanderson  that  the  cubs  are  carried  about  in 
this  manner  till  they  are  several  months  old  and  have  attained  the  dimensions  of 
a  sheep-dog,  and  that  when  there  is  room  for  only  one  cub  on  the  maternal  back 
the  other  has  perforce  to  walk  by  the  side. 

In  regard  to  their  family  life,  Mr.  Sanderson  observes  that  these  "  bears  are 
exceedingly  affectionate  animals  amongst  themselves,  and  are  capable  of  being  most 
thoroughly  tamed  when  taken  young.  Either  wild  or  tame  they  are  very  amusing 


BEARS.  31 

in  their  ways,  being  exceedingly  demonstrative  and  ridiculous.  Though  hard  to 
kill,  they  are  very  soft  as  to  their  feelings,  and  make  the  most  hideous  outcries 
when  shot  at — not  only  the  wounded  animal,  but  also  its  companions.  It  has 
frequently  been  stated  by  sportsmen  that  if  a  bear  be  wounded  he  immediately 
attacks  his  companions,  thinking  that  they  have  caused  his  injuries.  But  I  think 
this  is  not  quite  correct,  at  least  in  the  majority  of  cases.  I  have  observed  that  a 
wounded  bear's  companions  generally  rush  to  him  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  his 
grief,  joining  the  while  in  his  cries,  when  he,  not  being  in  the  best  of  humours,  lays 
hold  of  them,  and  a  fight  ensues,  really  brought  about  by  the  affectionate  but  ill- 
timed  solicitude  of  his  friends." 

In  commenting  upon  the  latter  portion  of  this  passage,  Mr.  Blanford  supports 
the  old  view  that  the  attack  is  made  directly  by  the  wounded  animal ;  and  one 
instance  is  mentioned  where  he  saw  a  female  when  wounded  immediately  commence 
an  unprovoked  attack  upon  her  two  half -grown  cubs,  which  were  severely  cuffed. 
In  another  case,  when  two  full-grown  bears  were  both  hit,  they  stood  up  and  fought 
on  their  hind-legs,  till  one  fell  dead  from  the  effects  of  the  bullet. 

Although  generally  timid  in  their  nature,  sloth-bears  will  on  rare  occasions 
attack  human  beings  without  provocation,  and  when  they  do  so,  fighting  both  with 
teeth  and  talons,  and  inflicting  terrible  wounds,  more  especially  on  the  head  and 
face.  These  attacks  generally  occur  when  a  bear  is  accidentally  stumbled  upon  by 
a  native  wandering  in  the  jungle,  and  are  then  due  more  to  timidity  than  to 
ferocity.  Mr.  Sanderson  is  of  opinion  that  a  bear,  being  a  slow-witted  animal,  is 
more  likely  to  attack  in  such  a  case  than  is  a  tiger  or  a  leopard,  which  more  rapidly 
collect  their  senses,  and  are  thus  less  embarrassed  by  the  sudden  and  unexpected 
encounter.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  when  thus  surprised  a  sloth-bear  will  some- 
times merely  knock  a  man  over  with  its  paws,  although  thereby  inflicting  severe 
wounds ;  but  on  other  occasions  it  seizes  and  holds  in  its  paws  its  unfortunate 
victim,  who  is  not  released  until  bitten  and  clawed  to  death.  Females  with  young, 
and  occasionally  solitary  bears,  will  at  times  make  unprovoked  attacks  of  great 
ferocity.  The  idea  that  sloth-bears  hug  their  victims  is  scouted  by  both  writers. 

Sloth-bears  are  usually  hunted  in  India  either  by  driving  them  from  cover 
with  a  line  of  beaters,  or  by  the  sportsman  going  to  their  caves  or  lairs  among  the 
rocks  at  daybreak,  and  shooting  them  as  they  return  home  from  their  nightly 
wanderings.  Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  in  the  forests  of  Mysore  he  was  in  the  habit 
of  shooting  bears  by  following  them  with  trackers ;  and  that,  as  they  seldom  left 
off  feeding  before  nine  in  the  morning,  it  was  generally  possible  by  starting  at 
daybreak  to  come  up  with  them  before  they  had  retired  to  rest  for  the  day.  If, 
however,  the  party  did  not  succeed  in  this,  the  bears  would  generally  be  found 
lying  asleep  under  the  shade  of  a  clump  of  bamboos,  or  a  rock,  as  there  were  no 
caves  in  the  district  into  which  they  could  disappear.  Elephants,  it  appears,  have 
a  great  dislike  to  bears,  and  on  this  account,  as  well  as  from  the  rocky  nature  of 
the  country  generally  inhabited  by  these  animals,  are  but  rarely  employed  in  bear- 
shooting.  Mr.  Sanderson  was  also  in  the  habit  of  hunting  bears  with  large  dogs, 
and  despatching  them  when  brought  to  bay  with  his  hunting-knife ;  and  in  this 
exciting  sport  was  very  successful. 

Regarding  the  sport  afforded  by  the  sloth-bear,  the  same  hunter  observes  that 


32  CARNIVORES. 

"  bear-shooting  is  one  of  the  most  entertaining  of  sports.  Some  sportsmen  have 
spoken  disparagingly  of  it,  and  I  daresay  sitting  up  half  the  night  watching  for  a 
bear's  return  to  his  cave,  and  killing  him  without  adventure,  may  be  pooi 
fun.  .  .  .  But  bear-shooting  conducted  on  proper  principles,  with  two  or  three 
bears  afoot  together,  lacks  neither  excitement  nor  amusement.  It  is  not  very 
dangerous  sport,  as  the  animal  can  be  so  easily  seen,  whilst  he  is  not  so  active  as  a 
tiger  or  a  panther.  Still  he  is  very  tough,  and  to  anyone  who  would  value  him 
for  his  demonstrations,  he  would  appear  sufficiently  formidable.  If  a  bear  charges 
he  can  generally  be  killed  without  more  ado  by  a  shot  in  the  head  when  within 
two  paces.  The  belief  that  a  bear  rises  on  his  hind-legs  when  near  his  adversary 
and  thus  offers  a  shot  at  the  horseshoe  mark  on  his  chest,  is  groundless.  I  have  sho1 
several  bears  within  a  few  feet,  and  they  were  still  coming  on  on  all-fours.  No 
doubt  when  a  bear  reaches  his  man  he  rises  to  claw  and  bite  him,  but  not  before." 

Jerdon   states    that    in    the   extreme   south    of    India,   among   certain    hill- 
tribes  known  as  Polygars,  sloth-bears  used  to  be  hunted  with  large  dogs,  am 
when  brought  to  bay  were  attacked  by  the  hunters  with  long  poles  smeared  at  the 
end  with  bird-lime.     The  bird-lime  caused  the  shaggy  coat  of  the  bears  to  become 
fixed  to  the  end  of  the  pole,  so  that  the  animals  soon  became  firmly  held.     A  single 
fragment  of  a  bone  of  the  fore-limb  discovered  in  a  cave  in  Madras  proves  that  the 
sloth-bear  has  been  an  inhabitant  of  India  since  a  period  when  several  kinds  o: 
extinct  mammals  flourished  there.     And  the   extinct   Theobald's  bear  from  the 
Siwalik  Hills,  mentioned  on  p.  26,  serves  to   indicate   that   the   sloth-bear  is  a 
specially-modified  form  derived  from  bears  belonging  to  the  typical  genus,  since  the 
skull  of  that  extinct  species  presents  characters  intermediate  between  those  o: 
ordinary  bears  and  that  of  the  sloth-bear. 

THE  PARTI-COLOURED  BEAR. 
Genus  ^Muropus. 

A  large  number  of  the  mammals  from  the  highlands  of  Tibet  belong  to  type 
quite  unlike  those  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  and  in  no  case  is  this 
dissimilarity  more  marked  than  in  the  animal  which  may  be  termed  the  parti 
coloured  bear  (JEHuropus  melanoleucus). 

This  strange  animal,  which  has  been  known  to  European  science  only  since 
the  year  1869,  is  of  the  approximate  dimensions  of  a  small  brown  bear,  and  has  a 
general  bear-like  aspect,  although  differing  from  all  the  other  members  of  the 
family  in  its  parti-coloured  coat.  The  fur  is  long  and  close,  with  a  thick,  woolly 
under-fur.  The  general  colour  is  white,  but  the  eyes  are  surrounded  with  black 
rings,  the  small  ears  are  also  black,  while  the  shoulders  are  marked  by  a  transverse 
stripe  of  the  same  colour  gradually  increasing  in  width  as  it  approaches  the  fore 
limbs,  which  are  also  entirely  black,  as  are  likewise  the  hind-limbs.  This  peculiar 
coloration  communicates  a  most  extraordinary  appearance  to  the  creature ;  anc 
without  knowing  more  of  its  natural  surroundings  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  the 
object  of  such  a  staring  contrast.  The  tail  is  extremely  short ;  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet  are  hairy. 


BEARS. 


33 


In  addition  to  these  external  characteristics,  the  parti-coloured  bear  also 
presents  some  peculiar  features  in  regard  to  the  skull  and  teeth.  Thus  the  skull  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  width  of  the  zygomatic  arches  and  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  longitudinal  ridge  on  the  upper-surface  of  the  brain-case,  both  these 
features  indicating  greater  power  of  jaw  than  has  at  present  been  found  in  any 
other  member  of  the  entire  carnivorous  order.  Then,  again,  the  teeth  differ  both  in 
number  and  form  from  those  of  all  the  other  Ursidse.  Instead  of  the  forty-two  teeth, 
characteristic  of  the  typical  bears,  the  parti-coloured  bear  has  but  forty  teeth,  all 
told ;  the  diminution  in  number  being  due  to  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar 


THE  PARTI-COLOURED  BEAR. 


teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  As  regards  form,  the  molar  teeth  are  distinguished  from 
those  of  other  bears  by  their  shorter  and  wider  crowns ;  this  being  most  marked  in 
the  first  molar  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  broader  than  it  is  long.  The  second 
upper  molar  tooth  agrees,  however,  with  the  corresponding  tooth  of  other  bears  in 
being  longer  than  the  one  in  front  of  it.  The  pattern  formed  by  the  tubercles 
on  the  crowns  of  these  teeth  is  exceedingly  complex,  and  approaches  to  that 
obtaining  in  the  panda,  among  the  raccoon  family,  to  be  noticed  in  the  next 
chapter. 

The  parti-coloured  bear  is  reported  to  inhabit  the  most  inaccessible  districts  of 
Eastern  Tibet,  and  to  be  of  extremely  rare  occurrence.  Unfortunately  we  are 
at  present  quite  ignorant  of  its  habits,  although  it  is  said  to  feed  chiefly  on  roots 
and  the  young  shoots  of  bamboos,  and  to  be  entirely  herbivorous. 

VOL.   II. — 3 


CARNIVORES. 


EXTINCT  BEAR-LIKE  GENERA. 

At  the  close  of  the  preceding  volume  it  has  been  mentioned,  that,  unlike 
as  modern  dogs  and  bears  are  to  each  other,  yet  both  families  are  merely 
divergent  branches  from  a  common  stock.  In  that  passage  we  referred  only 
to  those  extinct  animals  most  nearly  related  to  the  modern  dogs,  and  it  was 
then  shown  that  the  so-called  amphicyon  of  the  Miocene  and  upper  part  of  the 
Eocene  period  appeared  to  be  a  dog  with  one  more  pair  of  upper  molar  teeth 
than  the  true  dogs,  and  approaching  the  bears  in  its  plantigrade  feet.  We 
have  now  to  allude  to  the  extinct  genera  more  nearly  allied  to  the  modern 
bears.  The  first  of  these  is  a  bear-like  animal  from  the  superficial  deposits  of 
South  America,  known  as  the  arctothere.  This  animal,  of  which  the  left  side  of 

the  palate  is  shown  on  a  greatly- 
reduced  scale  in  the  accompanying 
figure,  had  the  same  number  of 
teeth  as  the  true  bears.  The  upper 
molar  teeth  (the  two  on  the  right 
side  of  the  figure)  are,  however, 
relatively  shorter  and  wider  than 
in  the  latter,  and  the  second  is  not 
greatly  larger  than  the  first.  Then, 
THE  LEFT  HALF  OF  THE  UPPER  JAW  OF  THE  ARCTOTHERE—  again,  the  upper  flesh  -  tooth  (the 

AN      EXTINCT      SOUTH      AMERICAN      BEAR  -  LIKE     ANIMAL  ,,    .      -.    P  •     i    ,      •        ,1 

(much  reduced).  third  from  the  ngh*   m  the  %ure) 

is    much    larger  than    in   modern 

bears,  and  is  thus  more  like  the  corresponding  teeth  of  other  Carnivores.  Further, 
the  upper  arm-bone,  or  humerus,  has  a  perforation  at  its  lower  end,  which  is  not 
found  in  any  living  dog  or  bear,  although  occurring  in  the  extinct  amphicyon. 

Another  type  is  the  so-called  hyaenarctus,  of  which  large  species  occur  in  the 
Siwalik  Hills  of  India  and  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Europe,  while  smaller  ones  are 
found  in  the  European  Miocene  strata ;  the  two  upper  molar 
teeth  of  one  of  the  latter  being  shown  in  the  accompanying 
woodcut.  In  these  animals  the  upper  molars  (as  in  our 
illustration)  were  sometimes  oblong,  with  the  second  not 
longer  than  the  first ;  while,  in  other  cases,  they  were  more 
or  less  completely  triangular,  and  thus  but  little  different 
SMALL  in  form  from  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  dogs.  The 
most  important  difference  from  the  bears  occurs,  however,  in 
the  form  of  the  flesh-tooth  in  both  jaws ;  these  teeth  being 

very  similar  to  those  of  the  dogs,  and  of  a  thoroughly  carnivorous  type.  Whereas, 
however,  the  upper  flesh-tooth  of  the  dogs  has  but  two  lobes  to  its  cutting  blade, 
that  of  the  hysenarctus  had  three  such  lobes.  That  the  hygenarctus  was  a 
thoroughly  carnivorous  animal,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt.  Another 
Miocene  Carnivore,  known  as  the  hemicyon,  has  still  more  dog-like  teeth;  and 
the  transition  from  this  animal  to  the  plantigrade  and  dog-like  amphicyon  is, 
therefore,  scarcely  more  than  a  step,  so  that  the  passage  from  the  dog-like  bears  to 
the  bear-like  dogs  is  practically  complete. 


THE      LEFT      UPPER       MOLAR 
TEETH     OF     A 
SPECIES        OF         HY.3EN 

ARCTUS.— After  Koken. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 


CARNIVORES, — continued. 

THE  RACCOON  FAMILY. 

Family  PROCYONID^!. 

THE  raccoons  and  their  allies  constitute  a  very  small  family  of  Carnivores,  which, 
with  the  exception  of  one  outlying  and  somewhat  aberrant  genus,  are  confined  to 
America,  and  are  very  characteristic  of  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  that 
continent.  Their  nearest  allies  are  the  bears,  with  which  they  appear  to  be 
connected  by  the  panda,  of  which  the  teeth  present  some 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  parti-coloured  bear.  The  skull 
has  the  same  essential  characteristics  as  in  the  bears,  and 
the  accompanying  illustration  of  the  right  half  of  the  skull 
in  one  of  the  raccoons  is  intended  to  show  the  position 
of  the  tympanic  bulla,  and  its  general  form  and  relations  in 
the  present  family  and  in  the  two  allied  families  of  the 
bears  and  the  weasels. 

The  raccoons  agree  with  the  bears  in  their  plantigrade 
feet  (as  is  well  exhibited  in  our  figure  of  the  panda),  but 
differ  in  that  they  have  only  two,  in  place  of  three,  molar 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are,  more- 
over (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure),  usually  of  the 
same  general  type  as  those  of  the  dogs,  having  squared  or 
triangular  crowns,  and  being  generally  elongated  in  the 
transverse  rather  than  in  the  antero-posterior  direction ; 
while  the  second  of  these  teeth  is  smaller,  instead  of  larger, 
than  the  first.  Moreover,  the  flesh  -  tooth  in  each  jaw 
approaches  the  ordinary  carnivorous  type,  and  is  thus 
very  different  from  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  modern 
bears ;  it  has,  however,  three  lobes  to  the  blade,  and  a  very 
large  inner  tubercular  portion. 

The  members  of  the  raccoon  family  are  all  animals 
of  comparatively  small  size;  and  they  differ  markedly  in 
general  appearance  from  the  bears  in  having  well-developed 
tails,  which  may  be  of  great  length.  Very  generally  the 
hair  of  the  tail  is  marked  by  alternate  dark  and  light  rings. 
The  whole  of  these  animals  are  good  climbers,  and  they 
are  generally  of  more  or  less  exclusively  nocturnal  habits. 


THE  RIGHT  HALF  OF  THE 
PALATAL  ASPECT  OF  THE 
SKULL  OF  THE  CACO- 
MISTLE. 


The  letters  am.  indicate 
the  entrance  to  the  tympanic 
bulla,  which  is  the  swelling 
between  that  and  the  point 
indicated  by  car.  The  other 
letters  indicate  the  various 
foramina,  etc.  (From  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.—  After  Sir  W.  H. 
Flower.) 


36  CARNIVORES. 

It  is  noteworthy  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  one  Old  World  genus,  no  remains 
of  this  family  have  ever  been  discovered  beyond  the  limits  of  the  New  World. 


THE  PANDA. 
Genus 


The  curious  animal  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  and  known 
as  the  panda  (JElurus  fulgens),  is  one  in  regard  to  whose  serial  position  there  has 
been  much  diversity  of  opinion.  It  was  at  one  time  placed  in  the  bear  family, 
next  to  the  parti-coloured  bear;  while  it  has  also  been  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  distinct  family  by  itself.  Mr.  Blanford  has,  however,  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  its  true  position  is  in  the  raccoon  family,  and  it  is  probable  that 
this  view  will  be  pretty  generally  adopted  in  the  future. 

The  panda,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  red  cat-bear,  is  restricted  to  the  South- 
Eastern  Himalaya,  and  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  large  cat.  Externally  it  is 
characterised  by  its  broad  and  rounded  head,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  extremely 
short,  the  small  eyes  are"  directed  forwards,  and  the  ears  are  of  considerable  size. 
The  stout  limbs  are  furnished  with  large,  curved,  and  sharp  claws,  which  can  be 
partially  retracted  ;  and  the  soles  of  the  large  feet  are  covered  with  hair.  The 
tail  is  long  and  rather  thick,  its  length  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  body,  or 
rather  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  of  the  head  and  body  together.  The  fur  is 
long  and  thick,  with  a  woolly  under-fur. 

In  colour,  a  large  portion  of  the  fur  of  the  panda  is  a  bright,  rusty  red,  of 
somewhat  variable  shade  ;  this  colour  prevailing  on  the  back,  the  upper  part 
of  the  head,  and  the  darker  rings  on  the  tail.  The  forehead  is  of  a  lighter  tint  of 
red,  as  are  also  the  paler  rings  on  the  tail,  its  tip  being  black.  The  under-parts 
and  the  inner-surfaces  of  the  limbs  are  black,  tending  to  a  brownish  tint  on  the 
abdomen.  The  face,  like  the  lower  lips,  is  white,  except  for  a  vertical  stripe  of 
red  proceeding  from  each  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, as  in  the  specimen  here  figured,  there  is  also  a  red  stripe  running  down 
the  middle  of  the  nose.  The  inner  surface  of  the  ears  •are  also  white,  as  are  also 
the  claws.  A  large  male  panda  measured  24  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to 
the  root  of  the  tail  ;  while  the  length  of  the  tail  was  17  inches  without  the  hair 
at  the  end,  and  19£  inclusive  of  the  hair.  Other  specimens  measured  respectively 
20  and  22  inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail. 

It  is,  however,  not  only  externally  that  the  panda  is  a  remarkable  creature. 
In  its  skull  and  teeth  it  is  very  unlike  other  Carnivores.  Thus  the  skull  is 
remarkably  short,  with  the  profile  from  the  front  teeth  to  the  occiput  forming  a 
regular  curve,  which  approximates  to  a  semicircle.  The  lower  jaw  is  also 
remarkable  for  its  extremely  convex  and  regularly-curved  inferior  border,  and 
also  for  the  great  length  of  the  portion  which  ascends  on  the  sides  of  the  skull. 
The  total  number  of  teeth  in  the  panda  is  38,  of  which,  on  each  side  of  the  jaws. 
§  are  incisors,  J-  incisors,  f  premolars,  and  f  molars.  The  canines,  or  tusks,  are 
of  no  great  size,  but  are  remarkably  flattened  from  side  to  side.  The  upper 
molars  have  very  wide  crowns,  which  are  nearly  square  in  outline,  and  carry 


RACCOON  FAMILY. 


37 


r  main  tubercles  and  an  inner  ridge ;  while  the  flesh-tooth  in  each  jaw  differs 
from  that  of  all  other  members  of  the  family  in  presenting  but  little  approximation 
to  the  ordinary  carnivorous  type;  being,  indeed,  more  like  that  of  the  parti- 
coloured bear. 

There  appears  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  the  name  panda,  by  which 
the  animal  is  very  generally  known  in  this  country,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  a 
corruption  of  the  Nipalese  niyalya-ponga ;  the  latter  name,  according  to  Mr. 
Blanford,  meaning  bamboo-eater.  It  is  also  known  in  Nipal  as  the  wah.  The 
panda  is  unknown  in  the  Himalaya  to  the  westward  of  Nipal ;  but  it  there  lives 
at  elevations  of  from  seven  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet.  Its  eastward  range 


THE  PANDA.     (From  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. — After  Sclater.) 

extends  through  the  mountains  to  the  north  of  Assam  into  the  Chinese  province 
of  Yunnan. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  habits  of  the  panda  was  published  many  years 
ago  by  Mr.  Brian  Hodgson,  of  which  the  following  is  a  summary : — As  we  might 
have  supposed  from  the  structure  of  its  teeth,  the  animal  is  mainly  herbivorous. 
It  is  also  an  excellent  climber,  although  feeding  chiefly  on  the  ground,  and  having 
its  retreat  and  breeding-place  in  holes  and  clefts  of  the  rocks.  Its  chief  food  is  com- 
posed of  various  fruits,  acorns,  the  young  shoots  of  bamboos,  roots,  etc.  It  will, 
however,  also  eat  eggs,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether,  as  asserted,  it  will  touch  insects 
or  their  larvae,  while  recent  observers  are  in  accord  as  to  its  habitual  rejection  of 
all  kinds  of  flesh.  Hodgson  states  that  it  will  sometimes  steal  down  to  the  villages 
and  feast  on  milk  and  butter.  These  animals  feed  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and 


38  CARNIVORES. 

sleep  much  during  the  day,  although  they  are  by  no  moans  exclusively  nocturnal 
in  their  habits.  On  the  ground,  their  movements  are  somewhat  awkward  and 
ungainly ;  and  they  are  generally  sluggish  and  stupid  in  disposition,  and  allow 
themselves  to  be  captured  without  much  difficulty.  They  hiss  and  spit  like  cats 
when  angered,  and  occasionally  utter  a  low  deep  growl,  somewhat  like  that  of  a 
young  bear.  According  to  Mr.  Hodgson  they  drink  by  lapping  with  the  tongue, 
but,  from  observations  made  on  specimens  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  this 
is  denied  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Bartlett,  who  states  that  they  drink  by  putting  their  noses 
to  the  ground,  after  the  fashion  of  a  bear.  They  generally  sleep  curled  up  side- 
ways, with  the  head  concealed  by  the  thick  tail,  but  will  also  frequently  repose 
by  sitting  down  on  their  haunches  with  the  head  tucked  in  between  the  fore-paws, 
their  habits  being  very  similar  to  those  of  some  of  the  raccoons. 

In  addition  to  the  cries  already  mentioned,  it  appears  from  the  account  of  an 
observer  who  watched  a  pair  of  these  animals  high  up  in  the  trees  near  Darjiling, 
that  the  panda  will  at  certain  times — probably  the  breeding-season — utter  loud  and 
somewhat  unearthly  cries,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  They 
call  one  another  by  a  kind  of  chirping  cry.  The  panda  is  a  quite  harmless,  and 
apparently  an  almost  defenceless  animal,  its  sharp  and  partially  retractile  claws 
being  evidently  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  climbing,  rather  than  as  weapons  of 
offence  or  defence. 

The  young,  generally  two  in  number,  are  born  in  a  nest  formed  in  some  hollow 
tree  or  cavity  among  rocks.  They  are  produced  in  the  spring,  and  are  helpless  for 
a  long  period.  It  is  stated  that  the  cubs  of  one  litter  remain  with  the  parent,  till 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  a  second  brood. 

In  captivity  these  animals  are  gei  \e  and  easily  tamed,  even  when  not 
captured  until  they  have  attained  ma  -ity.  In  this  country  they  require 
great  care  and  attention,  from  their  reme  susceptibility  to  cold;  but  in 
the  more  congenial  climate  of  Calcutta,  uiey  thrive  well  in  cages  placed  in  the 
open  air. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  an  extinct  species  of  panda,  about  half  as 
large  again  as  the  living  form,  once  flourished  in  England.  This  is  proved  by  the 
occurrence  of  teeth  and  fragments  of  jaws  in  the  so-called  Red  Crag  of  the  Suffolk 
coast,  which  belongs  to  the  Pliocene  period.  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the 
genus  was  once  widely  spread  over  the  O]  ~  World  ;  while  its  occurrence  in  England 
proves  that  -the  country  must  have  been  .  ^rmerly  thickly  covered  with  forest,  and 
have  enjoyed  a  climate  of  a  subtropical  n  ,ure. 


THE  RACCOONS. 
Genus  Procyon. 

The  widely  -  known  raccoons,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  species,  are 
the  typical  representatives  of  the  family,  and,  like  all  the  remaining  forms,  they 
are  exclusively  American.  These  animals  have  a  total  of  forty  teeth,  or  two  more 
than  in  the  panda,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  whole  of  the  four  typical  pairs  of 
premolars  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  cheek-teeth  differ  from  those  of  the  latter  in 


RACCOON  FAMILY.  39 

being  more  like  the  ordinary  carnivorous  type ;  while  the  skull  has  not  the  short 
and  convex  form  of  the  panda's. 

Externally,  the  raccoons  are  characterised  by  their  thickly-built  and  stout 
bodies,  their  heads  broad  behind  but  tapering  to  a  sharp  point  at  the  muzzle,  and 
their  medium-sized  and  distinctly-ringed  tails.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded. 
When  walking,  the  entire  sole  of  the  foot  is  not  applied  to  the  ground,  as  it  is  when 
the  animal  is  standing  at  rest ;  while  the  toes  themselves,  and  more  especially  those 
of  the  fore-feet,  can  be  spread  out  very  widely.  The  compressed  and  curved  nails 
differ  from  those  of  the  panda  in  being  entirely  non-retractile.  The  fur  is 
characterised  by  its  length,  softness,  and  thickness,  and  is  greatly  developed  on  the 
tail,  but  is  very  short  on  the  feet,  of  which  the  soles  are  naked. 

The  best-known  species  is  the  common  raccoon  (Procyon  lotor),  of  which  a 
group  is  represented  on  the  next  page.  The  total  length  of  this  animal  varies 
from  about  32  to  36  inches,  of  which  some  10  inches  are  occupied  by  the  tail.  The 
body  is  covered  with  thick  and  rather  coarse  fur,  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  with  the 


SKELETON   OF 


tips  of  the  hairs  greyish ;  but  there  is  a  distinct  black  patch  on  either  side  of  the 
face,  including  the  eyes,  and  the  muzzle  is  naked.  The  tail  has  five  black  rings, 
separated  by  others  of  a  whitish  colour,  and  its  tip  is  black.  When  in  its  best  con- 
dition, which  is  usually  in  the  autumn,  a  raccoon  will  weigh  from  15  to  25  Ibs. 
There  is  considerable  local  variation  in-  '-e  colour  of  this  species ;  the  coloration 
being  most  brilliant  in  the  southern  pOl'ix^n  of  its  range,  where  its  bodily  size  is 
also  greater  than  in  the  north.  The  conl/iion  raccoon  is  confined  to  Northern  and 
Central  America,  extending  from  Alaska  in  the  north  to  Costa  Rica  in  the  south, 
and  occurring  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  where  these  animals  used  to 
be  among  the  commonest. 

The  best  of  the  recent  accounts  of  this  raccoon  is  given  by  Dr. 
Habits.  J 

Hart  Merriam,  who  tells  us  that  raccoons  are  exceedingly  common 

about  the  borders  of  the  Adirondacks,  but  avoid  the  dense  evergreen  forests  of 
the  interior.  Although,  with  the  exception  of  bats  and  flying  squirrels,  they  are 
the  most  strictly  nocturnal  of  all  North  American  Mammals,  yet  they  may 
occasionally  be  seen  abroad  on  cloudy  days.  In  diet  they  are  thoroughly  car- 
nivorous— feeding  upon  mice,  young  birds,  birds'  eggs,  fresh-water  tortoises  and 


40  CARNIVORES. 

their  eggs,  frogs,  fish,  cray-fish,  molluscs,  insects,  nuts  and  fruits  and  corn  ;  while 
they  will  sometimes  kill  and  eat  domestic  poultry.  They  delight  to  sport  in  the 
shallow  water  on  the  margins  of  pools  and  streams,  where  they  capture  the  cray- 
fish lurking  beneath  the  stones,  and  the  fresh-water  mussels  buried  in  the  mud 
and  sand.  They  also  catch  such  fish  as  happen  to  get  stranded  or  detained  in  the 
small  pools  near  the  shore,  although  they  are  unable  to  dive  in  pursuit  of  their 


prey.  They  are,  however,  good  swimmers.  Although  first-rate  climbers,  anc 
making  their  nests  in  a  hollow  high  up  in  some  large  tree,  raccoons  cannot  be 
considered  by  any  means  thoroughly  arboreal  animals.  Thus  they  neither  hunl 
their  prey  among  the  tree-tops,  nor  gather  nuts  and  fruits  from  the  branches,  nor 
do  they  feed  upon  the  young  shoots  and  twigs.  Trees  form,  however,  their  resting 
and  their  breeding-places,  and  likewise  their  refuge  when  pursued  by  human  or 
other  foes.  With  the  falling  shades  of  night  they  invariably  descend  to  hunt  their 
prey  and  search  for  food. 


RACCOON  FAMILY.  41 

Continuing  our  account  in  Dr.  Merriam's  own  words,  we  find  that  in  the 
Ldirondack  region  "  the  raccoon  hibernates  during  the  severest  part  of  the  winter, 
^tiring  to  his  nest  rather  early,  and  appearing  again  in  February  or  March, 
^cording  to  the  earliness  or  lateness  of  the  season.  Disliking  to  wade  through 
deep  snow  he  does  not  come  out  much  till  the  alternate  thawing  and  freezing  of 
the  surface,  suggestive  of  coming  spring,  makes  a  hard  crust  upon  which  he  can 
run  with  ease.  He  does  not  usually  walk  many  miles  during  a  single  night,  and 
consequently  is  soon  tracked  to  the  tree,  in  some  hole  of  which  he  has  retired  for 
the  day.  It  is  unusual  to  find  a  raccoon  alone,  for  they  commonly  live  and  travel 
in  small  companies,  consisting  of  the  several  members  of  a  single  family.  They  do 
not  return  to  the  same  nest  every  morning,  but  often  make  little  excursions  in 
various  directions,  being  gone  several  days  at  a  time,  and  taking  refuge,  about  day- 
light, in  any  convenient  arboreal  shelter.  Though  preferring  a  hollow  limb  high 
up  in  some  giant  elm,  ash,  or  basswood,  they  will  put  up  with  almost  any  kind  of 
a  hollow  trunk.  I  have  known  them  to  spend  the  day  in  old  stubs,  in  hollow  logs, 
and  even  in  the  poor  shelter  afforded  by  the  angle  where  a  falling  tree  had  lodged 
in  a  crutch."  Probably,  in  Central  America  and  the  more  southern  districts  of 
North  America,  this  raccoon  remains  active  throughout  the  winter,  as  the  climate 
would  not  necessitate  any  hibernation.  In  the  Adirondacks  the  young  are 
produced  in  the  spring — generally  during  the  month  of  April ;  and  there  are 
usually  from  four  to  six  in  a  litter.  They  remain  with  their  parent  about  a 
twelvemonth.  The  nest  which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  placed  high  up  in  a 
tree,  has  but  little  care  bestowed  upon  its  construction. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  this  raccoon  is  in  the  habit  of  moistening  its  food 
with  water  before  eating  it ;  and  it  doubtless  received  its  distinctive  specific  name 
from  this  habit,  which  has  been  of  late  years  verified  by  Mr.  Bartlett's  observa- 
tions on  specimens  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens.  The  raccoon  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  North  America,  and  is  consequently 
much  persecuted.  Raccoon  skins  were  formerly  used  as  a  recognised  circulating 
medium  in  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  were  usually  valued  at  25 
cents  apiece. 

According  to  Mr.  D.  Arrowsmith,  the  raccoon  may  be  easily  caught  in  steel 
traps ;  but  it  is  essential  that  these  should  be  set  under  water  near  the  margins 
of  swamps  or  streams.  The  more  sporting  method  is,  however,  to  hunt  these 
animals  at  night  with  specially  -  trained  dogs,  which  are  usually  a  breed  of 
fox-hounds.  It  has  often  been  stated  that  the  raccoon  leaves  a  very  faint  foot- 
scent  ;  but  this  opinion  is  controverted  by  Mr.  Arrowsmith,  who  states  that  he  has 
known  a  hound  hunt  a  raccoon  at  midday  over  snow,  on  a  trail  which  had  been 
made  the  previous  night.  The  raccoons,  after  a  short  run,  invariably  take  to  the 
tree,  where  they  are  shot  by  the  hunter,  unless  they  conceal  themselves  in  a  hole. 
Crab-Eating  The  crab  -  eating  raccoon  (P.  cancrivorus)  is  a  nearly-allied 

Raccoon.  South  American  species,  distinguished  by  its  superior  dimensions  and 
its  much  shorter  fur,  as  well  as  by  its  proportionately  larger  teeth.  It  is  found 
typically  from  Panama  to  Colombia  and  Guiana ;  but  Professor  Mivart  is  of  opinion 
that  the  raccoons  found  further  to  the  south,  and  extending  through  Brazil  to 
Paraguay,  are  entitled  to  rank  as  a  distinct  species,  on  account  of  their  darker 


42  CARNIVORES. 

feet.  The  name  of  black-footed  raccoon  has,  accordingly,  been  proposed  for  this 
southern  form.  These  raccoons  are  very  common  in  certain  districts,  and  appear 
to  agree  closely  in  habits  with  their  northern  cousin. 


THE  CACOMISTLES. 
Genus  Bassaris. 

The  cacomistles,  of  which  the  skull  is  shown  on  p.-  35,  are  animals  nearly 
allied  to  the  raccoons,  but  of  more  slender  build,  with  a  sharper  muzzle,  longer  tail, 
less  perfectly  plantigrade  feet,  and  teeth  of  a  more  typically  carnivorous  type. 

The  common  cacomistle  (Bassaris  astuta),  represented  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  It  is  covered  with 


THE  CACOMISTLE  (i  nat.  size). 

long  and  soft  fur ;  and  has  also  well-developed  and  pointed  ears,  of  which  the  outer 
surfaces  are  nearly  naked.  The  feet  have  naked  pads,  but  are  otherwise  hairy ; 
and  their  short  claws  are  partially  retractile.  In  size  this  animal  may  be  compared 
to  a  cat,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  being  about  17£  inches,  and  that  of  the 
tail  (including  the  hair  at  the  end)  nearly  the  same.  The  general  colour  is 
brownish-yellow  mixed  with  grey  on  the  upper-parts,  and  whitish  below ;  but  the 
tips  of  the  ears,  and  two  pieces  of  spots  above  and  below  the  eyes,  are  yellowish-white. 
The  bushy  tail,  which  differs  from  that  of  the  raccoons  in  being  depressed  instead 
of  cylindrical,  has  a  black  tip  and  seven  or  eight  blackish-brown  rings,  separated 
by  white  intervals. 

This  animal  dwells  among  rocks  and  trees ;  and  although,  on  account  of  its 
purely  nocturnal  habits,  but  seldom  seen,  is  far  from  uncommon  in  certain 
localities.  Like  the  raccoons  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  makes  a  pretty  pet,  being 
sometimes  kept  for  the  purpose  of  killing  rats  and  mice.  It  is,  however,  for  its 
size,  a  bold  and  ferocious  animal,  and  is  reported  to  be  very  destructive  to  poultry. 
Cacomistles  prefer  woods  well  supplied  with  water,  and  make  their  nests  in 


RACCOON  FAMILY.  43 

the  holes  of  trees.  The  natives  are  in  the  habit  of  finding  out  whether  such  a  hole 
is  tenanted  by  a  cacomistle,  by  noting  if  the  bark  surrounding  the  aperture 
1ms  been  removed;  this  removal  of  the  bark  being  an  invariable  custom  of  the 
animal.  From  three  to  four  young  are  produced  at  a  birth.  B.  astuta  is  in 
the  habit  of  carrying  its  tail  bent  back  over  its  back.  The  only  other  species  is 
Sumichrast's  cacomistle  (B.  sumichrasti)  from  Central  America. 

Another  raccoon-like  type  of  animal  has  been  named  Bassaricyon,  and  is  at 
present  known  to  science  only  by  a  single  skull  from  Costa  Rica,  and  a  skin  from 
Ecuador.  These  animals,  which  are  probably  extremely  rare,  have  the  same 
number  of  teeth  as  the  raccoons,  but  approximate  so  closely  in  appearance  to  the 
under-mentioned  kinkajou,  that  they  are  probably  often  mistaken  for  it  by 
collectors.  Mr.  O.  Thomas  considers  that  the  resemblance  of  the  two  animals  is  a 
case  of  true  mimicry,  although  he  is  unable  to  imagine  of  what  advantage  it  can  be 
for  the  bassaricyon  to  be  mistaken  for  a  kinkajou. 

THE  COATIS. 
Genus  Nasua. 

The  coatis,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  coatimundis,  are  easily  recognised  by 
the  great  length  of  their  snouts,  on  which  account  they  are  called  by  the  Germans 
Rilsselbdren  (proboscis*- bears).  They  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  the 
raccoons,  but  the  tusks,  or  canines,  are  longer  and  more  flattened ;  while,  in  con- 
formity with  the  length  of  the  snout,  the  skull  is  relatively  longer  and  narrower. 

The  snout,  which  is  naked  at  the  tip,  is  somewhat  upturned,  and  projects  far 
beyond  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw,  as  is  well  shown  in  our  coloured  Plate ;  it 
is  capable  of  a  considerable  amount  of  motion.  The  body  is  long,  and  rather 
flattened,  and  the  tapering  tail  is  also  elongated  and  of  considerable  depth.  The 
toes  are  more  closely  connected  together  than  the  raccoons,  and  are  provided  with 
longer  and  stouter  claws.  There  are  two  species  of  coatis.  One  of  these,  the 
white-nosed  coati  (Nasua  nasica),  which  is  the  species  represented  in  the  coloured 
Plate,  inhabits  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is  characterised  by  the  white 
nose  and  upper  lip,  the  dark  brown  fac.e  and  cheeks,  arid  the  length  and  softness 
of  its  fur.  In  colour  the  long  hairs  of  the  back  are  tipped  with  either -rufous, 
fulvous,  or  whitish ;  and  the  tail  is  frequently  of  the  same  colour  as  the  back, 
though  it  may  have  dark  and  light  rings  on  the  under-side  of  the  basal  half,  or,  as 
in  our  illustration,  complete  rings. 

The  second  species  is  the  red  coati  (N.  rufa),  inhabiting  South  America  from 
Surinam  to  Paraguay.  In  this  species  the  fur  is  generally  short  and  harsh,  with 
the  longer  hairs  on  the  back  tipped  with  black.  The  ears  are  relatively  larger  and 
more  hairy  ;  and  the  tail  is  invariably  marked  with  from  seven  to  nine  broad  fulvous 
or  rufous  rings  alternating  with  black  ones  ;  its  tip  being  black.  Both  species  are 
subject,  however,  to  considerable  individual  variations  of  colour,  and  the  distinction 
between  them  is  sometimes  difficult  to  make  out. 

These  animals  usually  go  about  in  small  troops,  comprising  from 
about  eight  to  twenty  individuals ;  and  are  mainly  arboreal.     Their 


44  CARNIVORES. 

food  includes  fruits,  young  birds,  eggs,  lizards,  and  insects.  In  Costa  Rica  they  are 
found  in  the  mountains  at  elevations  of  from  six  thousand  to  seven  thousand  feet. 
In  Nicaragua  Mr.  Belt  observed  them  hunting  the  large  lizards  known  as  iguanas. 
When,  however,  an  iguana  was  surprised  by  a  coati,  it  immediately  fell  from  the 
bough  on  which  it  was  reposing  to  the  ground,  and  thence  escaped  to  another. 
Nothing  daunted,  the  coati  would  renew  the  pursuit  again  and  again.  Frequently 
the  coatis  would  divide  their  troop  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  made  its  way 
through  the  branches  above,  while  the  other  hunted  on  the  ground  below,  so 
that  any  prey  which  might  fall  from  the  trees  had  but  a  poor  chance  of  escape. 
In  Guatemala  coatis  are  among  the  most  common  of  all  mammals,  and  may 
be  found  at  all  elevations  in  the  mountain-forests,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  up 
to  nine  thousand  feet.  They  are  very  readily  tamed,  and  are  often  kept  by  the 
Spaniards  in  South  America  chained  to  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  corridor 
surrounding  the  courtyards  of  their  houses. 

That  coatis  are  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  South  America  is  proved  by  the 
occurrence  of  their  fossilised  remains  side  by  side  with  those  of  many  extinct 
mammals  in  the  caverns  of  Lagoa  Santa,  in  Brazil.  They  are  also  represented  in 
deposits  of  still  earlier  age  in  Argentina,  where  the  species  have  been  referred  to  a 
distinct  genus  (Cynonasua). 

THE  KINKAJOU. 
Genus  Cercoleptes. 

THE  last  representative  of  the  Raccoon  family  is  the  kinkajou,  or  jupura  (C. 
caudivolvulus),  which  is  the  most  arboreal  form  of  all,  and  is  distinguished  by  its 
prehensile  tail — a  character  possessed  by  it  in  common  with  the  Indian  binturong. 
The  kinkajou  is  distinguished  from  the  other  American  members  of  the  family  by 
having  but  thirty-six  teeth,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  pair  of  premolars 
in  each  jaw.  It  is  a  long  and  rather  low-bodied  animal,  with  a  rounded  and 
broad  head,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  short,  and  the  front  of  the  nose  marked  by 
a  median  vertical  groove.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded.  The  limbs  are  short, 
with  naked  soles  to  the  feet,  and  long,  powerful,  and  much  curved  claws.  The 
tail,  which,  as  we  have  said,  is  prehensile,  is  cylindrical,  of  moderate  thickness,  and  of 
great  relative  length,  being  fully  as  long  as  the  head  and  body  together.  The 
animal  is  further  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  its  tongue,  which  can  be 
protruded  a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  fur  is  soft,  short, 
and  of  an  almost  woolly  nature,  with  nearly  the  same  length  over  the  whole  body 
and  tail,  and  is  of  a  pale  yellowish-brown  colour  throughout.  In  size  the  kinkajou 
may  be  compared  to  a  cat.  It  is  found  in  wooded  districts  from  Central  Mexico 
to  the  Rio  Negro  in  Brazil.  In  Guatemala,  where  it  is  far  from  rare,  it  ranges  to 
elevations  of  four  thousand  and  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  conceals  itself 
in  the  holes  of  trees, — in  which  it  probably  also  breeds, — issuing  forth  only  at  night 
in  search  of  food.  A  specimen  which  fell,  when  wounded,  from  a  tree  into  a  river 
below  swam  well.  It  feeds  on  small  mammals,  birds  and  their  eggs,  honey  and 
fruits,  and  appears  to  be  specially  partial  to  oranges  and  bananas. 

The  expression  of  the  kinkajou  reminded  Bates  strongly  of  that  of  some  of  the 


WHITE-NOSED    COATI 


RACCOON  FAMILY. 


45 


uirs  ;  and  he  was  also  struck  with  the  extreme  brightness  of  its  dark  eyes.  "  I 
once  saw  it,"  he  writes,  "  in  considerable  numbers  -when  on  an  excursion  with  an 
Indian  companion  along  the  low  Ygapo  shores  of  the  Teffe,  about  twenty  miles 
above  Ega  [on  the  upper  Amazon].  We  slept  one  night  at  the  house  of  a  native 
family  living  in  the  thick  of  the  forest,  where  a  festival  was  going  on,  and  there 
being  no  room  to  hang  our  hammocks  under  shelter,  on  account  of  the  number  of 
visitors,  we  lay  down  on  a  mat  in  the  open  air,  near  a  shed  which  stood  in  the 
midst  of  a  grove  of  forest  trees  and  pupunha  palms.  Past  midnight,  when  all 
became  still  after  the  uproar  of  the  holiday-making,  as  I  was  listening  to  the  dull, 
fanning  sound  made  by  the  wings  of  impish  hosts  of  vampire-bats  crowding 


THE  KINKAJOU  (\  nat.  size). 

round  the  cajer  trees,  a  rustle  commenced  from  the  side  of  the  woods,  and  a  troop 
of  slender,  long-tailed  animals  were  seen  against  the  clear  moonlit  sky,  taking 
flying  leaps  from  branch  to  branch  through  the  grove.  Many  of  them  stopped  at 
the  pupunha  trees,  and  the  hustling,  twittering,  and  screaming,  with  the  sounds 
of  falling  fruits,  showed  how  they  were  employed.  I  thought  at  first  they  were 
Nyctipithed,  but  they  proved  to  be  jupuras,  for  the  owner  of  the  house  early 
next  morning  caught  a  young  one,  and  gave  it  to  me.  I  kept  this  as  a  pet  animal 
for  several  weeks,  feeding  it  on  bananas  and  mandioca-meal  mixed  with  treacle. 
It  became  tame  in  a  very  short  time,  allowing  itself  to  be  caressed,  but  making 
a  distinction  in  the  degree  of  confidence  it  showed  between  myself  and  strangers. 
My  pet  was  unfortunately  killed  by  a  neighbour's  dog,  which  entered  the  room 
where  it  was  kept." 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

CARNIVORES,  —  continued. 
THE  WEASEL  FAMILY. 
Family 


WITH  the  Weasel  family,  in  which  are  included  not  only  the  weasels  and  their 
immediate  allies,  but  likewise  the  badgers  and  otters,  we  come  to  the  last  group 
of  terrestrial  Carnivores.  The  family  is  thus  a  very  extensive  one,  and  also  one 
in  which  many  of  the  various  members  differ  very  widely  from  one  another  in 
external  appearances,  as  well  as  in  the  structure  of  their  teeth.  A  large  number 
of  the  species  —  and  among  them  the  typical  forms  —  are,  however,  characterised  by 


SKELETON   OF   WEASEL. 


their  long  and  slender  bodies  and  short  limbs;    while  the  great  majority  are  of 
medium  or  small  size,  and  none  are  very  large. 

In  the  general  characters  of  the  base  of  the  skull  the  members  of  the  Weasel 
family  agree  with  the  Bears  and  Raccoons.  They  are,  however,  distinguished- 
from  these  by  having  but  a  single  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  while 
they  agree  with  the  raccoons  in  generally  having  but  two  pairs  of  these  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw.  The  ratels  have,  however,  only  a  single  pair  of  lower  molar 
teeth.  The  skull  of  any  member  of  the  family  may  always  be  distinguished  from 
that  of  any  other  Carnivore  by  the  inner  portion  of  the  upper  molar  tooth  being 
wider  in  the  antero-posterior  direction  than  its  outer  portion,  this  character  being 
exhibited  in  the  figure  of  the  palate  of  an  otter  given  later  on,  although  in  this 
case  the  whole  tooth  is  relatively  wider  than  usual.  The  skull  is  further 
characterised  by  the  great  development  of  the  curved  ridges  of  bone  by  which 
the  lower  jaw  is  held  in  place,  which  grip  the  condyle  of  the  latter  so  tightly 
that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  or  impossible  to  detach  it  from  the  skull  proper. 
As  in  the  two  preceding  families,  the  feet  are  in  all  cases  provided  with  five  toes. 

From  the   structure  of  the  skull,  as  well  as   from   certain   features   in  the 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  47 

itomy  of  the  soft  parts,  it  has  been  generally  considered  that  the  weasels  are 
most  nearly  allied  to  the  bears  and  raccoons ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is 
found  best  to  continue  to  place  them  in  this  position,  as  it  somewhat  simplifies 
classification.  The  evidence  furnished  by  the  numerous  forms  of  extinct  Carnivores, 
which  have  been  discovered  of  late  years  in  the  middle  and  lower  Tertiary  rocks 
of  Europe  and  North  America,  points,  however,  very  strongly  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  nearest  allies  of  the  weasels  are  in  reality  the  civets,  and  that  the  former  group 
is  the  direct  descendant  of  the  latter.  If  this  view  be  true, — and  the  evidence  in 
its  favour  is  very  strong  indeed, — it  follows  that  the  structural  resemblance  of 
the  weasels  to  the  bears  and  raccoons  is  an  instance  of  what  is  termed  parallel 
development,  and  indicates  no  near  genetic  connection  between  the  two  groups. 

The  family  is  a  very  widely  distributed  one,  having  representatives  on  all  the 
great  continents,  with  the  exception  of  Australia.  It  attains,  however,  its  maximum 
development  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere ;  and  it  may  be 
noted  that  none  of  its  members  inhabit  Madagascar.  In  regard  to  coloration  there 
is  an  enormous  amount  of  variation.  Several  of  the  northern  forms  have  a  dark 
summer  and  a  light  winter  dress,  and  thereby  differ  from  all  other  Carnivores 
except  the  Arctic  fox.  Then  a  large  number  of  the  martens  and  weasels  and  all 
the  otters  are  clothed  with  fur  of  a  nearly  uniform  dark  tint,  while  one  of  the 
martens  and  some  of  the  badgers  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  brilliance. 
Moreover,  the  American  skunks  and  the  Cape  polecat  (Ictonyx)  are  remarkable 
for  their  contrasting  bands  of  black  or  dark  brown  and  white,  and  thus  form  some 
of  the  most  conspicuously-coloured  of  all  mammals.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that 
in  the  parti-coloured  examples  there  is  a  great  tendency  for  the  under-parts  of 
the  body  to  be  darker  than  the  upper ;  whereas,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe, 
the  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  great  majority  of  mammals.  Again,  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  different  colours  to  arrange  themselves  in  longitudinal  lines  or 
patches,  or  so  as  to  make  the  whole  of  the  upper-surface  of  the  body  light,  and  its 
under-surf  ace  dark ;  and  in  no  case  are  there  either  spots  or  transverse  bands  of 
colour,  while  equally  noteworthy  is  the  entire  absence  of  alternating  dark  and 
light  rings  of  colour  on  the  tail.  Many  of  the  members  of  this  family  yield  furs 
of  great  commercial  value. 

The  various  members  of  the  family  are  generally  divided  into  three  main 
groups,  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  characters  of  their  teeth  and  claws. 
These  groups  are  the  weasels,  the  badgers,  and  the  otters,  which  we  proceed  to 
consider  in  the  order  named. 


THE  TAYRA  AND  ORISON. 
Genus  Galictis. 

The  first  representatives  of  the  weasel  group  are  the  peculiar  South  and 
Tropical  American  species,  which  are  respectively  known  as  the  tayra  and  the 
grison.  The  principal  distinctive  features  of  the  group  to  which  these  belong  are 
briefly  as  follows. 

In  the  whole  group  the  toes  are  short  and  only  partially  webbed,  with  short, 


48 


CARNIVORES. 


sharp,  and  curved  claws,  which  may  be  partially  retractile.  The  single  upper 
molar  tooth  on  each  side  is  characterised  by  its  narrowness  from  front  to  back,  and 
its  moderate  dimensions.  With  the  exception  of  the  wolverene,  all  the  members  of 
the  group  are  distinguished  by  their  long  and  weasel-like  bodies  and  short  legs, 
while  all  are  terrestrial  and  arboreal  in  their  habits.  Exclusive  of  the  members 
of  the  present  genus  and  one  South-African  species,  the  group  is  mainly  confined 
to  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  only  a  single  representa- 
tive occurring  in  Peninsular  India,  Burma,  and  the  Malayan  region,  and  one  in 
South  America. 

The  tayra  and  grison  are  characterised  by  having  a  total  of  34  teeth,  of  which 
§  are  incisors,  \  canines,  f  premolars,  and  £  molars.     Their  skulls  may  be  readily 


THE  TATRA  (J  nat.  size). 

distinguished  from  those  of  the  martens  and  weasels  by  the  tubercle  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth  being  placed  near  the  middle  of  the  tooth,  instead  of 
close  up  to  its  front  edge.  They  walk  to  a  great  extent  on  the  soles  of  their 
feet,  which  are  completely  naked,  so  that  their  feet  are  almost,  but  not  quite, 
plantigrade.  The  claws  cannot  be  retracted.  The  head  is  characterised  by  its 
breadth  and  flatness,  and  is  furnished  with  very  small  and  rounded  ears.  The 
tail  varies  in  length  from  about  one-half  to  three-quarters  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body. 

The  tayra  (Galictis  barbara)  is  the  largest  species,  and  may  be 
compared  in  size  to  the  common  otter,  its  total  length  being  a  little 
over  a  yard,  of  which  rather  less  than  half  is  occupied  by  the  tail.  The  body  and 
limbs  are  usually  of  a  uniform  dark  brown  colour,  becoming  almost  black  in  some 
individuals,  while  in  others  it  is  lighter.  There  is  always  a  lighter  spot  on  the 
chest.  The  head  and  neck  are  generally  grey,  but  in  two  immature  individuals  in 


Tayra. 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  49 

British  Museum  they  are  nearly  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  muzzle, 
which  is  dark.  Occasionally,  individuals  are  met  with  in  which  the  whole  of  the 
fur,  except  that  on  the  muzzle,  ears,  and  feet,  is  entirely  white ;  one  such  example 
being  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  our  illustration.  The  nose  has  a  vertical  groove 
at  its  extremity,  the  teeth  are  relatively  large  and  protruding,  and  the  aspect  of  the 
animal  is  ugly  and  forbidding. 

The  range  of  the  tayra  is  generally  stated  to  extend  from  Mexico  in  the  north 
to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  in  the  south,  but  it  also  includes  some  of  the  more  southerly 
portions  of  the  Argentine  pampas.  In  British  Honduras  tayras  were  observed 
by  Moore  hunting  in  companies  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty,  and  although  some 
writers  have  doubted  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  it  is  fully  confirmed  by 
Mr.  Hudson  in  Argentina.  Rengger  states  that  the  tayra  lives  both  in  open  grass- 
clad  country,  and  likewise  in  forest.  Writing  of  this  and  the  next  species,  Mr. 
Hudson  says  that,  on  the  pampas  of  Argentina,  "there  are  two  quaint -looking 
weasels,  intensely  black  in  colour,  and  grey  on  the  back  and  flat  crown.  One  is  a 
large  bold  animal  (G.  barbara)  that  hunts  in  companies ;  and  when  these  long- 
bodied  creatures  sit  up  erect,  glaring  with  beady  eyes,  grinning  and  chattering  at 
the  passer-by,  they  look  like  little  friars  in  black  robes  and  grey  cowls ;  but  the 
expression  on  their  round  faces  is  malignant  and  bloodthirsty  beyond  anything  in 
nature,  and  it  would,  perhaps,  be  more  decent  to  liken  them  to  devils  rather  than 
to  humans." 

Although  largely  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  the  tayra  will  frequently  hunt  till 
midday,  when  it  seeks  its  lair  and  reposes  till  evening.  This  lair  is  generally  either 
the  deserted  burrow  of  an  armadillo,  or  some  hole  in  a  tree.  The  food  of  the 
animal  consists  of  such  mammals  as  it  is  able  to  kill,  such  as  agutis  and  other 
rodents,  but  it  also  eats  birds  and  their  eggs.  In  inhabited  districts  the  tayra 
frequently  raids  on  poultry-houses,  among  the  inmates  of  which  it  commits  much 
havoc.  Honey  it  also  readily  eats.  The  nest,  which  is  sometimes  made  in  the 
cavities  of  rocks,  instead  of  in  a  hollow  tree  or  deserted  burrow,  is  constructed 
with  much  care.  In  one  nest,  examined  by  Hensel,  two  young  were  found,  which 
were  then  quite  blind,  and  had  much  the  appearance  of  young  foxes. 

This  (G.  vittata)  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  tayra,  and  may 
be  compared  in  size  to  a  marten  or  an  Indian  mungoose.  It  is  also 
readily  distinguished  by  its  relatively  shorter  tail,  of  which  the  length  does  not 
exceed  half  that  of  the  head  and  body,  and  likewise  by  its  coloration.  The  latter 
is  of  that  peculiar  type  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  in  which  the  under- 
parts  are  much  darker  than  the  upper.  The  snout,  the  under-surface  of  the  neck, 
and  the  under-parts  of  the  body  are  very  dark  brown,  whereas  the  whole  of  the 
upper-surface,  from  the  forehead  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  is  of  a  uniform  bluish- 
grey  tint,  the  individual  hairs  being  ringed  with  black  and  white.  From  the 
forehead  to  the  shoulder  the  grey  and  brown  areas  are  divided  by  a  lighter  band 
with  a  yellowish  tinge,  while  the  tip  of  the  tail  and  the  ears  are  distinctly  yellow. 
There  is  no  groove  on  the  nose.  The  grison  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  South 
America,  as  well  as  in  Central  America  and  Mexico ;  and  there  is  also  Allemand's 
grison  (G.  allemandi),  which  is  of  larger  size,  but  has  the  same  general  coloration, 
although  presenting  some  approximation  to  the  tayra. 

VOL.  ii. — 4 


50  CARNIVORES. 

The  general  habits  of  the  grison  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
tayra.  It  is  described  as  being  the  Carnivore  most  commonly  encountered  on  the 
coasts  of  South  America ;  but  in  Brazil  it  is  stated  to  be  less  frequent  than  its 
cousin.  By  preference  it  appears  to  select  the  open  country,  although  it  may  also 
be  found  in  forests.  It  frequents  plantations,  and  commits  great  depredations  upon 
domestic  poultry.  Hollow  trees,  clefts  in  rocks,  and  deserted  burrows,  are  its 
favourite  retreats ;  but  it  is  said  that,  when  hunted  with  dogs,  the  grison  will  never 
attempt  to  climb,  and  invariably  takes  shelter  under  rocks,  or  beneath  the  roots 
of  trees.  Fossil  remains  of  various  species  of  this  genus  have  been  found  in  the 
caverns  of  Lagoa  Santa,  in  Brazil ;  while,  what  is  more  noteworthy,  others  have 
been  obtained  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  the  United  States,  thus  indicating 
that  the  genus  formerly  extended  far  to  the  northwards  of  its  present  limits  in 
Mexico. 

THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS. 
Genus  Mustela. 

The  martens  and  their  near  allies  the  polecats,  stoats,  and  weasels,  constitute 
the  typical  group  of  this  subdivision.  By  many  writers  the  large  martens  are 
separated  as  a  genus  from  the  smaller  polecats,  stoats,  and  weasels,  the  three  lattei 
being  grouped  together  under  the  title  of  Putorius,  but  in  this  we  are  not  disposed 
to  concur.  It  is  true  that  the  martens  have  one  more  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in 
each  jaw  than  their  smaller  relatives ;  but  we  cannot  in  any  case  attach  much 
importance  to  such  a  difference,  and  its  triviality  is  proved  by  extinct  species 
which  exhibit  a  considerable  amount  of  diversity  in  this  respect. 

Regarding,  then,  all  the  animals  above  mentioned  as  constituting  but  a  single 
genus,  we  have  to  indicate  the  features  by  which  the  group  is  distinguished. 

In  the  first  place,  the  number  of  teeth  may  either  be  the  same  as  in  the  tayra, 
or  there  may  be  an  additional  premolar  tooth  on  each,  side  of  both  the  upper  and 
the  lower  jaw,  thus  raising  the  number  of  teeth  to  forty.  The  upper  flesh-tooth, 
as  already  mentioned,  differs  from  that  of  the  tayra  by  having  the  lobe  on  its 
inner  side  placed  close  up  to  its  front  edge.  With  regard  to  external  characters, 
the  martens  and  weasels  are  distinguished  from  the  members  of  the  preceding 
genus  by  their  habit  of  walking  almost  entirely  on  their  toes  (digitigrade),  and 
also  by  their  short  and  compressed  claws  being  capable  of  partial  retraction. 
Their  tails  are  either  long  or  of  medium  length,  and  more  or  less  bushy.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  lower  flesh-tooth  of  the  martens  and  weasels  is  characterised 
by  the  small  size  or  total  absence  of  the  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  second  lobe 
of  the  blade ;  and  as  the  heel  at  the  hinder  end  is  also  rather  small  and  furnished 
with  a  cutting  edge,  the  whole  tooth  consists  of  three  main  cusps,  of  which  the 
two  end  ones  are  similar.  Such  a  tooth  is,  therefore,  totally  unlike  the  lower  flesh- 
tooth  of  a  civet. 

The  well-known  European  pine-marten,  or  yellow-breasted  marten 
Pine-Marten. 

(M.  martes),  may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  representative  of  the 

martens,  all  of  which  possess  the  following  features  in  common.     First  of  all,  they 
have  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  while  the  flesh-tooth  of  the  lower 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  51 

iw  has  a  distinct  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  second  lobe  of  the  blade.  Moreover, 
they  are  of  comparatively  large  size,  and  may  be  compared  in  this  respect  to  the 
domestic  cat.  In  all  of  them  the  body  is  much  elongated,  although  to  a  less  degree 
than  is  the  case  with  the  polecats  and  weasels.  The  martens  are  found  only  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  and  range  far  to  the  northwards;  one  species,  however, 
occurring  as  far  south  as  India  and  the  Malayan  region. 

The  pine-marten  has  a  total  length  of  from  25  to  30  inches,  of  which  from  16 
to  18  inches  are  occupied  by  the  head  and  body,  and  from  9  to  12  inches  by  the 
tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair  at  its  extremity.  As  in  the  other  members  of  this  group, 
the  muzzle  is  sharply  pointed,  with  the  nose  extending  a  little  beyond  the  lips ; 


and  the  ears  are  thickly  covered  with  hairs  on  both  sides.  Beneath  the  glossy 
outer  fur  there  is  a  thick  coat  of  under-fur ;  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  have  a  thick 
coat  of  fur  between  the  bare  pads. 

The  pine-marten  is  characterised  by  the  rich  brown  colour  of  the  fur,  and  the 
reddish  grey  tint  and  yellow  tips  of  the  under- fur ;  the  light-coloured  fur  on  the 
throat  and  chest  varying  in  tint  from  yellowish  white  to  a  bright  orange.  The 
range  of  this  species  includes  a  large  portion  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia ;  and  in 
former  years  the  animal  was  common  in  the  British  Isles,  where  it  is  now  restricted 
to  the  wilder  districts.  From  the  specific  designation  of  this  marten,  it  would 
naturally  be  supposed  that  it  exhibits  an  especial  predilection  for  pine-forests. 
This,  however,  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  name 
was  given  merely  from  the  circumstance  that  pine  forests  are  abundant  in  many 
of  the  districts  which  it  inhabits. 


52  CARNIVORES. 

Like  the  other  members  of  the  group,  it  is  chiefly  arboreal  in  its 
habits,  and  thereby  differs  markedly  from  the  weasels,  which  are 
more  terrestrial.  "  Creeping  from  branch  to  branch  in  silent  and  stealthy  pursuii 
of  birds,  squirrels,  and  other  small  animals,"  writes  Bell,  "  their  sharp  and  long 
claws  afford  them  a  firm  and  secure  hold  of  the  bark,  whilst  the  long  and  some- 
what bushy  tail  must  considerably  aid  them  in  maintaining  their  balance  on  the 
boughs ;  the  ears,  too,  are  large  and  open,  a  circumstance  which  is  of  greai 
advantage  to  them  in  discovering  and  pursuing  their  prey,  amidst  the  dense  foliage 
in  which  they  love  to  conceal  themselves."  Martens  will,  however,  frequently 
descend  to  the  ground,  when  they  will  destroy  mice,  rats,  and  moles,  as  well  as 
rabbits  and  hares,  and,  it  is  said,  even  lambs.  They  are  also  deadly  enemies  tc 
domestic  poultry  of  all  kinds ;  while  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea-coast  thej 
are  also  reported  to  feed  on  mussels.  When  domesticated,  it  is  said  on  gooc 
authority  that  they  will  eat  fruit. 

Although  it  was  long  considered  that  the  beech-marten  was  also  found  in  the 
British  Islands,  it  is  now  ascertained  that  the  present  species  is  the  only  membei 
of  the  group  that  has  ever  occurred  here.  Regarding  its  present  distributior 
here,  the  late  Mr.  Alston,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  clearing  up  of  this 
confusion,  writing  in  1879,  states  that  in  the  wilder  districts  of  Scotland,  as  well  as 
in  the  north  of  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  the  marten  still  holds  its  own ;  while 
specimens  are  occasionally  captured  in  districts  where  it  is  now  practically  extinct 
Thus  one  was  shot  in  Norfolk  in  the  year  1878,  while  another  was  killed  ir 
Hertfordshire  in  1872.  In  Ireland  the  animal  was,  when  Mr.  Alston  wrote 
occasionally  seen  even  in  County  Dublin. 

The  beech  or  white  -  breasted  marten  (M.  foina),  formerly 
supposed  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  British  Islands,  is  generally  o: 
a  greyish  brown  colour,  although  the  tint  may  vary  from  a  whitish  brown  tc 
deep  blackish  brown,  with  the  tail  and  limbs  generally  darker  than  the  body 
The  light  area  on  the  throat  and  chest,  which  may  vary  considerably  in  extent  ir 
different  individuals,  is  invariably  white ;  while  the  colour  of  the  under-fur  varies 
from  ashy  to  pure  white.  The  skull  is  also  proportionately  wider  than  in  the 
last  species,  and  there  are  also  certain  characters  in  the  teeth  by  means  of  whict 
the  one  species  can  be  distinguished  from  the  other.  The  length  of  the  head 
and  body  is  about  18  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair  at  the  end 
13  inches. 

This  species  is  a  more  southern  form  than  the  last,  being  widely 
distributed  in  Europe,  but  not  reaching  either  the  British  Islands  or 
Scandinavia ;  while  to  the  eastward  it  extends  into  Asia  as  far  as  Turkestan  anc 
the  Eastern  Himalaya.  In  the  latter  districts  examples  have  been  procured  from 
Afghanistan  in  the  west  to  Sikhim  in  the  east,  and  also  from  Kumaun  and  Ladak 
further  eastwards  it  appears  to  be  unknown.  Throughout  the  Himalaya  it  is 
generally  found  at  considerable  elevations,  although  descending  as  low  as  five 
thousand  feet  in  the  Gilgit  district.  It  inhabits  the  whole  of  Central  Europe  and 
Italy,  the  warmer  parts  of  European  Russia  as  far  as  the  Urals,  as  well  as  the 
Crimea ;  the  western  and  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  Palestine,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  unknown  in  Persia. 


WEASEL  FAMILY. 


53 


Habits. 


Over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  this  marten  is  a  commoner  animal 
than  the  preceding,  which  it  also  exceeds  in  the  greater  boldness  of 
its  disposition.  Although  it  is  a  frequenter  of  woods  and  trees,  it  is  also  found 
not  uncommonly  among  rocks  and  stones,  and  hence  receives  its  German  name 
of  steinniarder.  In  barren  districts  like  Ladak  this  marten  must,  of  course,  nearly 
always  dwell  among  rocks.  From  its  bold  disposition  it  is  frequently  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  human  habitations,  where  it  inflicts  much  damage  on  poultry. 

In  its  general  mode  of  life  the  species  closely  resembles  M.  martes.  The  nest 
is  carefully  formed  of  hay  and  straw,  and  situated  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  in  the 
crannies  between  rocks,  or  in  an  old  barn  or  granary.  The  young,  generally  from 
four  to  five  in  number,  are  born  about  the  month  of  April,  and  are  blind  for  the 
first  fortnight  of  their  existence.  Its  wanderings  at  night  during  the  summer  are 


THE   BEECH-MARTEN  (\  nat.  size). 

extensive ;  and  no  dove-cot — however  lofty  it  may  be — is  safe  when  there  is  a 
marten  anywhere  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  food  of  this  species  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  the  last,  although  in  inhabited  districts  including  more  domesti- 
cated animals.  It  feeds  on  mice,  rats,  rabbits,  and  all  kinds  of  birds ;  and,  when 
dwelling  in  woods,  hunts  and  kills  squirrels,  lizards,  and  frogs.  It  likewise  eats 
fruits  of  various  kinds,  such  as  cherries  and  plums;  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
Continent  is  considered  to  do  so  much  harm  to  orchards  that  the  stems  of  the  trees 
are  washed  with  tobacco-juice  or  petroleum  in  order  to  prevent  the  marten  from 
ascending  them.  Like  all  its  kindred,  the  beech-marten  is,  for  its  size,  an  ex- 
ceedingly bloodthirsty  creature,  and  will  often  kill  more  than  it  can  devour. 

Although  generally  silent,  in  the  pairing-season,  which  takes  place  towards  the 
end  of  February  (or  about  three  weeks  later  than  that  of  the  pine-marten),  these 
animals  utter  a  kind  of  mewing  sound  not  unlike  that  of  a  cat ;  and  a  pair  of  them 
in  a  tree  may  be  heard  for  a  considerable  distance. 


54  CARNIVORES. 

In  general  the  fur  of  this  species  is  less  valued  than  that  of  the  pine-marten ; 
but  some  skins  from  Afghanistan  and  Turkestan  have  beautiful  fur,  with  long, 
glossy,  nearly  black  piles,  and  very  soft  white  or  pale  ashy  under-fur.  These 
Turkestan  martens  were  at  one  time  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  distinct  species. 
The  inferiority  of  the  fur  of  the  ordinary  beech-marten,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  sable,  is  due  not  only  to  its  colour  and  actual  length,  but  likewise  to  the  relative 
length  of  the  long  piles  as  compared  with  that  of  the  under-fur,  which  is  scarcely 
concealed  by  them.  The  more  northern  skins  are  always  superior  to  those  from 
Southern  Europe ;  and  a  large  number  are  imported  into  this  country  and  sold  as 
an  inferior  kind  of  sable.  As  already  mentioned,  it  was  considered  by  the  late 
Professor  Rolleston  that  the  domesticated  animal  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
for  the  purposes  for  which  we  now  use  the  cat,  and  called  by  them  the  Ailouros, 
was  this  marten,  which  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  white-breasted  marten.  Fossil 
remains  of  martens  occur  in  the  cavern  deposits  of  the  Continent ;  but  only  those 
of  the  pine-marten  have  as  yet  been  found  in  England. 

The  sable  (M.  zibellina)  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  pine-marten 
that  some  writers  have  considered  that  it  should  be  regarded  merely 
as  a  variety  distinguished  by  the  greater  length  and  fineness  of  the  fur.  Brehm 
states,  however,  that  it  has  a  much  more  distinctly  cone-shaped  head,  larger  ears, 
longer  and  stouter  limbs,  and  proportionately  larger  feet.  In  the  most  highly- 
esteemed  specimens  the  fur  should  be  thick,  soft,  and  nearly  uniformly  coloured. 
Such  skins  are  blackish  above,  having  a  mixture  of  black  and  grey  on  the  snout, 
grey  on  the  cheeks,  chestnut-brown  on  the  neck  and  flanks,  and  orange-yellow,  or 
sometimes  reddish  orange  on  the  throat.  The  margins  of  the  ears  are  either 
greyish  white  or  light  brown  in  colour.  In  a  number  of  cases  there  is  a  larger 
or  smaller  admixture  of  white  hairs  among  the  dark  fur  of  the  back,  while  the 
muzzle,  cheeks,  breast,  and  under-parts  are  white.  In  other  specimens  the  fur  on 
the  back  is  yellowish  brown,  while  that  of  the  under-parts  is  nearly  white,  and 
only  the  legs  black.  Good  skins  should  exhibit  a  kind  of  "  watering,"  owing  to 
the  reddish  tint  of  the  woolly  under-fur  showing  through  the  long  outer  hairs. 
An  average  sable  will  measure  about  20  inches  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the 
tail ;  the  length  of  the  tail  being  7  inches.  The  skins  are  valued  only  when  they 
have  their  winter  fur,  the  summer  coat  being  much  shorter.  In  spring,  although 
the  winter  fur  may  still  be  retained,  the  skins  are  quite  useless,  as  the  hair  will 
drop  off  even  after  the  skins  have  been  dressed. 

The   ranp;e    of    the   sable   originally   extended   from   the   Ural 
Distribution.     ^  J 

Mountains  to  Behring  Sea,  and  from  the  mountains  on  the  southern 

borders  of  Siberia  to  the  68th  parallel  of  north  latitude.  It  is,  however,  now  much 
curtailed,  owing  to  the  incessant  persecution  to  which  the  animal  has  been  so  long 
subject ;  and  the  chief  haunts  are  now  the  mountain  forests  of  North  Asia,  more 
especially  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamschatka. 

According  to  reports  furnished  to  Dr.  Guillemard  by  a  native 

hunter,  it  appears  that  sables  are  for  the  most  part  of  nocturnal 

habits,  and,  though  they  occasionally  feed  by  day,  generally  spend  that  period  of 

the  twenty-four  hours  in  holes  at  the  roots  or  in  the  trunks  of  trees.     They  dislike 

the  presence  of  man,  and  are  rarely  to  be  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 


WEASEL  FAMILY. 


55 


ages ;  their  favourite  resort  being  the  depths  of  the  forest  least  frequented  by 
the  natives.  It  is  considered  that  the  most  inaccessible  and  least  known  parts  of 
the  country  are  the  best  hunting-grounds.  They  live  on  hares,  birds  of  all  kinds, 
and,  in  short,  almost  every  living  thing  they  can  kill,  but  they  are  also  said  to  eat 
berries,  and  even  fish.  There  are,  indeed,  but  few  animals,  apparently,  which  do 
not  live  on  fish  in  Kamschatka.  They  have  only  one  litter  during  the  year, 
generally  in  the  month  of  April,  and  bring  forth  four  or  five  young  at  a  birth  in 
a  nest  in  the  holes  of  trees.  The  same  writer  tells  us  that  whereas  formerly  a 
large  number  of  sables  were  caught  in  traps  in  Kamschatka,  they  are  now  more 
generally  hunted  there  with  dogs;  these  dogs  being  specially  trained  for  the 
purpose,  and  either  running  down  their  quarry  on  the  deep  snow,  driving  them 
into  trees,  or  smelling  them  out  when  lying  asleep  in  holes.  The  great  object  in 


THE  SABLE  (%  nat.  size). 

such  hunts  is  to  "  tree  "  the  sable,  when  the  tree  is  surrounded  with  nets,  and  the 
animal  either  shaken  from  the  boughs  or  knocked  off  them  by  means  of  poles.  If 
the  sable  does  not  fall  into  the  nets,  it  is  again  pursued  by  the  expectant  dogs, 
by  whom  it  is  either  run  down,  or  once  more  "  treed."  When  the  tree  is  too  high 
to  allow  of  the  sable  being  dislodged  by  the  usual  methods,  it  is  either  felled,  or 
the  animal  is  shot ;  but  recourse  to  guns  is  if  possible  avoided,  as  the  shot  does 
damage  to  the  skins.  If  the  distance  they  have  to  travel  be  a  long  one,  the 
Kamschatkan  hunters  start  on  their  winter  expeditions  after  the  sable  towards 
the  end  of  September ;  but,  if  the  district  is  nearer,  they  wait  until  the  first  fall 
of  snow  or  about  six  weeks  afterwards.  If  a  single  hunter  takes  twenty  sable 
skins  in  a  season,  he  considers  himself  fortunate ;  but  Dr.  Guillemard  mentions 
that  in  a  little-known  district  one  party  bagged  upwards  of  140  skins.  The  total 
number  annually  taken  in  Kamschatka  must  be  very  large ;  the  number  exported 
in  the  year  1882  from  Petropaulovsky  (which  receives  the  majority)  being  over 


5  6  CARNIVORES. 

two  thousand.     The  price  of  a  single  sable  skin  in  St.  Petersburg  ranges  from  £2 
to  £25,  according  to  its  quality  and  condition.     The  Kamschatkan  peasant  receives 
an  average  of  sixteen  roubles  for  each  skin ;  and  this  he  has  to  take  out  in  kind. 
American  This  species  (M.  americana)  is  so  nearly  related  to  the  pine- 

Marten,  marten  and  the  sable  that  there  may  be  a  question  whether  it  should 
be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety.  The  long  hair  is  very  like  that  of 
the  pine-marten,  to  which  it  is  most  nearly  allied ;  its  general  colour  being  more 
or  less  uniformly  brown,  the  breast-spot  yellow,  and  the  head  and  ears  grey  or 
whitish. 

It  is  found  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  district,  Labrador,  Alaska,  and  other  parts  of 
North  America,  descending  on  the  eastern  side  as  far  south  as  the  Adirondack 
Mountains,  near  New  York. 

In  habits  it  appears  to  be  similar  to  the  pine-marten.  In  the  Adirondacks  it 
inhabits  the  evergreen  forests,  and  is  chiefly,  although  not  exclusively,  nocturnal. 
Its  food  consists  of  partridges,  rabbits,  and  other  smaller  rodents,  birds'  eggs,  young 
birds,  frogs  and  toads,  and  large  insects.  It  is  said  to  display  a  distinct  preference 
for  forests  of  conifers,  and  is  thoroughly  arboreal,  never  venturing  into  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  human  dwellings.  Although  generally  gentle-looking  in  appearance 
it  is  related  that  when  attacking  animals  larger  than  itself,  such  as  hares,  it  becomes 
as  fierce  in  demeanour,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  as  a  tiger.  When  one  is  seen 
among  the  tree-tops,  the  hunter  has  but  to  whistle  and  thus  attract  its  attention, 
when  it  will  afford  a  ready  shot. 

The  fur  is  of  great  commercial  value;  the  best  skins  selling  at  about  £3, 
15s.  each.  Of  recent  years  the  annual  imports  into  this  country  have  exceeded 
100,000.  Curiously  enough,  at  certain  periods  this  species  becomes  exceedingly 
scarce ;  the  periods  of  scarcity  recurring  with  great  regularity  at  intervals  of  about 
ten  years.  How  the  animals  disappear  is,  however,  unknown,  since  there  is  no 
region  into  which  they  can  migrate  without  the  knowledge  of  the  hunter,  and 
none  are  found  dead.  The  best  season  for  obtaining  the  skins  is  in  November ; 
the  animals  being  generally  caught  in  wooden  traps,  which  are  set  in  lines  for 
miles  across  the  country.  In  spite  of  the  incessant  persecution  to  which  it  is 
subject,  it  does  not  appear  that  this  species  has  appreciably  diminished  in  number 
in  the  wilder  regions  of  its  habitat. 

The  largest  of  all  the  martens  is  the  so-called  fisher  marten  (M. 
pennanti),  an  animal  rejoicing  in  a  number  of  names — both  popular 
and  scientific — being  variously  designated  as  the  "pekan,"  "Pennant's  marten," 
"  black  fox,"  and  "  black  cat."  The  two  latter  titles  are  due  to  the  large  size,  stout 
build,  and  dark  colour  of  the  animal,  which  in  point  of  form  may  be  more  aptly 
compared  to  a  fox  than  to  a  weasel.  It  measures  from  24  to  30  inches  from  the 
tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Its  general  colour  is  blackish  brown, 
becoming  grey  on  the  head  and  neck;  while  the  throat  is  distinguished  by  the 
absence  of  the  light-coloured  patch  distinctive  of  all  the  other  species.  It  ranges 
over  the  greater  part  of  North  America,  as  far  northwards  as  Alaska  and  the 
Great  Slave  Lake,  while  to  the  southwards  it  is  found  in  the  upper  part  of  Texas 
and  about  latitude  35°.  Continual  hunting  has,  however,  exterminated  the  animal 
from  the  more  settled  districts  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi. 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  57 

Dr.  Hart  Merriam  observes  that  "  the  name  of  fisher  is  somewhat 
of  a  misnomer,  for  these  animals  commonly  frequent  deep  swamps 
ami  wooded  mountain  sides,  away  from  the  immediate  vicinage  of  water,  and  are 
not  known  to  catch  fish  for  themselves  as  do  the  mink  and  otter.  However,  they 
;nv  fond  of  fish,  and  never  neglect  to  devour  those  that  chance  to  fall  in  their  way. 
They  prey  chiefly  upon  hares,  squirrels,  mice,  grouse,  small  birds,  and  frogs,  and 
are  said  to  eat  snakes.  They  also  catch  and  feed  upon  their  own  congener,  the 
marten,  and  make  a  practice  of  devouring  all  that  they  discover  in  dead-falls  and 
steel-traps."  It  also  appears  that  porcupines  compose  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their  food  in  some  districts;  specimens  being  sometimes  killed  with  numbers  of 
porcupine-quills  in  their  skin  and  flesh.  Curiously  enough,  these  needle-like  quills, 
which  often  exceed  2£  inches  in  length,  seem  to  cause  it  but  little  or  no  incon- 
venience. Instances  are  recorded  where  the  fisher  marten  has  attacked  and  routed 
such  a  comparatively  large  animal  as  the  raccoon. 

In  its  chiefly  nocturnal  and  largely  arboreal  habits  the  fisher  marten  resembles 
most  of  the  other  members  of  the  group ;  its  agility  in  the  forests  is,  however,  very 
remarkable,  and  when  much  frightened,  or  in  pursuit  of  prey,  it  has  been  known 
to  leap  from  tree  to  tree.  The  nest  is  usually  built  in  the  hole  of  a  tree  at  a  great 
height  above  the  ground  ;  the  young  being  generally  from  two  to  four  in  number, 
and  produced  at  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May. 

The  fisher  marten  is  trapped  for  its  skins  in  the  northern  parts  of  America 
from  October  till  May,  those  captured  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  being  in  the 
best  condition.  The  fur  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  American  marten ; 
the  usual  price  being  about  a  dollar  and  a  half  per  skin.  In  the  European  markets 
the  fur  is  generally  known  as  Virginian  polecat. 

Readily  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  by  its  more 
'  brilliant  coloration,  and  the  greater  relative  length  of  the  tail,  which 
is  fully  equal  to  two-thirds  that  of  the  head  and  body,  the  Indian  marten  (M. 
jl(i'-igula)  is  the  handsomest  member  of  the  group.  The  soles  of  the  feet  are, 
moreover,  at  least  partially  naked,  although  this  character  is  less  marked  in 
Himalayan  specimens  than  in  those  from  more  easterly  regions. 

The  fur  is  generally  short,  although  longer  in  the  Himalayan  than  in  other 
examples,  and  has  a  thick,  woolly  under-fur  during  the  winter.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  this  animal,  one  of  which  is  more  brightly  coloured  than  the  other.  In 
the  former,  or  common  Indian  type,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck,  the  rump, 
the  tail,  and  the  limbs,  are  either  glossy  blackish  brown  or  black ;  while  the  middle 
of  the  back  is  of  a  paler  brown,  sometimes  with  a  whitish  tinge.  The  chin  and 
upper  part  of  the  throat  are  white,  while  the  lower  throat  and  chest  are  either  of 
a  brilliant  orange,  brownish  yellow,  or  pure  yellow  tint.  In  the  second  variety, 
with  the  exception  of  the  white  chin  and  throat  and  the  pale  yellow  chest,  the 
whole  of  the  fur  is  dark  brown.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  varies  from 
20  to  22  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair  at  the  tip,  from  17  to  20 
inches.  According  to  Mr.  Blanford,  the  Indian  ma'rten  is  found  throughout  the 
Himalaya,  from  the  regions  to  the  westward  of  Kashmir  to  Eastern  Assam,  and 
thence  through  the  hilly  districts  of  Burma  to  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Sumatra. 
In  Peninsular  India  it  occurs  on  the  Nilgiri  and  Travancore  Hills ;  whilst  to  the 


58  CARNIVORES. 

eastward  its  range  extends  as  far  as  South  China  and  Amurland.  It  is  always 
found  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea-level,  ranging  in  the  Himalaya  up 
to  seven  thousand  or  eight  thousand  feet ;  and  its  occurrence  in  ranges  so  remote 
from  one  another  as  the  Himalaya  and  Nilgiri  would  seem  to  indicate  a  former 
colder  condition  of  climate  in  order  to  have  enabled  the  animal  to  have  traversed 
the  intervening  hot  districts. 

This  marten  is  only  found  where  the  hills  are  thickly  clothed 
Habits 

with  forest,  and  is  by  no  means  exclusively  nocturnal.     Although 

apparently  far  from  uncommon  in  the  Himalaya,  it  is,  according  to  the  writer's 
personal  experience,  but  seldom  seen.  He  had,  however,  once  the  good  fortune  to 
see  a  pair  of  these  handsome  animals  descend  from  the  trees,  and  gambol  in  a 
forest-glade  at  a  short  distance  from  his  position.  Other  observers  state  that  it 
may  sometimes  be  seen  in  parties  of  five  or  six,  hunting  for  prey  either  among 
brushwood  or  on  the  branches  of  trees.  The  late  Prof.  L.  Adams  states  that,  when 
on  the  move,  it  is  continually  uttering  a  kind  of  low  chuckle,  prolonged  into  a 
harsh  cry  when  it  becomes  excited.  Its  food,  which  includes  large  insects,  appears 
to  be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  other  martens,  but  it  is  reported  to  kill  young 
deer.  It  is  noteworthy  that  a  fossil  marten,  probably  nearly  allied  to  this  species, 
occurs  in  the  Pliocene  strata  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India,  and  is  thus 
the  oldest  representative  of  the  group  yet  known. 

With  the  well-known  European  polecat  (M.  putorius),  we  come 

to  the  first  representative  of  the  second  great  group  of  the  genus 

Mustela,  or  that  which  includes  the  polecats,  weasels,  stoats,  and  minks. 

As   already   mentioned,   the   chief   characters   by   which    these   animals   are 
distinguished  from  the  martens  are  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar  teeth 


SKELETON  OF  THE  POLECAT. 


in  both  jaws,  the  sharper  cusps  on  the  crowns  of  all  the  cheek-teeth,  and  the, 
absence  of  a  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  blade  of  the  flesh-tooth  in  the  lower  jaw. 
The  members  of  this  group  are,  moreover,  of  smaller  size  than  the  martens,  and 
have,  as  a  rule,  longer  bodies  and  proportionately  shorter  legs ;  and,  whereas  the 
martens  give  but  little  smell,  the  animals  remaining  for  consideration  are  of  ill 
reputation  in  this  respect — as  testified  by  the  old  name  of  foumart  (foul-marten) 
applied  to  the  polecat. 

The  common  polecat  is  the  best  known  representative  of  a  small  group  of 

•  five  species,  distinguished  from  the  stoats  and  weasels  by  their  larger  size  and 

more  powerful  build.     In  length  the  head  and  body  usually  measure   about   17 

inches,  while  that  of  the  lail  is  6  inches.     The  nose  is  rather  sharp,  the  small 


WEASEL  FAMILY. 


59 


irs  are  rounded,  the  neck  is  relatively  long,  and  the  tail  is  bushy.  In  colour  the 
long  hair  of  the  body  and  limbs  is  brownish  black  or  black,  darkest  on  the  head, 
tail,  feet,  and  under-parts ;  while  the  ears  are  white,  and  there  are  some  brown 
and  white  markings  on  the  face  and  mouth.  The  woolly  under-fur  is  a  pale  yellow, 
or  fulvous,  and  by  showing  through  the  long  hair  communicates  a  general  brown 
tinge,  mingled  with  yellow,  to  the  whole  pelage ;  the  tint  varying  considerably  in 
different  individuals.  The  fur  is  very  long  and  loose  on  most  parts  of  the  body, 
and  is  commercially  known  as  "  fitch,"  from  the  name  Fitchet,  or  Fitcher,  applied 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  to  this  animal.  The  range  of  the  polecat  includes 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  extending  as  far  northwards  as  the  southerly  districts 
of  Sweden  and  the  White  Sea,  but  not  including  the  Mediterranean  countries. 


THE  POLECAT  (\  nat.  size). 

In  Western  and  Northern  Asia  it  is  replaced  by  the  closely-allied  Siberian  polecat 
(M.  eversmanni),  which  appears  to  be  distinguished  mainly  by  the  head  and  back 
being  nearly  white,  and  by  certain  differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull.  A  third 
nearly-allied  kind  is  the  Tibetan  polecat  (M.  larvata),  inhabiting  Ladak  and  Tibet, 
which  differs  only  from  the  last  by  certain  features  in  the  base  of  the  skull. 

sarmatian  The    Sarmatian    polecat    (P.  sarmaticus)    is,   however,  a    very 

Polecat.  distinct  species,  of  rather  smaller  size  than  the  common  kind,  and 
well  distinguished  by  the  fur  of  the  under-parts  being  of  a  glossy  black,  while  that 
of  the  upper  parts  is  a  mixture  of  brown  and  yellowish  white.  This  species,  often 
known  as  the  mottled  polecat,  presents,  therefore,  another  instance  of  that  peculiar 
distribution  of  dark  and  light  colours  which  we  have  already  alluded  to  as 
characteristic  of  several  members  of  the  family.  It  is  found  in  South-East  Europe, 


60  CARNIVORES. 

northwards  from  Poland,  whence  it  extends  into  Western  Asia,  where  it  is  common 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kandahar. 

Black-Footed  Lastly,   we    have    the   American,   or   black-footed   polecat   (M. 

Polecat.  nigripes),  which  is  generally  of  a  brownish-white  colour,  with  the 
feet,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  a  broad  stripe  across  the  forehead,  black.  It  is  larger 
than  the  common  species ;  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  measuring  19  inches, 
and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair  at  the  end,  5|  inches.  It  inhabits  the  central 
plateau  of  the  United  States,  ranging  as  far  south  as  Texas. 

The  habits  of  all  these  five  species  of  polecat  appear  to  be 
very  similar,  and  the  whole  of  them  are  characterised  by  their 
extremely  fetid  odour.  From  the  barren  nature  of  the  country  which  it 
inhabits,  the  Tibetan  polecat  probably,  however,  dwells  among  rocks  and  stones ; 
while  the  Sarmatian  species  generally  resides  in  the  deserted  burrows  of  other 
animals. 

The  common  polecat,  whose  habits  will  in  the  main  serve  to  illustrate  those 
of  the  other  species,  is  chiefly  a  nocturnal  animal,  lying  concealed  during  the  day 
in  woods,  in  fox  or  rabbit  holes,  woodstacks,  or  among  rocks,  and  issuing  forth  at 
evening  for  its  devastations.  In  winter  it  frequently  seeks  shelter  in  old  farm- 
buildings  or  outhouses.  It  is  far  less  arboreal  in  its  habits  than  the  martens,  and 
is  also  less  active  in  its  ways.  The  polecat  is  a  deadly  enemy  to  hares,  rabbits, 
and  partridges,  and  equally  destructive  to  all  kinds  of  domestic  poultry,  from  the 
pigeon  to  the  turkey ;  while  in  addition  to  the  smaller  mammals  and  birds,  it  will 
consume  eggs,  lizards,  snakes,  and  frogs.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  it 
always  carries  away  its  food  to  its  lair ;  this  would  be  obviously  impossible  with 
such  large  birds  as  geese  and  turkeys,  which  are,  perhaps,  merely  killed  for  that 
insatiable  thirst  for  blood,  which  is  its  characteristic.  Indeed,  wherever  a  polecat 
gains  access  to  a  poultry-house,  the  owner  will  be  pretty  sure  to  find  the  majority 
of  the  occupants  lying  dead  in  the  morning.  The  polecat  is,  moreover,  a  no  less 
deadly  enemy  to  the  game  preserver;  the  authors  of  Bell's  British  Quadrupeds 
remarking  that  "  the  destruction  which  it  occasions  among  the  eggs  and  young  of 
pheasants  and  partridges,  young  hares  and  rabbits,  is  incalculable ;  and,  in  the 
latter  case  particularly,  it  follows  these  animals  into  their  burrows  with  such 
facility  that  a  single  family  of  polecats  would  shortly  produce  a  sensible 
diminution  in  numbers  amongst  the  denizens  of  a  whole  warren." 

Fortunately,  however,  of  late  years  its  numbers  have  been  vastly  diminished, 
and  it  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  regions  with  thick  woods  affording  it  compara- 
tively inaccessible  retreats.  In  the  Alps  it  wanders  in  summer  far  above  the 
limit  of  trees,  although  retreating  to  lower  elevations  in  winter.  The  nest  of 
the  polecat  is  made  in  a  deserted  rabbit-hole,  in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  or  amongst 
heaps  of  stones  overgrown  with  brushwood  or  weeds ;  and  here  the  young  are  born 
in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  or,  more  rarely,  the  beginning  of  June.  The 
number  in  a  litter  may  vary  from  three  to  eight,  although  it  is  more  usual  to  find 
four,  five,  or  six.  When  captured  early,  the  young  may  be  easily  trained  for  the 
purpose  of  rabbit-catching.  Fossil  remains  of  the  polecat,  like  those  of  the  weasel 
and  the  stoat,  have  been  obtained  from  the  cavern-deposits  of  this  country  and 
the  continent,  in  association  with  the  bones  of  extinct  mammals. 


WEASEL  FAMILY. 


61 


Ferret. 


After  much  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion,  zoologists  are 
agreed  that  the  ferret  is  merely  a  variety  of  the  polecat,  somewhat 
modified  by  the  effects  of  long-continued  captivity.  It  is  usually  smaller  and  more 
slender  than  the  polecat,  and  is  generally  of  a  yellowish  white  colour,  with  pink 
eyes,  but  there  is  also  a  brown  variety  known  as  the  "  polecat-ferret."  Ferrets  are 
bred  chiefly  for  rabbit  and  rat-hunting,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Although  they  learn  to  know  their  masters  to  a  certain  extent,  they  are  un- 
trustworthy animals,  and  should  be  handled  with  caution.  The  ferret  has  no 
strong  local  attachments,  and,  therefore,  requires  to  be  strictly  secured.  It  is  also 
very  susceptible  to  cold.  As  is  the  case  with  many  domesticated  animals,  ferrets 
are  more  prolific  than  their  wild  allies,  the  number  in  a  litter  usually  varying 


THE  FERRET  (£  natural  size). 


from  five  to  ten.     The  young  are  born  in  the  spring;  but  it  is  said  that  there 
may  sometimes  be  two  litters  in  the  year. 

In  rabbit-catching  the  ferret  is  usually  sent  into  the  hole  either  muzzled  or 
attached  to  a  coil  of  string,  by  which  it  can  be  withdrawn.  If  allowed  to  enter  a 
rabbit-hole  unmuzzled,  or  without  a  string,  ferrets  are  very  likely  to  remain  in 
such  good  quarters,  and  to  slaughter  the  occupants  one  after  another.  The  usual 
plan  is  to  stop  all  the  entrances  to  the  burrows  by  means  of  small  bag-like  nets,  in 
which  the  rabbits  are  caught  when  they  bolt  ;  but  sometimes  they  are  allowed  to 
bolt  freely,  and  are  either  shot  or  coursed  with  dogs.  In  ferreting  it  is  essential 
that  those  who  are  present  should  be  perfectly  silent,  as  otherwise  the  rabbits  will 
prefer  to  be  eaten  alive  by  the  ferret  in  their  holes  rather  than  attempt  to  escape. 
It  is  also  important  that  no  one  should  stand  immediately  in  front  of  the  entrance 
to  the  hole.  When  a  ferret  enters  a  burrow  in  which  there  are  several  rabbits,  a 


62  CARNIVORES. 

prodigious  scuffling  and  scurrying  immediately  takes  place  in  the  interior ;  and 
after  a  few  minutes,  if  not  frightened  by  sounds  above,  the  occupants  soon  begin 
to  bolt  in  rapid  succession  at  the  various  exits.  Like  the  other  members  of  its 
tribe,  a  ferret  almost  invariably  seizes  a  rabbit  immediately  behind  the  ear. 

The  common  weasel  of  Europe  (M.  vulgaris)  is  the  first  of  several 
species,  distinguished  from  the  polecats  by  their  smaller  size,  longer 
bodies,  and  the  much  slighter  development  of  the  ridges  and  crests  on  their  skulls. 
The  difference  in  the  proportionate  length  of  the  weasel  and  the  polecat  will  be 
made  evident  by  comparing  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  former  given  on 
p.  46  with  that  of  the  latter  on  p.  58.  Moreover,  whereas  none  of  the  martens  or 
polecats  have  a  winter  coat  markedly  different  in  colour  from  that  which  they 
wear  in  summer,  the  weasels  and  stoats  in  northern  regions  generally  or 
invariably  change  their  summer  dress  of  brown  for  a  white  winter  garb. 

The  common  weasel,  which  ranges  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  Northern  and 
Central  Asia,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  part  of  America,  usually  varies 
from  6  to  8  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the 
tail  itself,  with  the  hair  at  the  end,  varying  from  2  to  2i  inches.  In  colour  the 
upper-parts  are  usually  some  shade  of  mahogany  brown  in  the  summer  dress, 
while  the  throat  and  under-parts  are  white,  without  any  tinge  of  yellow.  The 
outer  sides  of  the  limbs  are  coloured  like  the  back,  but  it  appears  that  the  feet  may 
be  either  of  the  same  tint  as  the  back  or  as  the  under-parts.  There  is  considerable 
individual  variation  in  the  shade  of  the  brown,  as  there  is  with  regard  to  the 
limits  of  demarcation  between  the  brown  and  the  white  areas.  The  tail  is  cylin- 
drical and  pointed,  with  its  tip  of  nearly  or  exactly  the  same  tint  as  the  back. 
The  female  weasel  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  male,  and  appears  to  be  the 
animal  locally  known  as  the  cane. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  the  whole  extent  of  its  range  the  weasel  assumes  a 
white  dress  in  winter,  although  it  appears  that  this  change  of  dress  is  less  regular 
than  in  its  cousin  the  stoat,  and  requires  a  greater  intensity  of  cold  for  its  produc- 
tion. This  change  occurs  but  rarely  in  the  British  Islands.  Even  in  the  winter 
dress,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  although  paler  than  ordinary,  retains  the  reddish  brown 
colour.  In  North  America  the  weasel  turns  white  in  the  northern  parts  of  New 
England  and  the  Adirondack  Mountains  near  New  York,  but  in  the  latitude  of 
Massachusetts  it  retains  the  dark  colour  throughout  the  year. 

The  weasel,  in  suitable  localities,  may  be  found  almost  every- 
HaMts.  .  .  J 

where, — in   hedgerows,  woods,  among   stones,  in  water-courses,  and 

along  the  edges  of  swamps.  Its  general  food  consists  of  small  creatures,  such  as 
mice,  rats,  small  birds,  moles,  shrews,  insects,  etc. ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  but 
that  it  will  occasionally  make  inroads  on  poultry,  and  sometimes  attack  rabbits 
and  sleeping  partridges.  The  accusations  of  killing  rabbits  and  hares  habitually, 
which  are  so  frequently  levelled  against  the  weasel,  should,  however,  in  most  cases 
be  transferred  to  the  stoat.  Indeed,  from  the  war  incessantly  waged  by  the  weasel 
against  rats,  mice,  and  voles  of  all  kinds,  it  ought  to  be  protected  by  the  farmer,  if 
not  also  by  the  gamekeeper,  rather  than  ruthlessly  destroyed  whenever  encountered. 
In  spite,  however,  of  these  services,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  weasel  does  sometimes 
take  to  rabbit-hunting  in  good  earnest;  and  several  will  combine  together  in 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  63 

companies  the  better  to  effect  their  object.  Thus  the  late  Richard  Jefferies  mentions 
that  he  has  seen  five,  and  heard  of  eight  weasels  together.  "  The  five  I  saw," 
writes  this  observer,  "  were  working  a  sandy  bank  drilled  with  holes,  from  which 
the  rabbits  in  wild  alarm  were  darting  in  all  directions.  The  weasels  raced  from 
hole  to  hole,  and  along  the  sides  of  the  bank  exactly  like  a  pack  of  hounds,  and 
seemed  intensely  excited.  Their  manner  of  hunting  resembles  the  motions  of  ants  ; 
these  insects  run  a  little  way  very  swiftly,  then  stop,  turn  to  the  right  or  left,  make 
a  short  detour,  and  afterwards  on  again  in  a  straight  line.  So  the  pack  of  weasels 
darted  forward,  stopped,  went  from  side  to  side,  and  then  on  a  yard  or  two,  and 
repeated  the  process.  To  see  their  reddish  heads  thrust  for  a  moment  from  the 
holes,  then  withdrawn  to  reappear  at  another,  would  have  been  amusing  had  it  not 


THE  WEASEL  (|  nat.  size). 

been  for  the  reflection  that  their  frisky  tricks  would  assuredly  end  in  death."  In 
another  passage  the  same  author  graphically  describes  the  chase  of  an  unfortunate 
rabbit  by  a  weasel — the  timid  fear  and  almost  complete  paralysis  of  the  pursued 
through  sheer  terror,  and  the  bold  confidence  of  the  bloodthirsty  pursuer. 

In  all  cases  the  weasel  is  a  bold  and  inquisitive  animal,  exhibiting  but  little 
fear  of  man,  and  poking  out  its  nose  from  some  hole  or  cranny  to  survey  his  pro- 
ceedings with  the  greatest  indifference  and  self-possession.  In  spite,  however,  of 
this  curiosity,  the  weasel  is  ever  on  the  alert  to  withdraw  its  head  at  the  slightest 
symptom  of  attack.  When  on  the  ground,  weasels  generally  proceed  in  a  series  of 
small  leaps,  stopping  at  intervals  to  take  a  careful  survey  of  their  surroundings, 
and  not  unfrequently  raising  themselves  on  their  haunches  in  order  to  obtain  a 
better  view.  From  its  elongated,  almost  snake-like,  body  the  weasel  can  follow  most 
of  the  small  mammals  on  which  it  preys  to  their  holes  or  hiding-places.  As  Bell 


64  CARNIVORES. 

observes :  "  It  follows  the  mole  and  the  field-mouse  to  their  runs ;  it  threads  the 
mazes  formed  in  the  wheat-rick  by  the  colonies  of  mice  which  infest  it,  and  its  long 
flexible  body,  its  extraordinary  length  of  neck,  the  closeness  of  its  fur,  and  its 
extreme  agility  and  quickness  of  movement,  combine  to  adapt  it  to  such  habits,  in 
which  it  is  also  much  aided  by  its  power  of  hunting  by  scent."  The  weasel  is 
likewise  an  expert  climber,  seizing  hen-birds  while  sitting  in  their  nests,  and  thus 
gaining  both  parent  and  offspring,  or  eggs,  at  a  single  stroke.  Although  probably 
more  prone  to  wander  by  night  than  by  day,  it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a 
nocturnal  creature,  and  may,  indeed,  as  in  the  instance  above  recorded,  be 
frequently  observed  hunting  by  day.  Professor  Bell  states  that  the  weasel  brings 
forth  four  or  more  frequently  five  young,  and  is  said  to  have  two  or  three  litters 
in  a  year.  The  nest  is  composed  of  dry  leaves  and  herbage,  and  is  warm  and  dry, 
being  usually  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  in  a  dry  ditch,  or  in  a  hollow  tree.  As 
is  well  known,  the  female  weasel  will  defend  her  helpless  young  with  great 
fury  and  desperation,  risking  her  own  life  freely  rather  than  leave  them. 
Occasionally,  too,  the  male  will  join  in  endeavouring  to  protect  or  carry  off  the 
young  from  danger. 

The  stoat  or,  as  it  is  generally  called  when  in  winter  dress,  the 

ermine  (M.  erminea),  is  closely  allied  to  the  weasel,  from  which  it  is 

chiefly  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  and  the  black  tip   to  the  tail,  which 

retains  its  colour  when  the  rest  of  the  fur  turns  white.     On  account  of  its  superior 

size  the  stoat  is  frequently  known  as  the  greater  weasel. 

In  summer  the  colour  of  the  fur  of  the  upper-parts  of  the  stoat  is  dull 
mahogany  brown,  while  the  under-parts  are  of  a  pale  sulphur  yellow,  and  are 
thus  easily  distinguished  from  the  pure  wThite  of  the  weasel.  The  length  of  the 
head  and  body  is  usually  from  9  to  10  inches,  but  it  may  occasionally  fall  as  low 
as  8  inches,  or  reach  to  11 ;  the  length  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair,  varying  from 
about  3  to  5  inches. 

The  distribution  of  the  stoat  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 

Distribution.  .  ,  .  „ 

weasel ;  the  animal  being  widely  spread  over  the  northern  regions  or 

both  hemispheres ;  it  is,  however,  not  improbable  that  the  stoat  extends  into 
portions  of  the  Western  Himalaya,  where  its  cousin  is  unknown.  In  all  the  more 
northern  parts  of  its  habitat  the  stoat  invariably  assumes  the  well-known  white 
winter  dress  which  constitutes  the  valuable  ermine  of  commerce.  In  the  British 
Islands  this  change  always  takes  place  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland ;  while  in  the 
northern  English  counties,  like  Northumberland  and  Durham,  it  is  frequent  but  by 
no  means  universal.  Proceeding  further  south,  the  change  of  colour  becomes  more 
and  more  rare,  taking  place  only  occasionally  in  counties  like  Cambridgeshire  and 
Lincolnshire,  while  in  Cornwall  and  Hampshire  it  is  almost  unknown.  In  North 
America  the  change  takes  place  in  the  more  northerly  of  the  United  States  and  all 
the  regions  to  the  northward;  specimens  captured  during  the  winter  in  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  being  almost  invariably  white.  Some  of 
those  from  Virginia  turn  partially  white,  while  in  South  Carolina  there  is  no 
change  at  all. 

The  nature  of  the  change  from  the  dark  summer  to  the  white 
Change  of  Coat.      .    .  •      .,  i     i  ,  i 

winter  dress  in  the  stoat  and  other  animals  has  given  rise  to  much 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  65 

discussion.  It  was  originally  considered  that  the  animal  sheds  its  coat  in  the 
autumn  and  spring  ;  the  dark  summer  coat  being  gradually  replaced  by  the  advent 
of  the  white  hairs  of  the  winter  one.  Doubts  then  arose  whether  the  change 
in  colour  was  always  coincident  with  the  development  of  the  winter  and  summer 
coat,  and  whether  the  hairs  themselves  might  not  actually  change  colour.  Dr. 
Elliott  Coues  succeeded,  however,  in  proving  that  the  change  might  take  place 
in  either  way,  some  specimens  taken  in  spring  showing  the  long,  woolly  white 
winter  coat  on  some  parts  of  the  body,  while  on  other  parts  they  had  the  short, 
coarse,  brown  hair  of  summer;  and  he  observes  that  "we  may  safely  conclude 
that  if  the  requisite  temperature  be  experienced,  at  the  periods  of  renewal  of  the 
coat,  the  new  hairs  will  come  out  of  the  opposite  colour ;  if  not,  they  will  appear 


THE   STOAT   OR   ERMINE    IN    WINTER   DRESS   (^   nat.  size). 


of  the  same  colour,  and  afterwards  change  ;  that  is,  the  change  may  or  may  not  be 
coincident  with  the  shedding." 

Dr.  Coues  attributed  the  reason  of  the  colour-change  entirely  to  the  effects  of 
temperature  ;  but  strong  objection  is  taken  to  this  view  by  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  who 
observes  that  it  occurs  in  captive  specimens  kept  continually  in  warm  rooms.  Dr. 
Merriam  relies,  however,  chiefly  upon  the  circumstance  observed  by  himself  and 
others  that  among  the  stoats  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains  the  winter  change  never 
takes  place  till  after  the  first  fall  of  snow,  which  generally  occurs  towards  the  end 
of  October  or  the  beginning  of  November.  Although  the  temperature  of  the  air 
may  be  much  lower  before  than  subsequent  to  this  first  snowfall,  yet  it  is  true 
"  that  ermine  caught  up  to  the  very  day  of  the  first  appearance  of  snow  bear  no 
evidence  of  the  impending  change.  Within  forty-eight  hours,  however,  after  the 
occurrence  of  the  snowstorm  the  coat  of  the  ermine  has  already  commenced  to 

VOL.  ii.  —  5 


66  CARNIVORES. 

assume  a  pied  and  mottled  appearance,  and  the  change  now  commenced  progresses 
to  its  termination  with  great  rapidity.  In  early  spring,  the  period  for  the  reversal 
of  this  process,  the  changing  back  from  the  white  coat  of  winter  to  the  brown 
summer  coat  is  determined  by  the  same  cause — the  presence  or  absence  of  snow." 
These  arguments  appear  conclusive  that  the  change  is  really  due  to  the  necessity 
of  the  colour  of  the  animal  being  adapted  to  its  external  surroundings ;  the  change 
in  captivity  being  owing  to  the  influence  of  hereditary  habits,  which  cannot  be 
overcome  in  the  short  period  during  which  the  animals  are  under  observation. 

In  habits  the  stoat  is  in  general  very  similar  to  the  weasel, 
*  although  from  its  larger  size  and  greater  strength  it  more  com- 
monly attacks  larger  animals,  such  as  hares,  rabbits,  and  poultry,  than  its 
smaller  relatives.  In  America  it  is  very  fond  of  the  ruffed  grouse,  and  will  often 
overcome  the  large  northern  hare  ;  while  its  destruction  of  poultry  is  proved  by  a 
statement  of  Audubon  to  the  effect  that  one  has  been  known  in  a  single  night  to 
slay  upwards  of  forty  well-grown  fowls.  When  food  is  abundant,  it  is  stated  that 
the  stoat  only  sucks  the  blood  or  eats  the  brains  of  its  victims,  leaving  the  flesh 
untouched.  The  late  Richard  Jefferies  states  that  these  animals  usually  hunt 
in  couples,  although  occasionally  three  may  be  seen  together;  and  that  their 
range  of  destruction  seems  only  to  be  limited  by  their  strength. 

The  stoat  hunts  its  prey  both  by  day  and  by  night,  and  is  fully  as  good  a 
climber  as  the  weasel.  Although  it  cannot  in  any  way  be  considered  an  aquatic 
animal,  there  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  will, 
when  occasion  arises,  take  readily  to  the  water.  Its  favourite  haunts  appear  to 
be  stony  places  and  thickets,  which  secure  it  a  safe  refuge  from  its  foes ;  and  it 
is  also  very  partial  to  patches  of  impenetrable  gorse,  while  it  will  sometimes  take 
up  its  abode  in  a  deserted  rabbit  burrow.  In  spite  of  its  destructiveness  to 
poultry  and  game  of  all  kinds  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  from  the  number  of 
rats,  mice,  and  voles  it  consumes,  the  stoat  is  a  benefactor  to  the  farmer ;  and  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  whenever  unusual  numbers  of  any  of  the  rodents  above 
mentioned  have  appeared  in  any  district,  they  have  almost  invariably  been 
followed  by  a  large  assemblage  of  stoats  and  weasels  who  wage  war  upon  them. 
It  is  almost  superfluous  to  add  that  the  stoat,  when  angered,  emits  a  most 
noisome  and  penetrating  smell. 

The  young  in  England  are  generally  produced  during  the  months  of  April 
and  May,  in  a  nest  constructed  in  a  hole  in  some  dry  bank.  Prof.  Bell  states  that 
the  usual  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  five ;  Dr.  Coues  states  that  the  number 
may  vary  from  a  pair  to  as  many  as  a  dozen,  although  five  or  six  may  be  taken  as 
the  average.  In  America  the  stoat  has  occasionally  been  employed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  ferret  for  rabbit-catching,  and  appears  to  take  to  the  work  readily. 
In  most  parts  of  England  stoats  seem  to  be  far  less  common  than  weasels,  although 
the  reverse  is  stated  to  be  the  case  in  Scotland. 

The  fur  of  such  individuals  as  assume  in  Britain  the  white  winter  dress  is 
always  far  inferior  in  quality  to  that  of  skins  obtained  from  more  northerly 
regions ;  the  inferiority  consisting  in  the  shorter  and  thinner  hairs,  and  the  less 
pure  and  bright  tint  of  the  whole  pelage.  The  importation  of  ermine  skins  into 
England  was  formerly  very  large,  more  than  105,000  having  been  landed  in  the 


WEASEL  FAMILY.  67 

year  1833  ;  but  at  a  later  period,  owing  to  depreciation  in  value,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  found  that  ermine  skins  were  not  worth  the  trouble  of  collection. 
At  the  present  day  the  ermine  is  much  more  abundant  in  British  North  America 
and  Alaska  than  it  is  in  the  United  States ;  the  largest  number  of  skins  being 
obtained  from  Alaska. 

In  addition  to  the  weasel  and  stoat,  there  are  a  number  of  more 
or  less  closely-allied  species  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
while  a  few  descend  below  the  Equator.  In  North  America,  inhabiting  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Missouri,  we  have  the  long-tailed  stoat  (M.  longicauda), 
distinguished  from  the  ordinary  stoat  by  its  longer  tail.  The  Brazilian,  or 
bridled  weasel  (M.  frenata),  is  a  more  southerly  species,  ranging  from  Texas  to 
Brazil,  and  distinguished  by  the  head  being  darker  than  the  body  and  blotched 
with  white,  and  also  by  the  retention  of  the  dark  colour  throughout  the  year.  A 
weasel  from  Patagonia  may  be  only  a  variety  of  this  species. 

Asia  also  possesses  a  number  of  representatives  of  the  group,  such  as  the 
Himalayan  weasel  (M.  hemachelana),  in  which  the  under-parts  are  brown  and 
the  tip  of  the  tail  dark;  the  striped  weasel  (M.  strigidorsus),  of  Sikhim,  in 
which  there  is  a  pale  stripe  down  the  back;  the  yellow-bellied  weasel  (M. 
catkia),  from  the  Central  and  Eastern  Himalaya ;  the  pale  weasel  (M.  alpina), 
ranging  from  the  Altai  to  Gilgit ;  as  well  as  several  others,  some  of  which  are 
confined  to  Tibet. 

Weasels  were  also  well  represented  in  past  epochs  of  the  earth's 
Extinct  Forms.  .  •       ,        •        -T  j         •-,     j    £ 

history,  the  remains  01  numerous  species  having  been  described  from 

the  Miocene  or  Middle  Tertiaries  of  Europe.  Of  those  referred  to  the  existing 
genus  Mustela,  some  differ  from  living  weasels,  and  thereby  agree  with  the  larger 
martens,  in  having  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  both  jaws ;  while  others  have 
four  pairs  of  these  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  only  three  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and 
others,  again,  have  the  reverse  of  this  arrangement.  Another  extinct  weasel-like 
animal  from  the  same  deposits,  for  which  the  name  Plesictis  has  been  proposed,  is 
one  of  the  forms  already  alluded  to  as  apparently  connecting  the  weasels  so 
intimately  with  the  civets. 

The  animal  represented  in  the  illustration  on  the  next  page  forms 
one  of  a  group  of  three  species  of  comparatively  large  size,  whose 
nearest  allies  are  the  polecats.  The  European  representative  of  this  group 
(M.  lutreola),  is  generally  known  on  the  Continent  as  the  nertz,  or  sumpf-otter 
(marsh-otter),  and  has  no  recognised  English  title,  although  the  name  of 
European  mink  has  been  suggested  for  it,  and  is  adopted  in  this  work.  The 
second  species  is  the  true  mink  ( M.  vison)  of  North  America ;  while  the  third 
is  the  Siberian  mink  (M.  sibirica),  which  is  stated  to  connect  the  other  two  with 
the  polecats. 

These  three  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus,  not 
only  by  their  semi  -  aquatic  habits,  but  by  certain  structural  peculiarities. 
While  agreeing  with  the  polecats  in  the  number  of  their  teeth,  the  minks 
differ  from  them,  as  well  as  from  the  weasels,  by  the  narrower  muzzle  to  their 
skulls,  being  thus  more  like  the  martens.  The  premolar  teeth  are  relatively 
larger  than  in  their  nearest  allies ;  while  a  more  important  point  of  distinction  is 


68 


CARNIVORES. 


afforded  by  the  partial  webbing  of  the  toes,  which  are  also  peculiar  in  possessing 
no  long  hair  between  their  naked  pads. 

The  European  and  North- American  minks  are  such  closely-allied  animals  that 
they  cannot  be  even  distinguished  from  one  another  externally ;  and  in  our  own 
opinion  it  would  be  better  to  regard  them  as  mere  local  varieties  of  a  single 
species.  The  European  mink  has,  however,  very  generally  a  white  upper  lip,  which 
is  but  rarely  exhibited  in  its  American  relative.  When  the  skulls  of  the  two  forms 
are  compared  together  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  American  form  the  upper  molar 
tooth  is  invariably  decidedly  larger  than  in  the  European ;  and  it  is  on  account  of 
this  difference  that  the  two  are  regarded  as  specifically  distinct  from  one  another. 

Like  the  martens,  the  minks  have  a  uniformly  long  and  somewr-'   bushy 


THE   EUROPEAN    MINK  (^  liat.  size). 


tail,  differing  markedly  from  that  of  the  weasels  ;  its  whole  length  being  approxi- 
mately equal  to  half  that  of  the  head  and  body.  The  ears  are  smaller  than 
in  any  of  the  allied  forms,  and  scarcely  appear  above  the  general  level  of  the  fur. 
The  pelage  consists  of  a  dense,  soft,  and  matted  under-fur,  mixed  with  long,  stiff, 
and  glossy  hairs  ;  the  gloss  being  most  marked  in  the  fur  of  the  upper-parts,  while 
the  hairs  of  the  tail  are  more  bristly  than  elsewhere.  In  colour  the  mink,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Coues,  varies  from  a  light  dull  yellowish  brown  to  a  rich  black  chocolate- 
brown  ;  the  ordinary  tint  being  a  rich  dark  brown,  scarcely,  if  at  all,  paler  below 
than  above.  The  tail  is  always  decidedly  blackish.  Our  illustration  exhibits  the 
white  upper  lip  usually  distinctive  of  the  European  mink.  In  both  the  eastern 
and  western  forms  the  chin  is  always  white,  although  the  extent  of  the  white  area 
is  subject  to  individual  variation.  In  addition  to  the  white  on  the  chin,  there  may 
also  be  small  irregular  patches  of  the  same  colour  on  the  under-parts,  while,  as  a 
rare  abnormality,  the  tail  may  also  be  tipped  with  white. 


WEASEL  FAMILY,  69 

As  a  rule,  the  American  mink  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  European ;  and  in 
both  the  male  is  always  larger  than  the  female.  The  American  form  may  vary 
in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  from  15  to  18  inches ; 
while  the  length  of  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair,  ranges  from  about  8  to  9  inches. 
The  European  mink  is  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Europe,  occurring  at  the  present 
day  in  Poland,  Finland,  and  the  greater  part  of  Russia,  although  unknown  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  The  American  species  ranges  over  the  greater 
part  of  North  America,  although  not  found  in  the  extreme  north  of  that  continent. 
In  its  general  habits  the  mink,  in  both  hemispheres,  is  thoroughly 
amphibious,  and  is  therefore  only  found  in  districts  where  water  is 
abunda  '::  Indeed,  these  animals  may  in  this  respect  be  regarded  as  presenting 
precisely  the  same  relationship  to  the  polecat  as  is  held  by  the  water-vole  to  the 
land- vole.  The  mink,  writes  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  "  not  only  swims  and  dives  with 
facility,  but  can  remain  long  under  water,  and  pursues  and  captures  fish  by  follow- 
ing them  under  logs  or  other  places  from  which  there  is  no  free  escape.  It  has 
thus  been  known  to  catch  as  swift  and  agile  a  fish  as  the  brook -trout,  and  Audubon 
says  that  he  has  seen  a  mink  catch  a  trout  of  upwards  of  a  foot  in  length.  It  is 
remarkably  strong  for  so  small  an  animal,  and  a  single  one  has  been  known  to  drag 
a  mallard  duck  more  than  a  mile,  in  order  to  get  to  its  hole,  where  its  mate  joined 
in  the  feast."  Generally,  the  food  of  the  mink  consists  of  various  aquatic  creatures, 
such  as  frogs,  crayfish,  and  molluscs ;  but  it  will  also  eat  various  small  aquatic 
mammals,  such  as  voles,  as  well  as  mice  and  rats,  while  in  America  it  is  reported  to 
prey  at  times  upon  the  comparatively  large  musquash.  Marsh -frequenting  birds 
also  fall  victims  to  the  mink,  and  their  eggs  are  probably  also  consumed.  Other 
wild  birds  are,  however,  comparatively  safe  from  the  attacks  of  this  animal,  as  its 
climbing  powers  are  of  the  feeblest.  Poultry  are  not  unfrequently  attacked ;  but 
in  these  and  other  attacks  the  mink  does  not  exhibit  that  wholesale  destructive- 
ness  characteristic  of  the  stoat.  In  hunting,  the  mink  has  been  often  observed  to 
pursue  its  prey  entirely  by  scent ;  and  it  may  be  observed  on  its  hunting  expedi- 
tions both  by  night  and  by  day. 

As  a  rule,  minks  appear  to  be  comparatively  solitary  animals,  but  Dr.  Merriam 
mentions  having  once  seen  three  in  company.  The  abode  of  the  mink  is  usually  a 
hole  in  the  bank  of  a  stream  or  lake ;  and  a  well-trodden  path  always  leads  from 
the  entrance  of  the  burrow  down  to  the  water.  From  such  abiding  places  it 
appears  that  the  animal  will  not  only  make  daily  excursions  for  the  sake  of  pro- 
curing food,  but  also  wander  into  neighbouring  districts,  from  which  it  sometimes 
does  not  return  till  after  the  lapse  of  a  week  or  two.  . 

The  nests  of  the  mink  are  situated  either  in  the  above-mentioned  holes,  or  in 
hollow  logs,  and  are  generally  well  lined  with  feathers  and  other  soft  substances. 
The  usual  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  from  four  to  six ;  and  in  the  Adirondack 
region  of  New  York  these  are  born  early  in  May,  and  remain  with  the  female 
until  the  following  autumn.  In  America  minks  have  been  extensively  bred  in  a 
semi-domesticated  state,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used  as  ferrets ;  and  in  this  con- 
dition it  appears  that  the  number  of  young  in  a  litter  may  vary  from  three  to  as 
many  as  ten.  The  scent  characteristic  of  all  the  members  of  the  weasel-group  is 
extraordinarily  developed  in  the  mink,  Dr.  Coues  observing  that  in  America  no 


7o  CARNIVORES. 

animal,  with  the  exception  of  the  skunk,  possesses  such  a  powerful,  penetrating, 
and  lasting  effluvium. 

All  who  have  hunted  the  mink  bear  witness  to  its  extraordinary  tenacity  of 
life,  the  writer  last  quoted  stating  that  he  has  known  several  instances  of  these 
animals  being  found  alive  after  having  lain  for  fully  four-and-twenty  hours  with 
their  bodies  crushed  flat  beneath  a  heavy  log.  The  countenance  of  the  mink  is 
described  as  at  all  times  far  from  prepossessing ;  but  when  caught  alive  in  a  steel- 
trap  these  animals  are  said  to  have  an  expression  almost  diabolical. 

Some  years  ago  the  fur  of  the  mink  was  but  little  esteemed,  and 
the  price  was  at  one  time  said  to  be  so  low  as  not  to  repay  the  cost  of 
transport.  Recently  mink  fur  has,  however,  been  more  appreciated,  and  the  animal 
has  consequently  been  more  vigorously  trapped,  with  the  result  that  in  some  districts 
there  has  been  a  considerable  reduction  in  its  numbers.  In  1865  the  value  of  a 
good  mink  skin  was  reported  to  have  reached  five  dollars;  and  at  that  date 
upwards  of  6000  of  these  skins  were  annually  exported  from  Nova  Scotia  alone. 
It  is  stated  that  while  for  two  decades  the  total  number  of  European  mink  skins 
averaged  55,000,  the  exports  of  American  mink  reached  160,000;  but  in  the  year 
1888  the  number  of  American  was  upwards  of  370,000.  At  the  latter  date  the  value 
of  Russian  mink  varied  from  about  one  to  four  shillings  per  skin,  while  American 
skins  fetched  from  four  to  ten  shillings.  Much  higher  prices  were,  however, 
current  a  few  years  previously.  American  mink  always  obtains  higher  prices  than 
Russian,  the  best  skins  coming  from  Alaska  and  New  England. 

The   Siberian   mink   is   a   little-known    species   inhabiting  the 
Siberian  Mink.  ^  •    T>  • 

districts  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Yenesei   River,  but   unknown   in 

Siberia.  It  is  more  like  a  polecat  in  general  appearance,  having  similar  dark  and 
light  markings  on  the  head  and  face.  The  colour  is  a  clear  rich  tawny  or  fulvous 
brown,  as  dark  below  as  above. 


THE  SOUTH-AFRICAN  WEASEL. 
Genus  Poecilogale. 

The  pretty  little  South-African  weasel  (Poecilogale  albinucha)  is  worthy  of  a 
separate  heading,  not  only  on  account  of  its  remarkable  coloration,  but  also  as 
being,  with  the  exception  of  one  species  belonging  to  the  typical  genus  Mustela, 
the  sole  representative  of  the  weasels  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara.  This  species 
is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  weasels  by  having  the  ground-colour  of  the  fur 
black,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck  white,  and  four  pale  brownish 
white  stripes  running  along  the  back ;  the  tapering  tail  being  white.  This  peculiar 
coloration  is  almost  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the  so-called  Cape  polecat,  to  be 
mentioned  later  on ;  and  it  may  be  that  we  have  here  another  instance  of  true 
mimicry  among  mammals.  In  addition  to  its  coloration,  the  species  is  also  dis- 
tinguished by  having  but  two  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  while  very 
generally  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and  it  is  on 
these  differences  in  the  number  of  teeth  that  zoologists  chiefly  rely  in  referring  this 
weasel  to  a  distinct  genus. 


GLUTTON. 


THE  GLUTTON,  OR  WOLVERENE. 
Genus  Gulo. 

The  glutton  (Gulo  luscus),  which  is  the  only  representative  of  the  genus  to 
which  it  belongs,  is  a  very  different-looking  animal  to  any  of  the  foregoing,  from 


THE  GLUTTON,  OB  WOLVERENE  (£  nat.  size). 


which  it  is  likewise  distinguished  by  its  superior  dimensions.  In  spite,  however, 
of  these  differences,  naturalists  are  in  accord  in  regarding  the  glutton  (or,  as  it  is 
called  in  America,  wolverene)  as  a  member  of  the  typical  or  weasel-like  section 
of  the  family. 

The  glutton,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  regions  of  both  the 
Western  and  Eastern  Hemispheres,  has  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  in  the  martens  ; 
but  these  are  unusually  large  and  powerful,  and  distantly  recall  those  of  the 


7  2  CARNIVORES. 

hyaenas.  The  whole  animal  is  heavily  and  rather  clumsily  built,  and  walks  with 
the  greater  part  of  the  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  the  ground.  The  limbs  are 
thick  and  rather  short ;  the  feet  are  provided  with  long,  curved,  and  compressed 
claws,  and  have  their  soles  thickly  haired.  The  back  is  much  arched,  and  both 
the  head  and  tail  are  carried  low.  Dr.  Coues  compares  the  whole  appearance  of 
the  animal  to  that  of  a  bear  cub,  with  a  superadded  tail.  The  head  is  broad  and 
rounded,  with  a  rather  short  and  pointed  muzzle,  small  and  widely-separated  eyes, 
and  small  rounded  ears,  projecting  but  little  above  the  general  level  of  the  fur. 
The  tail  is  comparatively  short,  thick,  and  bushy,  with  hairs  varying  from  6  to 

8  inches   in   length;    and    it    has    somewhat    the    appearance    of   having  been 
truncated  at  the  end.     The  fur  of  the  body  and  limbs  is  rather  coarse,  long,  and 
thick  ;  and  there  is  also  a  thick  woolly  under-fur.     The  general  colour  is  dusky  or 
blackish  brown;  but  there  is  a  distinct  band  of  chestnut,  or  some  lighter  tint, 
commencing  behind  the  shoulders,  then  running  along  the  flanks,  and  meeting  its 
fellow  at  the  root  of  the  tail.     The  front  and  sides  of  the  head  are  light  grey, 
while  upon  the  throat  and  chest  there  may  be  one  or  more  light  spots.     The  limbs 
and  under-parts,  together  with  most  of  the  tail,  are  very  dark.     The  claws  are 
nearly  white.     There  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  the  size  of  the  glutton, 
the  length  of  the  head  and  body  in  seven  examples  measured  by  Dr.  Coues  varying 
from  26^  to  36  inches ;  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hairs  at  the  end,  from  12^  to 
15  inches.     About  29  inches  may,  however,  be  set  down  as  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body  in  average-sized  specimens. 

In  Europe  the  glutton  appears  to  have  been  long  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
fabulous  creature ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  it  is  known  by  the  same  name — 
vielfrass  —  in  almost  all  the  continental  countries.  What  may  be  the  meaning 
of  this  name  is  uncertain ;  some  writers  considering  that  it  is  compounded  of  two 
Swedish  words  signifying  rock-cat,  while  others  refuse  to  admit  its  Scandinavian 
origin.  By  the  French  Canadians  the  animal  is  termed  Carcajou,  and  by  the 
English  residents  of  British  North  America,  Quickhatch ;  the  latter,  and  probably 
also  the  former,  being  derived  from  some  almost  unpronounceable  native  name. 

The  glutton  is  a  forest-haunting  animal,  and  in  America  is  to  be 
found  in  all  suitable  districts  to  the  north  of  the  United  States  as  far 
as  the  Arctic  coast,  traces  of  its  presence  having  been  observed  on  Melville  Island, 
in  about  latitude  75°.  Its  southern  limits  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent  may 
be  set  down  as  about  latitude  42°  or  43°,  or,  roughly  speaking,  that  of  Lake  Erie ; 
but  on  the  western  side  it  descends  lower,  having  been  definitely  recorded  from 
Salt  Lake,  while  in  the  mountains  it  may  extend  as  far  as  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
The  animal  is,  however,  now  virtually  exterminated  throughout  the  United  States. 
In  Europe  the  glutton  is  found  at  the  present  day  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland, 
the  north  of  Russia,  namely,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  White  Sea,  in  the 
Government  of  Perm,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia,  and  Kamschatka.  In  the  time  of 
Eichwald  it  was  still  to  be  found  in  Lithuania,  but  is  now  extinct  there.  Solitary 
specimens  have,  indeed,  been  killed  in  Saxony  and  Brunswick ;  but  these  must  be 
regarded  merely  as  stragglers,  and  not  as  indicating  that  the  range  of  the  species 
extended  so  far  south  within  historic  times.  At  an  earlier  period  of  the  earth's 
history  the  glutton  ranged,  however,  to  the  British  Isles,  its  fossilised  remains 


GLUTTON,  73 

having  been  discovered  in  the  caverns  of  Derbyshire,  Glamorganshire,  and  the  Vale 
of  Clwyd,  while  they  also  occur  in  the  older  "  forest-bed "  of  the  Norfolk  coast. 
K\  idence  of  the  former  existence  of  the  glutton  on  the  continent  has  also  been 
obtained  in  the  caves  of  the  Dordogne  in  the  south  of  France. 

In  habits  the  glutton  is  almost  exclusively  nocturnal,  there  being 
but  few  instances  of  its  having  been  seen  abroad  during  the  day ;  and 
in  two  of  these  cases  the  animal  was  seen  to  sit  up  and  shade  its  eyes  with  its  paws, 
as  if  suffering  from  the  unaccustomed  light.  The  glutton  does  not  hibernate,  and 
there  is  no  marked  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  winter  and  summer  coat.  In 
spite  of  its  clumsy-looking  appearance  the  animal  when  disturbed  can  make  off  at 
a  very  rapid  pace,  and  hunters  who  have  occasionally  seen  a  glutton  in  the  shades 
of  evening  speak  of  the  hopelessness  of  pursuing  it.  It  likewise  ascends  rough- 
barked  trees  with  facility,  although  it  is  said  that  its  climbing  powers  are  only 
exerted  when  it  scents  food.  In  the  pursuit  of  prey  the  glutton  will  readily 
swim  rivers.  As  a  rule  it  is  silent,  although  when  attacked  it  will  give  vent  to 
angry  growls. 

Gluttons  are  found  either  solitary  or  in  pairs,  but  generally  solitary.  During 
the  day  they  live  concealed  in  subterranean  holes,  which  are  usually  their  breeding- 
places,  and  which  are  frequently  the  deserted  lairs  of  bears.  In  North  America 
the  young  are  born  in  June  or  July,  the  number  of  individuals  in  a  litter  being, 
according  to  Coues,  generally  four  or  five,  but  it  is  stated  that  there  are  sometimes 
only  a  pair.  The  young  remain  with  their  mother  till  the  following  winter,  when 
they  have  to  shift  for  themselves.  The  Cree  Indians  state  that  the  mother  is 
exceedingly  fierce  when  defending  her  offspring,  and  at  such  times  will  not  hesitate 
to  attack  human  beings. 

In  regard  to  food,  it  appears  that  the  glutton  will  devour  any  animal  that  it 
can  catch  and  overmaster,  and  that  it  is  by  no  means  averse  to  carrion.  The 
activity  of  the  animal  is  such  that  it  can  at  times,  according  to  Dr.  Coues,  capture 
such  nimble  prey  as  hares  and  grouse,  while  disabled  or  weakly  deer  are  always 
successfully  attacked.  The  stories  of  its  attacking  healthy  full-grown  reindeer 
are,  however,  improbable.  Foxes,  rabbits,  marmots,  etc.,  are  dug  out  from  their 
burrows  and  eaten. 

Although  much  exaggerated  by  the  older  writers,  the  voracity  of  the  glutton 
is  extreme.  It  is  stated  by  North  American  hunters  that  a  freshly-killed  animal 
may  be  safely  left  out  in  the  woods  for  the  first  night,  as  the  glutton  will  not  touch 
it ;  but  the  second  night  the  animal  will  return  and  gorge  itself  on  the  flesh, 
burying  such  portions  as  it  is  unable  to  consume.  So  pertinacious,  indeed,  are 
these  animals  in  quest  of  slaughtered  carcases,  that  they  have  even  been  known  to 
gnaw  through  a  thick  log  of  wood  and  to  dig  a  hole  several  feet  deep  in  frozen 
ground,  in  order  to  gain  access  to  the  body  of  a  deer  concealed  by  hunters. 

Gluttons  are  in  the  habit  of  robbing  the  traps  set  for  other  animals,  and  when 
one  of  them  has  discovered  a  line  of  marten  traps  the  trapper  may  as  well  relinquish 
his  trade  until  he  has  destroyed  the  marauder.  Every  trap  along  the  line  will  be 
pulled  to  pieces  and  the  bait  or  captured  marten  removed ;  and  after  the  hunger  of 
the  glutton  is  satisfied  the  remainder  of  the  booty  will  be  buried.  Another  curious 
propensity  of  the  glutton  is  its  habit  of  stealing  and  hiding  articles  which  can  be 


74 


CARNIVORES. 


of  no  possible  use  to  it ;  and  one  instance  is  recorded  where  these  animals  removed 
and  concealed  the  whole  paraphernalia  of  an  unoccupied  hunter's  lodge,  including 
such  articles  as  guns,  axes,  knives,  cooking  vessels,  and  blankets. 

Dr.  Coues  states  that  the  glutton  "  may  be  captured  in  wooden 
traps  similar  to  those  used  for  martens,  but  of  course  made  on  a  much 
larger  scale,  as"  the  animal's  strength  is  enormous,  even  for  its  size.  The  traps  are 
sometimes  built  with  two  doors ;  but  so  great  is  the  cunning  and  sagacity  of  the 
beast,  that  the  contrivance  for  its  destruction  must  be  very  perfect.  The  traps 
should  be  covered  up  with  pine-brush,  and  made  to  resemble  a  cache  as  much  as 
possible,  as  the  wolverene  is  then  likely  to  break  in  and  get  caught.  The  bait, 
ordinarily  the  conspicuous  feature  of  a  trap,  must  in  this  instance  be  concealed,  or 
the  animal  will  either  break  in  from  behind  or,  failing  in  this,  will  pass  on  his  way. 
It  is  sometimes  also  taken  in  steel  traps,  or  by  means  of  a  set  gun,  but  both  these 
methods  are  uncertain." 


THE  SKUNKS. 
Genera  Mephitis  and  Conepatus. 

The  handsome  but  ill-savoured  skunks  introduce  us  to  the  second  great  group 
of  the  present  family,  which  includes  the  skunks,  badgers,  and  their  allies,  and 
is  characterised  as  follows.  The  feet  are  long,  with  straight  toes,  and  the  claws 
are  blunt,  but  slightly  curved  and  compressed,  and  quite  incapable  of  retraction ; 
those  of  the  fore-feet  being  remarkable  for  their  large  size.  The  form  of  the 
molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw  is  somewhat  variable.  Most  of  the  members  of  this 
group  are  terrestrial  and  fossorial  in  their  habits. 

The  skunks,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  are  an  exclusively  American 
group,  of  which  all  but  one  are  referred  to  the  genus  Mephitis ;  our  example  on 
page  76  being  the  exception,  and  forming  the  genus  Conepatus. 

The  typical  forms  have  34  teeth,  of  which  ^  are  incisors,  y  canines,  |  premolars, 
and  \  molars ;  and  the  whole  of  them  are  easily  recognised  by  their  large  bushy 
tails,  usually  carried  over  the  back,  and  their  general  black  colour  variegated  with 
white  stripes  on  the  back ;  this  coloration  being  another  instance  of  the  tendency 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  to  be  lighter  than  the  lower  among  many  members 
of  the  family. 

The  common  skunk  (Mephitis  mephitica)  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Northern  and  Central  America,  ranging  from  Hudson's  Bay  in  the 
north  to  Guatemala  in  the  south,  and  it  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  rather  small 
cat,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  always  exceeding  a  foot,  although  there  is 
considerable  local  variation  in  this  respect.  It  is  a  stoutly-built  animal,  with  a 
small  head,  short  and  rounded  ears,  a  moderately -elongated  body,  and  legs  of 
medium  length ;  the  mode  of  walking  being  partially  plantigrade.  The  long  and 
bushy  tail  is  thickly  clothed  with  very  long  and  fine  hair,  and  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  generally  carried  curled  over  the  back  when  the  animal  is  walking. 
Its  length,  inclusive  of  the  hair,  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  head  and  body. 
The  general  colour  of  the  moderately  long  hair  of  the  body  is  black  or  blackish ; 


SKUNKS.  75 

and,  although  there  is  a  great  amount  of  individual  variation,  the  white  markings 
usually  take  the  form  of  a  streak  on  the  forehead,  a  spot  on  the  neck,  and  two 
stripes  running  down  the  back.  The  tail  is  black,  more  or  less  mixed  with  white, 
or  merely  tipped  with  the  same.  In  some  cases  the  white  stripes  do  not  extend 
beyond  the  neck,  so  that  the  back  is  entirely  black. 
Long-Tailed  The  nearly-allied  long-tailed  skunk  (M.  macrura)  from  Mexico 

Skunk.  differs  by  its  longer  and  more  bushy  tail,  of  which  the  whole  length 
is  not  less  than  that  of  the  head  and  body. 

More  distinct  is  the  lesser  skunk  ( M.  putorius),  ranging  from  the 

southern  United  States  to  Yucatan  and  Guatemala.      This  species 

never  exceeds  a  foot  in  length  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  whole  tail 

being  distinctly  shorter  than  the  head  and  body.     It  has  four  interrupted  white 

stripes  on  the  body,  together  with  some  spots,  and  the  tail  is  tipped  with  white. 

There  are  also  certain  differences  in  the  characters  of  the  skull. 

White-Backed  In  South  America  the  group  is  represented  by  a  very  distinct 

skunk.  species  known  as  the  white -backed  skunk  (Conepatus  mapurito), 
which  is  the  one  figured  in  our  illustration.  This  skunk  differs  from  all  the  others  by 
its  heavier  build  and  more  pig-like  head  and  snout,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  directed 
downwards  and  forwards,  instead  of  laterally.  There  are,  moreover,  important 
differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull  and  teeth,  the  latter  being  usually  only  thirty- 
two  in  number,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw.  Then,  again,,  the  ears  are  extremely  small,  and  the  tail  is  shorter  and  less 
bushy  than  in  the  other  skunks.  In  size  this  species  is  the  largest  of  the  group, 
some  specimens  attaining  a  length  of  about  24  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  although 
the  more  usual  dimension  is  about  18  inches.  The  colour  is  even  more  variable 
than  in  the  common  skunk,  but  in  general  the  two  white  stripes  on  the  back  are 
very  wide,  and  may  either  completely  unite,  or,  as  in  our  illustration,  be  separated 
merely  by  a  narrow  dark  band,  the  tail  being  either  pure  white  or  black  and  white. 
The  coloration  of  this  species  shows,  therefore,  very  markedly  the  general  light 
colour  of  the  upper,  as  compared  with  the  lower  surface  of  the  body. 

The  range  of  this  species  extends  .northwards  from  Patagonia  and  Chili  through 
Central  America  to  Texas. 

Subject  to  certain  modifications,  engendered  by  their  surroundings, 
the  habits  of  all  the  species  of  skunks  are  very  similar,  and  they  will 
accordingly  be  treated  of  collectively. 

Skunks  are  good  climbers,  but  appear  to  prefer  clearings  and  open  glades 
rather  than  dense  forests,  and  they  may  be  frequently  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  human  dwellings ;  although  in  Patagonia  and  the  Argentine  pampas  they  inhabit 
perfectly  open  country.  In  common  with  other  members  of  the  family  they  are 
largely  nocturnal,  but  may  be  met  with  walking  abroad  in  the  evenings  in  North 
America,  while  Darwin  states  that  in  Patagonia  the  white-backed  species, "  conscious 
of  its  power,  roams  by  day  about  the  open  plains,  and  fears  neither  dog  nor  man." 

This  indifference  to  the  presence  of  other  creatures  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  the  group,  and  is,  as  suggested  in  the  passage  cited, 
doubtless  due  to  the  immunity  of  attack  which  these  creatures  possess,  owing  to 
their  nauseous  secretion.  Thus  Mr.  Belt  states  that  in  Nicaragua  "  the  skunk  goes 


7  6  CARNIVORES. 

leisurely  along  at  night,  holding  up  his  white  tail  as  a  danger-signal  for  none  to 
come  within  range  of  his  nauseous  artillery."  And  Dr.  Merriam  relates  that  so 
indifferent  is  the  common  skunk  to  the  presence  of  man,  that  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  these  creatures  are  not  unfrequently  run  over  in  the  evenings  on  the 
roads  by  passing  vehicles.  The  peculiar  and  conspicuous  coloration  of  the  skunks 
is  generally  regarded  by  naturalists  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  so-called  "  warning 
colours."  Such  warning  colours  would  seem,  observes  Mr.  Poulton,  "  to  benefit  the 
would-be  enemies  rather  than  the  conspicuous  forms  themselves.  .  .  .  But  the 
conspicuous  animal  is  greatly  benefited  by  its  warning  colours.  If  it  resembled  its 


THE  WHITE-BACKED   SKUNK  (\  nat.  size). 

surroundings,  like  the  members  of  the  other  class,  it  would  be  liable  to  a  great 
deal  of  accidental  or  experimental  tasting,  and  there  would  be  nothing  about  it  to 
impress  the  memory  of  an  enemy,  and  thus  to  prevent  the  continual  destruction 
of  individuals.  The  object  of  warning  colours  is  to  assist  the  education  of  enemies, 
enabling  them  to  easily  learn  and  remember  the  .animals  which  are  to  be  avoided." 
In  the  Adirondack  region  the  chief  food  of  the  common  skunk  consists  of  mice, 
salamanders,  frogs,  and  the  eggs  of  birds  that  nest  on  or  near  the  ground,  while 
such  hens'  nests  as  are  met  with  are  sure  to  be  robbed,  and  an  occasional  raid  is 
made  on  the  poultry-yard.  A  large  number  of  beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  other 
insects  are  likewise  consumed  by  these  animals. 


SKUNKS.  77 

Owing  to  its  fearless  and  unsuspicious  nature,  the  North-American  skunk  may 
be  taken  in  almost  any  kind  of  trap ;  and  these  animals  are  often  a  considerable 
annoyance  to  the  trapper  owing  to  their  habit  of  frequently  entering  the  snares 
set  for  more  valuable  quarry.  The  skunk,  observes  Dr.  Merriam,  is  slow  in 
movement  and  deliberate  in  action,  and  does  not  often  hurry  himself  in  whatever 
lie  does.  His  ordinary  gait  is  a  measured  walk,  but  when  pressed  for  time  he 
breaks  into  a  slow,  shuffling  gallop.  It  is  hard  to  intimidate  a  skunk,  but  when 
once  really  frightened  he  manages  to  get  over  the  ground  at  a  very  fair  pace. 

The  same  writer  further  observes  that  in  the  Adirondack  region  skunks 
remain  active  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  hibernate  only  during  the 
severest  part  of  the  winter.  "  They  differ  from  most  of  our  hibernating  mammals 
in  that  the  inactive  period  is,  apparently,  dependent  solely  upon  the  temperature. 
That  the  amount  of  snow  has  no  influence  upon  their  movements  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  frequently  out,  in  numbers,  when  its  average  depth  exceeds 
five  feet  on  the  level.  Neither  can  it  be  a  difference  in  food-supply  that  affects  them, 
for  at  this  season  they  subsist  almost  entirely  upon  mice  and  shrews,  and  I  have 
repeatedly  noticed  these  little  beasts  scampering  about  on  the  crisp  snow  when  the 
thermometer  indicated  a  temperature  below  20°  F."  In  the  more  southern 
districts  of  North  America  skunks  doubtless  remain  active  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  same  is  probably  the  case  with  those  inhabiting  Central  and  South 
America. 

The  nests  of  these  animals  are  formed  either  in  holes  in  the  ground,  in  hollow 
trunks  of  trees,  or  among  rocks ;  and  in  the  North- American  species  the  number  in 
a  litter  is  usually  from  six  to  ten.  The  young  are  born  in  the  spring,  and  generally 
remain  with  their  parents  as  inhabitants  of  the  same  hole  till  the  following  spring, 
when  they  have  to  make  way  for  a  fresh  family.  Dr.  Merriam  states  that  if  a 
trap  be  set  at  the  entrance  of  one  of  these  holes  the  whole  family  may  commonly 
be  captured,  at  the  rate  of  one  per  night.  Surprising  as  it  may  at  first  sight 
appear,  the  common  skunk,  especially  when  captured  young,  is  said  to  make  a 
pretty  and  agreeable  pet,  gentle  in  manners,  and  cleanly  in  habits ;  while  the 
beauty  of  its  fur  makes  its  personal  appearance  highly  attractive.  Moreover,  the 
flesh  of  these  animals  is  said  to  be  white,  delicate,  and  highly  palatable. 

The  secretion  that  has  given  the  skunk  such  an  ill  name  is  contained  in  a 
pair  of  glands  situated  beneath  the  tail,  and  can  be  ejected  at  the  will  of  the 
animal ;  such  ejection  taking  place  only  when  the  creature  is  attacked  or  irritated. 
So  forcibly  can  the  fluid  (which  is  of  an  amber  colour)  be  ejected,  that  it  will 
carry  from  a  distance  of  13  feet  to  a  little  over  16  feet.  It  appears  that  there 
is  a  marked  difference  in  the  intensity  of  the  odour  of  the  secretion  in  different 
individuals  of  the  common  skunk,  which  is  probably  in  part  due  to  the  age  of  the 
animal,  and  in  part  to  the  length  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  preceding 
discharge  took  place.  When  freshly  ejected,  the  fumes  from  the  secretion  are 
pungent  and  acrid  in  the  extreme,  and  are  probably  capable  of  producing  extensive 
swelling  of  the  respiratory  passages.  Dr.  Merriam  states  that  "  when  inhaled 
without  the  admixture  of  a  large  amount  of  atmospheric  air  the  unhappy  victim 
loses  consciousness  and  breathes  stertorously,  the  temperature  falls,  and  the  pulse 
slackens,  and  if  the  inhalation  were  prolonged  the  results  would  doubtless  prove 


78  CARNIVORES. 

fatal."  It  has  been  stated  that  the  secretion  is  not  only  used  as  a  means  of  defence 
but  also  as  a  means  of  attracting  these  animals  towards  one  another.  This, 
however,  is  strenuously  denied  by  Dr.  Merriam. 

Of  the  lasting  and  pernicious  effects  of  even  a  drop  of  skunk  secretion,  no 
more  striking  instance  exists  than  one  recently  published  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson, 
who  writes  of  the  South-American  species.  This  observer  relates,  as  a  not 
uncommon  event  on  the  Argentine  pampas,  that  a  settler  starts  one  evening  to 
ride  to  a  dance  at  a  neighbour's  house.  "  It  is  a  dark  windy  evening,  but  there  is 
a  convenient  bridle-path  through  the  dense  thicket  of  giant  thistles,  and  striking 
it  he  puts  his  horse  into  a  swinging  gallop.  Unhappily  the  path  is  already 
occupied  by  a  skunk,  invisible  in  the  darkness,  that,  in  obedience  to  the  promptings 
of  its  insane  instinct,  refuses  to  get  out  of  it,  until  the  flying  hoofs  hit  it  and  send 
it  like  a  well-kicked  football  into  the  thistles.  But  the  fore-feet  of  the  horse,  up 
as  high  as  his  knees  perhaps,  have  been  sprinkled,  and  the  rider,  after  coming  out 
into  the  open,  dismounts  and  walks  away  twenty  yards  from  his  animal,  and 
literally  smells  himself  all  over,  and  with  a  feeling  of  profound  relief  pronounces 
himself  clean.  Not  the  minutest  drop  of  the  diabolical  spray  has  touched  his 
dancing-shoes.  Springing  into  the  saddle  he  proceeds  to  his  journey's  end,  and  is 
warmly  welcomed  by  his  host.  In  a  little  while  people  begin  exchanging  whispers 
and  significant  glances;  .  .  .  ladies  cough  and  put  their  handkerchiefs  to  their 
noses,  and  presently  begin  to  feel  faint  and  retire  from  the  room.  Our  hero  begins 
to  notice  that  there  is  something  wrong,  and  presently  discovers  its  cause; 
he,  unhappily,  has  been  the  last  person  to  remark  that  familiar  but  most 
abominable  odour,  rising  like  a  deadly  exhalation  from  the  floor,  conquering  all 
other  odours,  and  every  moment  becoming  more  powerful.  A  drop  has  touched 
his  shoe  after  all." 

Fossil  remains  of  skunks  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
Fossil  Skunks.  .  .         ....  ...     .        ,*»  ,. 

species  still  inhabiting  the  country  are  met  with  in  the  caverns  or 

Lagoa  Santa  in  Brazil,  where  they  are  accompanied  by  those  of  a  number  of  other 
animals  of  totally  extinct  types. 


THE  CAPE  POLECAT. 
Genus  Ictonyx. 

As  will  be  apparent  at  a  glance  from  our  illustration,  the  South- African 
animal,  commonly  known  as  the  Cape  polecat  (Ictonyx  zorilla),  is  so  like  a  small 
skunk  in  coloration  and  general  appearance  that  it  might  well  be  taken  for  a 
member  of  the  same  group.  Although  the  number  of  the  teeth  in  the  present 
animal  is  the  same  as  in  the  skunks,  the  teeth  themselves  are  relatively  smaller  than 
in  the  latter,  with  smaller  cusps,  and  are  thus  more  like  those  of  the  polecat,  between 
which  and  the  skunks  the  Cape  polecat  appears  to  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link. 
A  skull  of  the  present  animal  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  a  skunk 
by  the  upper  molar  tooth  being  smaller,  instead  of  larger,  than  the  flesh-tooth. 

In  size  the  Cape  polecat  agrees  approximately  with  the  true  polecat,  and  has  a 
somewhat  similarly-shaped  body,  and  proportionately  short  limbs.  The  head  is 


CAPE  POLECAT. 


79 


broad,  and  the  muzzle  long  and  sharp,  while  the  ears  are  very  small  and  rounded. 
The  tail  is  comparatively  long  and  bushy,  and  about  three-quarters  the  length  of 
the  head  and  body ;  and  the  whole  of  the  fur  is  relatively  long  and  thick.  The 
ground-colour  of  the  fur  is  a  glossy-black,  marked  with  a  variable  number  of 
white  stripes  and  spots.  Frequently,  as  in  our  illustration,  there  is  a  white  spot 
between  the  eyes,  and  another  over  each  of  the  latter ;  but  sometimes  all  the  three 


THE  CAPE  POLECAT  (&  nat.  size). 

are  united.  The  hinder-part  of  the  head  is  frequently  white,  and  from  this  white 
area  there  are  given  off  pure  white  stripes  (separated  by  three  narrow  black  ones), 
which  unite  near  the  tail ;  the  upper  part  of  the  latter  being  also  mostly  white. 
In  other  cases,  however,  the  whole  of  the  hinder-parts  of  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  back  are  white. 

Distribute  ^ie  ^aPe  P°lecat  ranges  from  the  Cape  to  Senegal ;  but  in  Sennaar 

and  Egypt  it  is  replaced  by  another  nearly-allied  species  (/.  frenata). 


8o  CARNIVORES. 

It  is  probably  the  latter  which,  according  to  Brehm,  ranges  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  into  Asia  Minor,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Constantinople. 

These  animals  frequent  rocky  districts,  hiding  either  in  the  clefts 
of  rocks,  or  among  bushes  and  trees,  and  are  purely  nocturnal.  They 
feed  on  mice  and  other  small  mammals,  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  lizards  and  frogs ; 
and  in  inhabited  districts  they  destroy  poultry.  In  their  general  habits  they  are 
unlike  the  martens  and  polecats,  being  unable  to  climb,  and  only  taking  to  the 
water  under  compunction,  although,  when  the  necessity  arises,  they  can  swim  well. 
Their  great  protection  against  their  foes  is  their  intolerable  odour,  which  is 
described  as  being  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  offensive  as  that  of  the  skunks.  In  many 
houses  of  the  Dutch  boers  of  South  America  tame  individuals  of  the  Cape  polecat 
may  be  found,  which  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  catching  rats  and  mice. 

THE  FERRET-BADGERS. 

Genus  Helictis. 

The  ferret-badgers  form  a  small  group  of  four  species  from  Eastern  Asia, 
which  in  some  respects  serve  to  connect  the  preceding  forms  with  the  true  badgers, 
having  relatively  longer  bodies,  shorter  limbs,  and  longer  tails  than  the  latter. 
They  are  all  of  comparatively  small  size,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
members  of  the  badger-like  group  by  having  the  under-surface  of  the  body  lighter 
coloured  than  the  back.  One  species  is  further  remarkable  for  the  brilliant  orange 
tint  of  the  under-parts  and  portions  of  the  head. 

All  these  animals  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  the  martens ;  the  upper 
molar  and  flesh-tooth  being  remarkable  for  their  broad  and  squared  crowns.  The 
head  is  elongated,  and  terminates  in  a  prolonged  and  naked  muzzle,  with  obliquely 
truncated  nostrils;  and  the  ears  are  small  but  distinct.  The  claws  are  very 
narrow,  and  about  twice  as  long  in  the  fore  as  in  the  hind-feet ;  the  soles  of  the  feet 
being  naked.  The  tail,  which  is  more  or  less  bushy,  may  be  either  rather  more 
or  rather  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  head  and  body. 

Of  the  four  species,  the  brown  ferret-badger  (Helictis  orientalis),  in  which  the 
length  of  the  head  and  body  is  16  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair,  9 
inches,  inhabits  the  Nipal  Himalaya  and  Java,  and  is  characterised  by  its  brown 
or  yellowish  brown  colour,  and  its  relatively  long  tail.  The  Burmese  ferret-badger 
(H.  personata),  which  differs  in  the  greyish  tint  of  the  upper-parts,  inhabits  Lower 
Burma  and  Manipur,  and  probably  some  neighbouring  districts.  The  two 
remaining  species,  viz.  H.  moschata  and  H.  sabaurantiaca  are  from  China.  The 
latter  is  characterised  by  its  relatively  short  tail,  and  the  brilliant  orange  colour  of 
the  snout  and  the  sides  and  the  under-parts  of  the  head  and  throat ;  the  ears,  a 
stripe  down  the  neck,  and  the  under-parts  and  feet  being  yellow.  The  upper-part 
of  the  head  and  face  is  chocolate-brown,  forming  a  most  marked  contrast  with  the 
orange ;  while  the  back  and  tail  are  olive-colour. 

The  ferret-badgers  are  purely  nocturnal,  and  differ  from   the 
Habits. 

other  members  of  the  present  group  in  being  able  to  climb  with 

facility.     The  Indian  species  are  almost  omnivorous  in  their  food,  eating  both 


RATELS. 


81 


small  mammals  and  birds  as  well  as  fruits  and  insects.     All  the  species  live  in 
forests  as  a  rule. 

THE  RATELS. 

Genus  Mellivora. 

The  ratels  or,  as  they  are  frequently  called,  honey-badgers,  are  distinguished 
from  all  the  members  of  the  family  hitherto  noticed  by  their  more  badger-like 
shape,  very  short  tails,  and  the  absence  of  any  external  ears.  They  are  aptly 


THE   CAPE   RATEL  (£  nat.  Size). 

compared  in  gait  and  appearance  by  Mr.  Blanford  to  small  bears.  There  are 
but  two  living  species,  of  which  one  is  confined  to  India,  and  the  other  to 
Africa. 

In  addition  to  their  short  tails  and  the  absence  of  external  ears,  the  ratels  are 
characterised  by  their  stoutly-built  bodies,  and  short,  powerful  limbs,  of  which  the 
front  pair  are  provided  with  enormous  claws.  They  walk  with  the  greater  part 
of  the  naked  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  the  ground.  As  regards  coloration,  they 
show  in  a  most  marked  degree  the  peculiarity  to  which  we  have  already  referred 
as  characterising  many  members  of  the  family ;  that  is  to  say,  the  under-parts  are 
dark,  and  the  upper-parts  lighter.  In  the  present  instance,  the  whole  of  the 

VOL.  n. — 6 


82 


CARNIVORES. 


Distribution. 


muzzle,  together  with  the  under-parts  of  the  head,  body,  and  tail,  and  the  entire 
limbs,  are  black ;  while  the  upper  portion  of  the  head,  body,  and  fore-half  of  the 
tail  are  whitish  grey. 

The  skulls  of  the  ratels  may  be  distinguished  by  the  small  number  of  the 
large  and  powerful  teeth.  The  total  number  is  only  32,  there  being  but  three 
pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  no  tubercular 
molar  in  the  lower  jaw  behind  the  flesh-tooth.  The  upper 
teeth,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  palate  of  a  fossil 
species,  are  characterised  by  the  molar  (m)  being  very 
narrow  from  front  to  back,  and  of  the  characteristic 
musteline  dumb-bell-shape ;  and  also  by  the  flesh-tooth,  or 
fourth  premolar  (p.ty,  being  larger  than  the  molar,  with 
the  tubercle  on  the  inner  side  placed  near  the  front  edge. 
Moreover,  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  flesh-tooth  has  a  very 
minute  heel  at  its  hinder  end.  The  ratels  may  be  com- 
pared in  size  to  a  badger,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body 
of  the  Indian  species  varying  from  about  26  to  32  inches,  and 
that  of  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair,  from  6  to  6J  inches. 

The  Indian  ratel  (Mellivora  indica)  is 
found  from  the  Himalaya  to  Cape  Comorin, 
but  is  unknown  in  Ceylon  or  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal.  The  African  species  (M.  ratel)  occurs  through- 
out Africa,  but  more  especially  in  the  southern  and  western 
parts  of  the  continent.  Mr.  Blanford  has  some  doubts  as 
to  whether  the  African  and  Indian  ratels  are  really  entitled 
to  be  regarded  as  distinct  species ;  but  the  former,  as  shown 
in  our  illustration  on  page  81,  is  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  a  well-marked  white  line  dividing  the  dark  area  of  the  under-parts 
from  the  grey  of  the  back. 

Both  species  are  strictly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  reside 
during  the  day  in  burrows,  which  are  probably  excavated  by  them- 
selves. The  Indian  species  is  most  commonly  met  with  in  hilly  regions,  or  along 
the  high-scarped  banks  of  the  great  rivers,  which  afford  good  situations  in  which 
to  construct  its  burrows.  Ratels  generally  go  about  in  pairs,  and  feed  on  rats, 
birds,  frogs,  insects,  and  honey ;  while  in  cultivated  districts  they  commit  frequent 
raids  on  poultry.  The  accusation  of  digging  up  corpses  from  graveyards,  which 
has  earned  for  the  Indian  species  the  name  of  "  Gravedigger  "  among  Anglo-Indians, 
is,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  probably  unfounded.  The  African  species  exhibits 
a  very  strongly-marked  taste  for  honey,  together  with  the  larvae  of  bees  in  the 
combs ;  digging  out  the  latter  from  hollow  trees  by  the  aid  of  its  powerful  front 
claws.  The  account  given  by  Sparrmann  of  the  ratel's  mode  of  operations  when 
about  to  attack  a  bees'  nest  is  not,  however,  to  be  wholly  relied  upon,  since  it  is 
largely  drawn  from  native  sources  of  information. 

In  captivity  ratels  are  easily  tamed,  and  frequently  exhibit  a  peculiar  habit 
of  turning  complete  somersaults  each  time  they  walk  up  and  down  the  cages  in 
which  they  are  confined. 


THE  EIGHT  HALF  OP  THE 
PALATE  OF  THE  FOSSIL 
INDIAN  EATEL. 

in.  molar  tooth  ;  pA,  fourth 
premolar,  or  flesh  -  tooth  ;  c. 
canine  tooth,  or  tusk  (broken). 


Habits. 


BADGERS.  83 

From  the  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  North-Eastern  India, 

belonging  to  the  Pliocene  period,  and  likewise  from  formations  of 

corresponding  age  in  the  Punjab,  there  have  been  obtained  the  remains  of  ratels 

closely  allied  to  the  living  species ;  so  that  it  may  be  concluded  that  India  was  the 

original  home  of  these  animals,  and  that  thence  they  migrated  into  Africa. 

THE  AMERICAN  BADGER. 
Genus  Taxidea. 

The  American  badger  (Taxidea  americana)  brings  us  to  the  first  of  four 
genera  which  may  be  collectively  called  badgers,  and  the  whole  of  which  are 
confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  They  all  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as 
in  the  martens,  that  is  to  say,  38,  of  which  §  are  incisors,  }  canines,  ^  premolars, 
and  |  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaws.  All  of  them  have  stoutly  built  bodies,  and 
short  limbs  adapted  for  digging ;  while,  with  one  exception,  the  tail  is  very  short. 
They  are  further  characterised  by  the  unusually  large  size  of  the  molar  tooth  of 
the  upper  jaw,  and  likewise  by  the.  elongation  of  the  posterior  heel  of  the  flesh- 
tooth  of  the  lower  jaw. 

In  the  American  badger  the  skull  is  very  wide  posteriorly,  the  body  depressed, 
and  the  tail  very  short.  The  skull  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
true  badgers  by  the  proportionately  larger  size  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth,  and  the 
smaller  upper  molar,  which  is  triangular  in  form,  with  the  apex  directed  outwards. 
The  fore-claws  are  enormous,  the  eyes  are  very  small,  and  the  muzzle  is  hairy  right 
up  to  the  obliquely  truncated  nostrils.  The  low,  rounded,  and  broad  ears  are 
remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  their  apertures.  In  length  the  animal,  from 
the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  measures  about  24  inches,  and  the  tail  6  inches. 
The  general  colour  of  the  coarse  fur  of  the  body  is  a  blackish  grizzle,  mingled  with 
either  white,  grey,  or  tawny,  or  the  whole  of  these  together,  on  the  upper-parts, 
while  below  it  is  uniformly  whitish,  sometimes  shaded  with  grey  or  tawny.  The 
head  is  darker  than  the  body,  with  a  white  stripe  down  the  middle,  and  the  limbs 
are  blackish  brown. 

The  ordinary  form  of  the  American  badger  extends  from  British 

North  America,  from  at  least  latitude  58°,  over  the  greater  portion  of 

the  United  States.     Near  the  Mexican  border  of  the  States,  as  in  Eastern  and 

Central  Mexico  itself,  it  is,  however,  replaced  by  a  variety  distinguished  by  a  white 

stripe,  sometimes  interrupted,  running  down  the  back  from  the  nose  to  the  tail. 

In  habits  the  American  badger  appears  to  closely  resemble  the 
common  European  species,  being  strictly  nocturnal,  and  living  in 
burrows  constructed  by  itself.  In  the  colder  portion  of  its  habitat  it  hibernates. 
Although  but  very  seldom  seen,  Dr.  Coues  states  that  these  animals  live  in  count- 
less numbers  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Missouri  River  and  its  tributaries ;  tracts 
of  sandy  soil  being  so  full  of  their  burrows  as  to  render  travelling  on  horseback 
dangerous.  These  badger -holes  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  prairie- 
marmot  by  their  larger  size  and  the  absence  of  a  circular  mound  of  earth  at  their 
entrance;  though  many  such  holes  are  merely  burrows  of  the  prairie-marmot, 


84  CARNIVORES. 

which  have  been  enlarged  by  the  badger  in  order  to  capture  the  original  excavator. 
This  abundance  of  the  American  badger  is  doubtless  largely  due  to  its  immunity 
from  foes  and  the  plentiful  supply  of  food. 

In  addition  to  the  various  species  of  Rodents,  which  form  its  principal  food, 
the  American  badger  will  also  eat  smaller  animals, — even  insects  and  snails, — while 
it  is  also  partial  to  birds'  eggs  and  to  bees'  nests  with  their  honey  and  larvae.  In 
disposition  it  is  shy  and  retiring,  always  seeking  to  avoid  rather  than  to  court 
danger.  If  brought  to  bay,  it  will  fight  with  all  the  fierceness  and  stubbornness 
characteristic  of  its  European  cousin,  and  it  also  exhibits  the  same  tenacity  of  life. 
In  some  parts  of  the  Western  States  badger-baiting  used  to  be  as  favourite  a  sport 
as  it  once  was  in  our  own  country,  but  it  is  now  discontinued. 

But  little  appears  to  have  been  ascertained  as  to  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
American  badger,  but  it  seems  that  three  or  four  is  the  usual  number  in  a  litter. 
In  British  North  America  the  period  of  hibernation  lasts  from  October  till  April, 
and  the  animals  are  said  to  come  forth  after  their  long  fast  in  good  condition. 

American  badger  fur  is  of  some  value,  and  is  at  times  largely 
used  for  robes,  muffs,  tippets,  and  trimmings ;  while  a  considerable 
quantity  of  the  long  hairs  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  shaving  and  other 
brushes,  although  in  many  cases  the  hairs  are  too  soft  for  this  purpose.  In  1873 
the  prices  of  American  badger  skins  varied  from  one  to  seven  shillings  each  in 
London ;  while  three  years  later  the  price  per  skin  for  the  best  samples  in  New 
York  was  one  dollar.  At  the  present  time,  according  to  Mr.  Poland,  the  price  in 
London  varies  from  six  to  twenty-two  shillings. 

THE  COMMON  BADGER. 
Genus  Meles. 

The  common  badger  (Meles  taxus)  is  the  best  known  member  of  a  group 
of  five  closely -allied  species  distributed  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  although  unknown  in  the  Indian  and  Malayan  regions.  All  these 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COMMON  BADGER. 


animals  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  American  badger  by  the  characters 
of  the  skull  and  teeth.  The  skull  itself  is  characterised  by  the  great  height 
of  the  bony  ridge  running  along  the  middle  of  the  brain-case,  and  afford- 
ing attachment  for  the  powerful  muscles  which  render  the  badger's  bite  so 


BADGERS.  85 

severe.  Then,  again,  the  upper  molar  tooth,  instead  of  being  triangular  and  of 
nearly  the  same  size  as  the  flesh-tooth,  is  oblong  in  form,  and  very  much  larger 
than  the  latter,  recalling  in  this  respect  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  bears ;  a 
further  analogy  with  that  group  being  presented  by  the  small  size  of  the  first 
three  premolar  teeth.  Another  feature  in  which  the  true  badgers  differ  from  the 
American  badger  is  to  be  found  in  the  great  development  of  the  posterior  heel  of 
the  lower  flesh-tooth,  which  exceeds  in  length  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  the 


THE   COMMON   BADGER  (l  nat.  size). 

tooth,  this  expanded  heel  having  to  bite  against  the  enlarged  upper  molar  tooth. 
The  skull  of  the  badger  is  also  peculiar  on  account  of  the  close  interlocking  of  the 
lower  jaw  with  the  skull  proper,  the  articulation  being  so  perfect  that  it  is  im- 
practicable to  detach  the  one  from  the  other  without  fracture.  Needless  to  say,  it 
is,  therefore,  impossible  for  one  of  these  animals  to  dislocate  its  lower  jaw. 

In  general  bodily  conformation  the  Old  World  badgers  very  closely  resemble 
their  transatlantic  ally ;  and  their  hairs  are  similarly  banded  with  different  colours, 
producing  the  well-known  grizzled  hue  of  the  fur  so  characteristic  of  all  these 
animals.  The  skin  of  the  common  badger  is  remarkably  large  and  loose,  enabling 


86  CARNIVORES. 

the  animal,  when  seized  by  almost  any  part,  to  turn  and  bite  its  aggressor ;  and  the 
fur  is  long  and  loose.  With  the  exception  of  a  black  stripe  on  each  side,  starting 
between  the  nose  and  the  eye  and  running  backwards  to  include  the  ear  (of  which 
the  tip  is  white),  the  head  of  the  badger  is  white.  The  lower  jaw,  throat,  and  all 
the  under-parts,  as  well  as  the  limbs,  are  black ;  while  the  upper-parts  are  reddish 
grey,  and  the  flanks  and  tail  light  grey.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  badger  from 
the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  will  vary  from  about  25  to  29  inches,  that  of  the 
tail  being  about  7|  inches ;  and  the  weight  has  been  estimated  at  from  25  to  30  Ibs. 
The  common  badger  or,  as  it  used  to  be  called  in  England,  the 

brock,  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  with  the  exception 
of  the  north  of  Scandinavia  and  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  and  it  is  also  widely  spread 
over  Northern  Asia,  where  it  ranges  in  Siberia  as  far  as  the  river  Lena.  It  is 
probably  also  this  species  which  inhabits  Syria;  but  it  is  at  present  uncertain 
where  the  range  of  the  common  badger  in  Western  Asia  terminates,  and  where 
that  of  the  smaller  and  paler  coloured  Persian  badger  (M.  canescens)  of  Eastern 
Persia  commences.  In  China  and  other  parts  of  continental  Asia  the  group  is 
represented  by  the  white-tailed  badger  (M.  leucurus)  and  the  Chinese  badger 
( M.  chinensis) ;  while  a  fifth  species  (M.  anacuma)  inhabits  Japan. 

On  the  continent,  especially  in  many  parts  of  Germany  (where 

it  is  known  as  dachs),  the  badger  is  very  common,  and  does  much 
damage  to  the  vineyards.  In  the  British  Islands,  as  we  may  judge  both  from  the 
frequency  with  which  its  remains  are  met  with  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial 
deposits,  as  well  as  from  the  number  of  places  in  England,  such  as  Brockenhurst 
and  Brockley,  which  derive  their  names  from  this  animal,  the  badger  must  once 
have  been  very  commonly  distributed.  At  the  present  day,  writes  Mr.  J.  E. 
Harting,  "  many  people  seem  to  be  under  the  impression  that  the  badger,  if  not 
actually  extinct  in  the  British  Islands,  is  at  all  events  a  very  scarce  animal.  This 
is  far  from  being  the  case.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  badger  is  still  not  at 
all  uncommon,  and  in  certain  districts  which  might  be  named  it  is  even  on  the 
increase,  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  it.  The  reason  for  its  supposed  scarcity 
arises  from  two  causes,  firstly,  the  nature  of  its  haunts,  which  are  generally  in  the 
deep  recesses  of  large  woods,  fox-covers,  and  quarries ;  and,  secondly,  the  nature  of 
its  habits,  which  are  shy  and  retiring,  and  chiefly  nocturnal." 

The  favourite  haunts  of  the  badger  are  the  deepest  and  thickest  woods,  or 
coppice-clad  cliffs  and  quarries ;  and  in  such  situations  it  digs  a  large  and  roomy 
burrow.  Here  it  sleeps  during  the  day,  issuing  forth  at  evening  in  search  of  food, 
and  sometimes  joining  with  its  fellows  in  this  quest ;  Mr.  Harting  having  observed 
three  badgers  together  in  Gloucestershire,  while  the  late  Mr.  C.  St.  John  on  one 
occasion  saw  no  less  than  seven  in  company  on  the  shore  of  Loch  Ness.  In  the 
colder  portions  of  its  habitat  the  badger  hibernates  during  the  winter,  the  length 
of  the  hibernation  depending  upon  the  latitude  and  the  degree  of  severity  of  the 
season.  In  England  the  hibernation  appears  to  be  always  interrupted.  Mr.  Ellis, 
of  Loughborough,  who  has  a  number  of  badgers  on  his  estate,  recently  wrote  that 
he  has  known  one  of  the  burrows  covered  with  snow  for  a  fortnight  or  more, 
during  which  time  the  animals  remained  below,  and  only  ventured  out  when  a  thaw 
came.  In  Sweden  it  is  stated  that  badgers  generally  retire  about  the  middle  of 


BADGERS.  87 

November,  and  do  not  reappear  till  the  middle  of  the  following  March,  unless  there 
should  be  a  protracted  thaw,  during  which  they  will  sally  forth  in  search  of  food. 
In  order  to  afford  additional  security,  the  mouth  of  the  burrow  is  blocked  from  the 
inside  by  its  occupant.  The  burrow  is  always  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  is  lined 
with  fern  and  other  vegetable  substances ;  and  Mr.  Ellis  states  that  "  as  the  winter 
approaches,  the  old  bedding  is  replaced  by  dry  fern  and  grass  raked  together  by 
the  badger's  powerful  claws.  This  is  often  left  to  wither  in  little  heaps  till  dry 
enough  for  the  purpose.  Partially  concealed,  I  have  watched  a  badger  gathering 
fern,  and  using  a  force  in  its  collection  quite  surprising." 

The  peculiar  conformation  of  the  upper  molar  teeth  of  the  badger  at  once 
proclaims  that  the  diet  of  the  animal  is  by  no  means  exclusively  carnivorous ;  and 
Professor  T.  Bell  states  that  its  food  "  consists  indifferently  of  various  roots,  earth- 
nuts,  beech-mast,  fruits,  the  eggs  of  birds,  some  of  the  smaller  mammals,  frogs,  and 
insects."  It  is  also  ascertained  that  the  badger  is  in  the  habit  of  digging  up  wasps' 
nests  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  upon  the  larvae  in  the  combs ;  and  it  has  an  equal 
partiality  for  the  contents  of  the  nests  of  wild  bees. 

It  has  been  very  generally  asserted  that  badgers  and  foxes  do  not  get  on  well 
together,  and  that  the  former  kill  the  cubs  of  the  latter.  Mr.  Ellis  states,  however, 
that,  on  his  estate  at  least,  "  the  badgers  and  the  foxes  are  not  unfriendly,  and  last 
spring  a  litter  of  cubs  was  brought  forth  very  near  the  badgers ;  but  their  mother 
removed  them  after  they  had  grown  familiar,  as  she  probably  thought  they  were 
showing  themselves  more  than  was  prudent."  Mr.  Harting  also  mentions  more 
than  one  instance  where  these  two  animals  have  lived  amicably  together  in  the 
same  burrow ;  in  one  of  these  cases  a  fox  having  annually  given  birth  to  cubs  in 
the  badger's  den. 

Within  the  deep  recesses  of  its  burrow,  which  often  terminates  in  a  fork-like 
manner,  are  born  the  young  of  the  badger ;  the  number  in  a  litter  being  usually 
three  or  four.  The  young  are  produced  during  the  summer ;  and  are  at  first  blind, 
not  acquiring  the  power  of  sight  till  the  tenth  day.  It  is  a  curious,  but  apparently 
well-ascertained  circumstance,  that  the  female  badger,  like  the  roe-deer,  has  the 
power  of  extending  the  time  of  gestation  considerably  beyond  the  usual  period. 

Quoting  once  more  from  Mr.  Ellis,  that  gentleman,  writing  in  the  autumn  of 
1877,  states  that  on  his  estate  "  in  June  the  first  young  badger  appeared  at  the 
mouth  of  the  earth,  and  was  soon  followed  by  three  others,  and  then  by  their 
mother.  After  this,  they  continued  to  show  every  evening,  and  soon  learnt  to  take 
the  food  prepared  for  them.  The  young  are  now  almost  full  grown,  and,  forgetting 
their  natural  timidity,  will  feed  so  near  that  I  have  placed  my  hand  on  the  back 
of  one  of  them.  The  old  ones  are  more  wary,  but  often  feed  with  their  family, 
although  at  a  more  cautious  distance.  Their  hearing  and  sense  of  smell  are  most 
acute,  and  it  is  curious  to  see  them  watch,  with  lifted  head  and  ears  erect,  then,  if 
all  is  quiet,  search  the  ground  for  a  raisin  or  a  date.  But  the  least  strange  sight 
or  sound  alarms  them,  and  they  rush  headlong  to  earth  with  amazing  speed." 
When  taken  young,  badgers  may  be  easily  and  perfectly  tamed. 

The  difficulty  of  "  drawing  a  badger "  when  in  a  tub  is  well 

known,  and  tries  the  pluck  of  the  best  bred  terriers  to  the  utmost. 

It  appears,  however,  that  in  Germany  dachshunds  usually  bolt  the  badger  from  its 


88  CARNIVORES. 

burrow,  unless  they  are  foiled  by  the  creature  digging  deeper  down  and  burying 
himself  beneath  the  upturned  soil.  Other  methods  employed  in  Germany  are 
either  digging  the  animal  out  by  following  the  course  of  the  burrow,  or  by  boring 
directly  down  upon  it  by  means  of  a  kind  of  gigantic  corkscrew.  Digging  out  is 
also  sometimes  resorted  to  in  England,  but  the  more  common  plan  is  to  tie  an 
empty  sack,  with  a  running  noose  round  the  mouth,  in  the  entrance  of  the  badger's 
burrow  while  the  occupant  is  abroad,  and  then  drive  him  in  with  dogs. 

The  fur  and  hairs  of  the  common  badger  are  used  for  the  same 
Fur 

purposes  as  those  of  its  American  cousin ;  but  the  hairs,  being  stiffer, 

are  better  adapted  for  brushes. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  fossil  remains  of  the  common 
'  badger  are  met  with  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial  deposits  of 
this  country ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  they  also  occur  in  those  of  the  Continent. 
Beyond  these,  however,  no  fossil  badgers  have  hitherto  been  met  with,  except  in 
strata  of  the  Pliocene  period  in  Persia.  When  our  comparatively  full  acquaintance 
with  the  extinct  Tertiary  Mammals  of  Europe  and  Northern  India  is  taken  into 
account,  this  remarkable  absence  of  the  remains  of  badgers  is  strongly  suggestive 
that  Persia  or  the  adjacent  regions  must  have  been  the  original  ancestral  home  of 
these  animals,  from  whence  they  migrated  westwards. 


THE  MALAYAN  BADGER. 
Genus  Mydaus. 

As  being  the  sole  representative  of  the  badgers  inhabiting  the  islands  of  the 
Malayan  region,  the  curious  looking  animal  depicted  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion may  be  appropriately  designated  the  Malayan  badger.  It  is  known  to  the 
natives  of  Java  as  the  Teledu,  while  by  the  Germans  it  is  termed,  on  account  of 
its  evil  odour,  Stinkdachs ;  its  technical  name  being  Mydaus  meliceps. 

The  Malayan  badger  forms  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  true 
badgers  and  the  under-mentioned  sand-badgers,  having  a  tail  shorter  than  in 
the  former,  while  its  cheek-teeth  are  much  more  like  those  of  the  latter.  It  is 
a  comparatively  small  animal,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  being  about  15 
inches,  and  that  of  the  stumpy  tail  only  some  f  of  an  inch.  With  the  exception 
of  the  back  of  the  head,  the  top  of  the  neck,  a  stripe  down  the  back,  and  the  tip 
of  the  tail,  which  are  whitish,  the  general  colour  of  the  long  and  thick  fur  is  dark 
brown,  but  lighter  below  than  above.  There  is  a  kind  of  crest  of  long  hair  on  the 
back  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  muzzle  is  long  and  pointed,  and  almost  entirely 
naked  in  front  of  the  eyes,  with  the  flesh-coloured  nostrils  obliquely  truncated  and 
mobile.  The  Malayan  badger  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  mountains  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  ranging  in  the  former  island  from  an  elevation  of  about  five 
hundred  to  upwards  of  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  Borneo 
it  is  found  at  elevations  of  not  more  than  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet,  and  in 
Sumatra  does  not  ascend  above  one  thousand  feet.  It  is  a  nocturnal  and  burrow- 
ing animal,  not  uncommon  in  some  districts. 

Horsfield,  the  original  describer  of  this  animal,  says  that  when  killed  carefully, 


BADGERS. 


89 


and  the  scent-glands  immediately  removed,  the  flesh  of  the  Malayan  badger  is 
quite  free  from  odour,  and  far  from  unpalatable.  The  secretion  of  the  glands  is, 
however,  foetid  in  the  extreme,  and  has  been  compared  to  that  of  the  skunks.  As 
in  the  latter,  it  can  be  ejected  by  the  animal  to  a  considerable  distance.  We  have 
but  little  information  as  to  the  habits  of  this  animal  in  a  wild  state ;  but  it  is 
stated  to  be  gentle  and  easily  tamed  when  in  captivity. 


THE   MALAYAN  BADGER  (f  Hat.  size). 


THE  SAND-BADGER. 
Genus  Arctonyx. 

With  the  sand-badger  or,  as  it  is  often  termed,  the  hog-badger  (Arctonyx 
collaris),  we  come  to  our  last  representative  of  the  badgers,  and  at  the  same  time  of 
the  present  section  of  the  Weasel  family.  The  ordinary  sand-badger  is  an  Indian 
species,  ranging  from  the  Eastern  Himalaya  through  Assam  and  the  neighbouring 
regions  to  Tenasserim  and  Lower  Burma.  There  is,  however,  also  a  smaller  species 
(A.  taxoides},  inhabiting  Assam  and  Arakan,  and  possibly  China ;  while  there  is 
probably  a  third  in  Eastern  Tibet. 

The  sand-badgers  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group 
by  their  proportionately  longer  tails  ;  that  of  the  Indian  species  being  from  a  quarter 
to  a  third  the  length  of  the  head  and  body.  The  long  and  naked  snout  is  very  like 
that  of  the  Malayan  badger;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  the  ears  also  small  and 
rounded.  The  body  is  rather  flattened  from  side  to  side ;  and  only  a  portion  of 
the  naked  soles  of  the  feet  are  applied  to  the  ground  in  walking,  so  that  these 
animals  may  be  described  as  digitigrade  rather  than  plantigrade  when  in  motion. 


9o  CARNIVORES. 

The  pelage  consists  of  a  full  soft  under-fur,  mingled  with  long  stiff  hairs.  In 
colour  the  Indian  sand-badger  is  dirty  grey  both  above  and  below,  with  a  more  or 
less  marked  blackish  tinge  on  the  back,  most  of  the  individual  hairs  being  dirty 
white  throughout  their  length,  but  the  longer  ones  on  the  back  and  sides  having 
black  tips.  The  head  is  white,  with  some  variable  black  bands,  while  the  lower 
parts  and  limbs  are  dusky,  the  limbs  being  sometimes  black.  Here,  then,  we  have 
another  instance  of  the  tendency  in  the  present  family  for  the  under-parts  to  be 
lighter  than  the  upper  regions.  In  length  the  Indian  sand-badger  measures  about 
30  inches  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  length  of  the  latter,  inclusive 
of  the  hair  at  the  tip,  being  about  11  inches. 

The  most  marked  peculiarities  of  these  animals  are,  however,  to  be  found  in 
the  structure  of  their  skulls.  Thus  the  skull  differs  from  that  of  any  other 
mammals,  except  some  of  the  edentates  and  dolphins,  in  having  the  bony  palate 
prolonged  as  far  back  as  the  level  of  the  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  condyle  of 
the  lower  jaw.  The  teeth  are  numerically  the  same  as  in  the  true  badgers,  but  the 
upper  molar  tooth,  instead  of  forming  a  regular  oblong,  has  its  hindmost  outer 
angle  excavated,  so  that  the  inner  border  of  the  tooth  is  much  longer  than  the 
outer  one.  The  first  premolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  is  very  minute,  and  is  often 
soon  shed. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  the  Indian  sand-badger,  from  notes 
Ha  bits 

supplied  by  Colonel  Tickell,  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  it  "  frequents 

undulating  stony  ground  or  small  hills  among  jungle,  and  lives  in  fissures  of  the 
rocks  or  holes  dug  by  itself.  It  is  thoroughly  nocturnal.  In  captivity  it  is  dull 
and  uninteresting,  feeding  voraciously  on  meats,  fish,  reptiles,  or  fruits,  and  it  is 
particularly  fond  of  earth-worms.  One  individual  used  to  pass  the  day  sleeping  in 
a  hole  that  it  had  dug,  and  was  very  savage  if  disturbed.  When  angry  it  made  a 
loud  grunting  noise  and  bit  fiercely.  It  was  dull  of  sight,  and  its  only  acute  sense 
appeared  to  be  that  of  smell.  It  was  in  the  habit  of  raising  its  snout  in  the  air  in 
order  to  scent  any  one  who  approached,  much  as  a  pig  does.  This  animal  had  no 
disagreeable  smell." 

THE   OTTERS. 
Genus  Lutra. 

The  otters,  which,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  sea-otter,  are  included  in  a 
single  genus,  constitute  the  third  and  last  main  group  into  which  the  members  of 
the  Weasel  family  are  divided.  They  are  characterised  generally  by  their  short 
and  rounded  feet, — although  the  hind-feet  of  the  sea-otter  are  an  exception  in  this 
respect, — their  webbed  toes,  and  their  small,  curved,  and  blunt  claws.  They  all 
have  very  broad  and  flattened  heads,  furnished  with  small  external  ears,  and  joined 
to  the  long  flattened  body  by  a  thick  neck,  which  passes  imperceptibly  from  the 
head  in  front  into  the  trunk  behind.  The  tail  is  moderately  long,  while  the  limbs 
are  extremely  short.  The  fur  is  soft,  thick,  and  of  a  uniformly  brownish  colour  over 
the  whole  body,  except  on  the  under-parts,  where  it  is  generally  of  a  more  greyish 
hue.  The  teeth  of  the  otters  are  characterised  by  the  nearly  square  form  of  the 
molar  in  the  upper  jaw,  which,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  has  its  inner 


OTTERS.  91 

portion  much  expanded.  All  the  species  of  these  animals  are  thoroughly  aquatic 
in  their  habits. 

The  typical  otters,  which  include  all  the  species  except  the  sea -otter,  are 
characterised  by  their  hind-feet  being  of  normal  form,  and  by  the  number  and 
structure  of  their  teeth.  As  a  rule,  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  36,  of  which,  on 
each  side  of  the  jaws,  |  are  incisors,  \  canines,  ^  premolars,  and  \  molars.  The 
first  premolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  is,  however,  always  very  small,  and  in  some 
species  (as  in  the  case  of  the  palate  here  figured)  may  be  totally  wanting,  thus 
reducing  the  number  of  the  teeth  to  34. 
The  general  characteristics  of  the  teeth  of 
the  upper  jaw  will  be  apparent  from  the 
figure,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  hinder 
teeth  are  furnished  with  a  number  of  sharp 
cusps,  admirably  adapted  to  assist  in  retain- 
ing the  slippery  prey  of  these  animals.  In 
addition  to  the  peculiar  characters  of  the 
teeth,  the  skull  of  an  otter  may  always  be 
recognised  at  a  glance  by  its  extreme  con- 
striction immediately  behind  the  sockets  of  pALAT£  OF  THE  CLAWLESS  OTTER 
the  eyes,  and  the  equally  marked  expansion  _ 

*  .      rf  .  The  uppermost  tooth  on  each  side  is  the  molar, 

of    the   flattened   brain-case;    the   portion   of  immediately  below  which  is  the  flesh-tooth. 

the  skull  forming  the  face  being  also  very 

short  in  proportion  to  the  remainder.  The  tail  is  thick  at  the  base,  and  some- 
what flattened  from  above  downwards.  In  most  cases  there  are  short  claws 
on  all  the  feet,  but  in  a  few  species  they  may  be  either  rudimentary  or 
absent. 

In  all  parts  of  their  organisation  otters  are  admirably  adapted  for  their 
particular  mode  of  life ;  their  elongated  forms,  with  but  slight  constriction  at  the 
neck,  being  perfectly  suited  to  glide  through  the  water  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  speed ;  their  thick,  dense  fur  forming  a  perfect  protection  against  chill,  and 
their  teeth,  as  we  have  mentioned,  being  specially  modified  in  order  both  to  hold 
such  slippery  prey  as  fishes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  pierce  with  facility  their  hard 
scales.  Probably,  in  consequence  of  their  precisely  similar  habits  and  mode  of  life, 
all  the  otters  are  so  like  one  another  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine  the 
exact  number  of  species,  and  scarcely  any  group  has  proved  more  puzzling  in  this 
respect  to  the  systematic  zoologist.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  are  about  ten 
species  of  true  otters,  of  which  one  is  European  and  Oriental,  three  are  exclusively 
Oriental,  two  are  African,  and  four  American.  The  largest  of  all  is  the  Brazilian 
otter,  while  the  two  smallest  species  are  the  feline  otter  of  South  America  and  the 
Indian  clawless  otter.  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  genus  is  wider  than 
that  of  any  other  single  Mammalian  genus,  with  the  exception  of  certain  bats ; 
otters  having  been  obtained  from  all  parts  of  the  world  except  the  Antarctic  and 
Arctic  regions,  Australasia,  and  Madagascar.  We  shall  allude  to  the  various  species 
of  the  genus  according  to  their  geographical  distribution. 

The  European  otter  (L.  vulqaris),  which  is  the  one  represented 
European  Otter.  . 

in  our  coloured  Plate,  is  taken  first,  as  being  not  only  the  type  of  the 


92  CARNIVORES. 

genus,  but   likewise  the  best   known ;    and  many  of   our   remarks  on   its  habits 
will  also  apply  equally  well  to  the  others. 

In  size  this  species  occupies  a  kind  of  central  position  in  the  group,  the  average 
length  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  being  about  26  to  28  inches,  and  that 
of  the  tail  15  to  16  inches,  while  the  weight  is  from  16  to  18,  up  to  as  much  as  24 
Ibs.  The  fur  consists  of  a  soft  under-fur,  in  which  the  hairs  are  whitish  grey, 
with  brown  tips,  and  of  longer  stiff  hairs,  which  are  greyish  at  the  base,  and  rich 
brown  at  their  tips  on  the  upper-parts  of  the  body  and  the  outer  surfaces  of  the 
limbs ;  the  cheeks,  throat,  the  under-parts  of  the  body,  and  the  inner  surfaces  of 
the  limbs  being  brownish  grey.  The  upper  margin  of  the  naked  nose  terminates 
behind  in  an  angle,  while,  as  in  the  other  species,  the  muzzle  is  provided  with  long 
"  whiskers."  In  the  Indian  variety,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  a  distinct 
species,  the  fur  of  the  back  is  generally  grizzled,  while  the  size  of  the  animal  is 
slightly  less  than  in  the  ordinary  European  form.  The  claws  on  all  the  feet  are 
well  developed,  and  there  are  four  premolar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 

The  common  otter  is  found  all  over  Europe  in  suitable  localities, 
Distribution.  •  •    »    • 

and  also  extends  over  a  large  portion  or  Asia  northwards  or   the 

Himalaya.     It  is  likewise  represented  by  the  ordinary  form  in  the  North- Western 


SKELETON  OF  THE   COMMON  OTTER. 


Himalaya,  and  by  the  above-mentioned  smaller  and  greyer  variety  in  India  and 
Ceylon,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  districts  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  the  common  otter,  Bell  observes  that 
Habits. 

"it  swims  and  dives  with  great  readiness,  and  with  peculiar  ease 

and  elegance  of  movements;  and  although  its  action  on  land  is  far  from  being 
awkward  and  difficult,  yet  it  is  certainly  in  the  water  that  the  beautiful  adaptation 
of  its  structure  to  its  habits  is  most  strikingly  exhibited.  It  swims  in  nearly  a 
horizontal  position,  and  dives  instantaneously  after  the  fish  that  may  glide  beneath 
it,  or  pursues  it  under  water,  changing  its  course  as  the  fish  darts  in  various 
directions  to  escape  from  it,  and,  when  the  prey  is  secured,  brings  it  on  shore  to  its 
retreat  to  feed.  As  the  otter  lives  exclusively  on  fish,  when  it  can  procure  them, 
it  frequents  lakes,  rivers,  smaller  streams,  or  ponds,  and  not  unfrequently  descends 
to  the  sea ;  and  the  havoc  which  it  makes  among  the  finny  inhabitants  is  almost 
incredible.  In  feeding,  it  holds  the  fish  between  its  fore-paws,  eating  first  the  head, 
and  then  downwards  to  the  vent,  leaving  the  tail."  The  fish  actually  eaten  by  the 
otter  form,  however,  but  a  small  proportion  of  those  captured ;  this  animal  being 
one  of  those  which  appears  to  delight  in  killing  for  killing's  sake.  In  India  the 


OTTERS.  93 

common  otter  is  occasionally  found  in  the  large  tanks  so  common  throughout  the 
country,  and  it  is  stated  by  Mr.  Blanford  to  be  common  in  the  great  backwaters 
off  the  Western  Coast,  and  in  the  Chilka  Lake  of  Orissa. 

Otters  are  generally  found  either  in  pairs  or  in  family  parties  of  five  or  six 
individuals,  the  latter  comprising  the  parents  and  their  partially  or  full-grown 
progeny.  Their  habitations  are  usually  made  in  or  near  the  banks  of  the  waters 
they  frequent,  the  hollows  beneath  the  roots  of  trees  growing  on  a  river's  margin 
being  especial  favourites,  while  in  hilly  districts  the  clefts  between  rocks  are  selected, 
and  where  the  soil  is  of  an  alluvial  nature  deep  burrows,  with  several  entrances, 
one  of  which  usually  opens  beneath  the  water,  are  excavated  in  the  banks.  A  large 
pile  of  loose  stones,  forming  one  of  the  piers  of  a  timber  bridge  over  the  Indus 
above  the  town  of  Leh  has  long  been  the  favourite  resort  of  a  colony  of  otters. 
The  presence  of  numerous  bones  and  scales  of  fish,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  web- 
footed  tracks  of  the  animals  themselves,  will  always  indicate  whether  or  not  an 
otter's  den  or  "  holt "  is  inhabited. 

Otters  apparently  never  hibernate,  and  in  consequence  must  be  hard  pressed 
to  supply  themselves  with  food  during  the  winter  in  the  colder  portions  of  their 
habitat.  At  such  times  they  are  asserted  in  inhabited  districts  to  make  occasional 
raids  on  the  farmyard,  where  they  have  been  known  to  kill  poultry  and,  it  is  said, 
even  young  lambs  and  pigs.  Water-fowl  are  probably  also  attacked  at  such 
periods,  while  it  is  stated  that  eggs  are  always  acceptable  to  these  animals.  In 
addition  to  fish,  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  eating  frogs  and  such  fresh-water  or 
marine  crustaceans  as  are  found  in  the  waters  they  frequent. 

Although  chiefly  nocturnal, — more  especially  in  districts  where  they  are  much 
harassed, — otters  may  not  unf  requently  be  seen  hunting  in  the  morning  and  evening, 
Mr.  Blanford  stating  that  he  has  frequently  observed  them  in  India  at  work  up 
to  nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning.  When  fishing,  it  appears  that  all  the 
members  of  a  party  of  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  combining  their  efforts  to  surround 
or  drive  a  shoal  of  fish.  General  M'Master  had  on  one  occasion  the  good  fortune  to 
observe  a  party  comprising  at  least  six  individuals  thus  engaged  in  the  Chilka  Lake 
of  Orissa.  "  They  worked,"  writes  the  narrator  of  the  incident, "  most  systematically 
in  a  semicircle,  with  intervals  of  about  fifty  yards  between  each,  having,  I  suppose, 
a  large  shoal  of  fish  in  the  centre,  for  every  now  and  then  an  otter  would  disappear, 
and  generally,  when  it  was  again  seen,  it  was  well  within  the  semicircle,  with 
a  fish  in  its  jaws,  caught  more  for  pleasure  than  for  profit,  as  the  fish,  so  far  as  I 
could  see,  were  always  left  untouched  beyond  a  single  bite." 

The  large  size  of  the  aperture  in  the  skull  below  the  socket  of  the  eye  for  the 
transmission  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  muzzle,  indicates  that  the  "  whiskers  "  of 
the  otter  must  be  extremely  sensitive.  With  regard  to  their  powers  of  hearing, 
smell,  and  sight,  Mr.  Blanford  believes  that,  while  the  two  former  are  well  developed, 
otters  are  somewhat  deficient  in  the  latter.  Their  general  intelligence  is  decidedly 
high,  and  they  likewise  often  display  much  cunning  and  forethought,  more  especially 
in  avoiding  the  traps  set  for  their  capture.  When  excited  they  utter  a  kind  of 
yelping  bark,  and  they  are  stated  to  give  a  sort  of  whistle  as  an  alarm-note  to 
their  fellows.  There  is  still  a  dearth  of  information  as  to  the  breeding-habits  of 
the  otter.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  young  may  be  produced  at  any  season  of 


94  CARNIVORES. 

the  year,  although  the  winter  is  the  more  usual  time.  The  number  of  young  in  a 
litter  generally  varies  from  two  to  five,  the  cubs  themselves  being  born  blind. 

The  otter  is  readily  tamed  if  captured  at  a  sufficiently  early  age, 
Tame  Otters.  *  ,     ,          .,  ./     ...  J 

and  then  becomes  much  attached  to  its  owner,  whom  it  will  follow 

about  after  the  manner  of  a  dog.  The  natural  instincts  of  these  animals  are  taken 
advantage  of  by  the  native  fishermen  of  some  oriental  countries  to  aid  them  in 
their  avocations.  The  late  Bishop  Heber,  when  voyaging  up  one  of  the  rivers  of 
Bengal,  states  that  his  vessel  passed  "  a  row  of  no  less  than  nine  or  ten  large  and 
very  beautiful  otters  tethered  with  straw  collars  and  long  strings  to  the  bamboo 
stakes  on  the  banks.  Some  were  swimming  about  at  the  full  extent  of  their  strings, 
or  lying  half  in  and  half  out  of  the  water ;  others  were  rolling  themselves  in  the 
sun  on  the  sandy  bank,  uttering  a  shrill  whistling  noise,  as  if  in  play.  I  was  told 
that  most  of  the  fishermen  in  the  neighbourhood  kept  one  or  more  of  these  animals, 
who  were  almost  as  tame  as  dogs  and  of  great  use  in  fishing,  sometimes  driving  the 
shoals  into  the  nets,  sometimes  bringing  out  the  larger  fish  with  their  teeth." 
According  to  later  authorities  it  appears,  however,  that  the  bishop  was  misinformed 
as  to  the  otters  being  employed  to  catch  fish  with  their  teeth,  their  sole  use  in  India 
being  to  drive  the  latter  into  the  nets.  In  China,  on  the  other  hand,  otters  are 
actually  employed  in  the  former  operation. 

Otter-hunting  in  England  has  been  already  alluded  to  briefly 
under  the  head  of  the  otter-hound ;  and  from  the  facts  there  mentioned 
it  will  be  gathered  that  these  animals  are  still  fairly  numerous  in  many  of  the 
wilder  parts  of  the  country. 

Otter  fur,  from  its  close  texture,  fine  gloss,  and  rich  colour,  is 
Pelage.  .         .  .      . 

much  esteemed  as  a  trimming,  and  commands  a  rather  high  price  in 

the  market.  A  large  number  of  the  otter  skins  imported  into  this  country  belong, 
however,  to  the  North  American  species.  Skins  of  the  European  species  vary  from 
five  to  thirty  shillings  in  price. 

Fossil  remains  of  the  common  otter  have  been  obtained  from  the 
Fossil  Remains. 

superficial  deposits  and  caverns  of  this  country  and  the  Continent, 

and  likewise  from  the  so-called  "  forest-bed "  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  which  is  some- 
what older.  A  fossil  otter  from  the  still  more  ancient  Norwich  Crag,  belonging  to 
the  upper  portion  of  the  Pliocene  period  has,  moreover,  been  identified  with  the 
present  species.  i 

North  American          This  otter  (L.  canadensis)  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding 

otter.  by  the  much  larger  size  of  the  naked  area  at  the  tip  of  the  muzzle, 
which  extends  far  above  and  to  the  sides  of  the  nostrils,  instead  of  being  entirely 
confined  to  the  space  between  them,  as  in  the  latter.  According  to  Dr.  Coues,  it  is 
very  variable  in  point  of  size  and  colour.  It  may,  however,  attain  a  total  length 
of  4  feet  or  more,  while  the  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  liver-brown  with  a  purplish 
gloss,  the  chin,  throat,  and  under-parts  being  paler.  This  species  occurs  over  the 
whole  of  North  America  in  suitable  regions,  although  apparently  nowhere  very 
numerous;  its  northern  range  extending  along  the  Mackenzie  and  other  rivers 
nearly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Habits  There  does  not  appear  much  that  is  especially  noteworthy  or 

peculiar  in  the  habits  of  this  species.    Dr.  Hart  Merriam  states  that  in 


OTTERS.  95 

the  Adirondack  region  the  number  of  fresh- water  cray-fish  consumed  by  these  otters 
is  enormous,  this  crustacean  apparently  forming  as  important  a  portion  of  their  food 
as  fish.  The  same  writer  also  bears  testimony  as  to  the  long  journeys  undertaken 
by  the  North  American  otter  from  river  to  river  across  country ;  these  journeys 
mostly  taking  place  during  the  winter.  On  such  occasions  they  "  go  so  fast  that  a 
man  has  great  difficulty  in  overtaking  them.  On  the  ice  they  proceed  by  a  series 
of  what  boys  call  '  a  run  and  a  slide,'  that  is,  they  make  several  jumps  and  then 
slide  ahead  flat  on  their  bellies,  as  far  as  their  impetus  and  the  smoothness  of  the 
ice  permit,  and  then  do  the  same  thing  over  again,  and  so  on."  A  curious  habit  of 
this  otter  is  its  propensity  for  sliding  down  smooth  and  steep  banks,  either  of  snow 
or  of  mud.  Such  gambols  have  been  watched  by  several  observers,  from  whose 
accounts  it  appears  that  in  winter  the  animals  select  the  highest  ridge  of  snow,  on 
to  the  top  of  which  they  scramble,  whence,  as  Dr.  J.  D.  Godman  writes,  they  give 
themselves  an  impulse  with  their  hind-legs,  and  swiftly  glide  head-foremost  down 
the  declivity,  sometimes  for  a  distance  of  twenty  yards.  This  sport  they  continue 
apparently  with  the  greatest  enjoyment  until  fatigue  or  hunger  induces  them  to 
desist.  A  pair  on  a  mud-bank  made  upwards  of  twenty-two  slides  before  they 
were  disturbed.  The  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  said  to  be  usually  two,  although 
there  may  occasionally  be  either  one  or  three.  They  are  born  about  the  middle  of 
April,  and  during  the  summer  and  autumn  the  female  is  generally  to  be  seen 
accompanied  by  her  two  young. 

The  fur  of  the  otter  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  any  other 
North  American  animal,  and  is  in  good  condition  from  November  till 
the  spring,  but  is  at  its  best  period  during  the  latter  season.  It  is  stated  by  Dr. 
Coues  that  the  number  of  skins  of  the  American  otter  exported  by  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  to  London  in  the  year  1873  exceeded  11,000,  while  in  1891  the  same 
company  sold  8171  skins.  The  ordinary  price  varies  from  thirty  to  fifty  shillings 
per  skin. 

These  otters  are  usually  caught  in  steel  traps,  which  are  set 
beneath  the  water  where  one  of  the  "  slides  "  or  tracks  of  the  animals 
leads  to  the  margin.  Sometimes  the  trap  is,  however,  placed  at  the  top  of  the  slide 
and  covered  with  snow.  In  neither  case  is  any  bait  used;  but  in  all  methods 
the  greatest  care  is  necessary  that  no  traces  of  the  trapper's  presence  should 
remain,  as  the  otter  has  very  acute  smell  anu  sight,  and  is  exceedingly  wary  and 
cunning. 

South  America  possesses  at  least  three  species  of  otters,  of  which  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Brazilian  otter  and  the  feline  otter.  The  Brazilian  otter  (L. 
brasiliensis)  is  much  the  largest  of  all  the  living  species,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of  a  distinct  ridge  running  along  each 
side  of  the  tail,  whence  it  is  often  termed  the  margined-tailed  otter.  It  inhabits 
the  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Ariranha.  The  length 
of  the  head  and  body  is  over  40  inches,  while  that  of  the  tail  is  about  23  inches. 
The  nose  is  completely  covered  with  hair,  and  the  general  colour  of  the  pelage  is 
chocolate-brown,  becoming  lighter  on  the  under-parts.  The  chin,  as  well  as  a  large 
irregular  patch  on  the  throat,  and  some  spots  on  the  under-surface  of  the  body  are, 
however,  whitish  or  yellow. 


96  CARNIVORES. 

In  some  of  the  South  American  rivers  these  otters  may  be  met 
with  in  large  companies,  and  they  differ  from  most  other  species  in 
being  purely  diurnal,  commencing  their  hunting  with  the  dawn  of  day  and  con- 
tinuing till  nightfall.  When  in  such  companies,  the  otters  utter  a  kind  of  whistling 
sound,  which  is  said  to  have  some  resemblance  to  the  mewing  of  cats.  Hensel 
states  that,  when  travelling  on  the  Brazilian  rivers  in  a  canoe,  the  voyager,  when 
shooting  out  from  beneath  the  overhanging  branches  of  a  tree,  may  often  see  a 
number  of  black  objects  in  the  water,  which  at  his  approach  tend  to  collect  together. 
Careful  observation  will  show  that  these  are  otters,  but  by  the  time  the  canoe  has 
reached  the  spot  where  they  were  first  seen  all  will  have  disappeared.  Soon, 
however,  the  traveller's  ears  are  struck  by  a  peculiar  snorting  sound,  and,  as  he 
looks  around,  he  sees  the  water  on  all  sides  dotted  with  the  dark  heads  of  the  giant 
otters,  which,  with  a  second  snort,  disappear  again  as  quick  as  lightning  beneath 
the  surface. 

The  feline  otter  (L.  felina)  is,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the 
Feline  Otter.  .  ... 

smallest  members  or  the  group,  agreeing  approximately  in  size  with 

the  Indian  clawless  otter.  It  is  characterised  by  its  relatively  short  face  and  its 
light  and  delicate  teeth,  the  inner  tubercle  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth  being  much 
smaller  than  in  the  other  species  from  the  same  regions.  This  species  also 
differs  from  other  otters  in  being  almost  exclusively  marine  in  its  habits.  In 
regard  to  its  distribution,  Mr.  O.  Thomas  states  that  "in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere it  extends  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  where  its  range  meets  that  of  the 
larger  Brazilian  otter.  Thence  northward  it  is  exceedingly  common  along  the 
coasts  of  Patagonia  and  Chili,  where  the  complex  labyrinths  of  gulfs  and  channels 
are  highly  favourable  to  its  manner  of  life."  It  has  been  found  in  Peru  and 
Ecuador. 

In  regard  to  the  naked-nosed  and  flat-headed  South  American  otters,  inter- 
mediate in  size  between  the  two  last  species,  there  is  still  much  uncertainty,  but 
they  are  all  provisionally  included  under  the  name  of  L.  paranensis. 
smooth  Indian  In  addition  to  the  common  European  otter,  which,  as  we  have 

otter.  already  seen,  is  represented  by  a  variety  in  India,  there  are  three 
Indian  and  Malayan  representatives  of  the  group.  The  first  of  these  species  is  the 
smooth  Indian  otter  (L.  macrodus),  readily  distinguished  from  the  common  otter  by 
the  upper  border  of  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle  forming  a  straight  line,  while 
the  fur  is  very  smooth  and  short.  Then,  again,  the  skull  is  less  depressed  and 
flattened,  and  the  molar  and  flesh-tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  are  very  large,  the  latter 
differing  from  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  common  species  by  the  larger 
proportionate  size  of  the  tubercular  portion  on  the  inner  side  of  the  blade.  This 
otter  is  found  all  over  India,  and  also  extends  to  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
Sumatra.  .  Its  habits  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  common  otter,  and, 
like  the  latter,  it  is  trained  for  fishing. 
Hairy-Nosed  The  hairy-nosed  otter  (L.  sumatrana)  is  a  very  well-marked 

otter.  species  from  the  Malayan  region,  distinguished,  as  its  name  implies, 
by  the  muzzle  being  completely  covered  with  hair ;  the  inner  tubercle  of  the  upper 
flesh-tooth  being  relatively  small.  A  closely-allied  extinct  species  (L.  palceindica) 
occurs  in  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India. 


OTTERS.  97 

There  is  also  the  much  smaller  Indian  clawless  otter  (L.  cinerea), 
differing  from  the  others  not  only  by  its  inferior  dimensions,  but 
also  by  the  rudimentary  condition,  or  even  total  absence,  of  the  claws.  The  upper 
teeth  (shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  91)  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  first 
premolar,  and  the  great  length  from  front  to  back  of  the  molar  tooth.  Moreover, 
the  whole  skull  is  much  shorter  than  in  the  other  species.  The  length  of  the  head 
and  body  of  this  otter  varies  from  22  to  24  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  from  10|  to 
13  inches.  The  clawless  otter  ranges  from  India  through  Burma  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  islands  to  China.  In  India  it  occurs  in  the  Himalaya  at  low  eleva- 
tions, in  Lower  Bengal  and  the  Nilgiri  Hills  of  Madras,  and  perhaps  also  in  Ceylon. 
It  appears  to  be  the  only  otter  found  in  Java.  According  to  Mr.  Blanford,  the 
habits  of  this  otter  are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  oriental  species. 

The  whole  African  continent  possesses  but  two  members  of  the 
'  group  under  consideration.  The  first  of  these  is  the  African  clawless 
otter  (L.  capensis),  from  South  and  West  Africa,  which,  while  agreeing  with  the 
Indian  clawless  otter  in  the  rudimentary  condition  of  its  claws,  is  distinguished 
by  its  greatly  superior  dimensions  ;  being,  next  to  the  Brazilian  otter,  the  largest 
representative  of  the  whole  group.  Writing  of  this  species,  which  he  alludes  to 
under  another  Latin  name,  the  late  Professor  Moseley  states  that  "  amongst  the 
animals  which  live  on  the  Cape  Peninsula,  the  clawless  otter  is  worthy  of 
mention  ;  it  is  a  very  large  otter,  twice  or  three  times  as  large  when  full-grown  as 
the  European  one.  It  lives  about  the  salt-marshes  and  lakes,  and  is  tolerably 
common  ;  it  hunts,  like  the  South  American  marine  otter,  in  companies,  but  only 
of  three  or  four.  It  has  no  claws  on  the  fore-feet,  having  lost  them  by  natural 
selection  in  some  way  or  other,  and  on  the  hinder-feet  the  claws  are  wanting  on 
the  outer  toes,  and  only  rudiments  of  them  remain  on  the  middle  ones.  There  are, 
however,  pits  marking  the  .places  where  the  claws  used  to  exist.  The  webbing 
between  the  toes  is  also  in  this  otter  rudimentary  ;  the  beast  altogether  is  very 
heavily  built,  with  the  head  very  broad  and  powerful.  It  appears  to  be  an  otter 
bent  on  returning  to  land  habits." 

spotted-Necked         The  spotted-necked  otter  (L.  maculicollis)  is  one  of  the  smaller 
otter.        members  of  the  group,  with  well-developed  claws.     It  has  a  naked 
nose,  and   very   long   hind-feet;    the    colour    of    the    fur   being 
blackish  brown,  with  yellow  spots  on  the  throat,  chest,  and  under- 
parts.     This  otter  has  been  obtained  from  the  Cape  and  Natal. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  occur- 
Extinct  Otters.  J  .         '  «  .  ,  j 

rence  or  the  common  otter  in  the  superficial  deposits 

of  Europe,  and  also  of  an  extinct  species  allied  to  the  hairy-nosed 
otter  in  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  India.     In  addition  to  these,  there 

-  IUUTH       Or 


are  numerous  extinct  otters  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  deposits      AN  EXTINCT  INDIAN 
of  Europe,  some  of  which  appear  to  connect  existing  forms  with      OTTER- 
the  martens  and  their  allies.     Another  is  remarkable  as  appearing      The.   outer 
to  indicate  affinities  between  the  otters  and  the  civets,  and  thus   broken. 
serves  to  confirm  the  previously-mentioned  evidence   as  to  the 
existence  of   some   relationship   between   the   now  widely  divergent   families  of 
the  weasels  and  civets.     The  otter-like  animal  in  question  is  distinguished  from 
VOL.  ii.  —  7 


98  CARNIVORES. 

all  other  members  of  the  present  family  by  having  two  molar  teeth  on  each  side  of 
the  upper  jaw. 

Especial  interest  must  also  attach  to  some  giant  otters  from  the  Siwalik  Hills 
of  India,  which  were  even  larger  than  the  existing  Brazilian  otter.  An  upper 
flesh- tooth  of  one  of  these  otters  is  represented  in  the  cut  on  page  97,  which 
will  give  some  idea  of  their  dimensions.  By  comparing  this  figure  with  the  corre- 
sponding tooth  of  the  recent  skull  represented  on  p.  91,  it  will  be  observed  that 
these  gigantic  Siwalik  otters  are  distinguished  by  having  three  distinct  cusps, 
instead  of  a  crescentic  cutting-edge  on  the  inner  tubercular  portion  of  the  upper 
flesh-tooth. 

THE  SEA-OTTER. 
Genus  Latax. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  feline  otter  of  South  America  is  in  the  habit  of 
frequenting  the  lagoons  and  bays  of  its  native  coasts  rather  than  rivers,  and  these 


THE  SEA-OTTER  (^  nat.  size).     (After  Wolf.) 


marine  habits  are  still  more  characteristic  of  the  animal  known  as  the  sea-otter 
(Latax  lutris),  which  is  regarded  as  forming  a  genus  by  itself. 

The  Sea-Otter  has  a  total  length  of  about  4  feet,  of  which  1  foot,  or  rather  less, 
is  occupied  by  the  tail.  In  general  appearance  it  is  compared  by  Dr.  Coues  to  one 
of  the  eared  seals,  a  resemblance  which  is  increased  by  the  long  and  flipper-like 
hind-feet,  quite  unlike  those  of  all  other  members  of  the  family  to  which  it  belongs. 
The  body  has  a  bolster-like  form,  tapering  in  front  to  join  the  rather  .small  and 
rounded  head,  without  any  marked  constriction  at  the  neck.  Both  the  limbs  and 
tail  are  short,  the  latter  being  cylindrical;  slightly  tapering,  and  somewhat  trun- 


SEA-OTTER.  99 

cated  at  the  end ;  while  the  disparity  in  the  size  of  the  fore  and  hind-feet  is  quite 
unknown  in  any  of  the  Carnivores  hitherto  described.  The  skin  is  remarkably 
large  and  loose  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  so  that  when  removed  from  the  body  it 
can  readily  be  stretched  to  a  third  more  than  its  normal  length.  The  pelage 
consists  mainly  of  a  fine  soft  woolly  under-fur,  among  which  are  a  small  proportion 
of  long  stiff  hairs.  The  general  colour  is  dark  liver-brown,  silvered  over  with  the 
greyish  tips  of  the  long  hairs. 

Remarkable  as  are  the  external  characteristics  of  the  sea-otter,  it  is  not,  how- 
ever, solely,  or  even  chiefly  on  them,  that  the  zoologist  relies  in  referring  the  animal 
to  a  genus  apart  from  that  containing  the  true  otters.  Equally  noteworthy 
peculiarities  occur  in  the  number  and  structure  of  the  teeth.  .  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw, — a  feature  in  which  this 
species  differs  not  only  from  other  otters  but  likewise  from  every  other  true 
Carnivore.  The  total  number  of  teeth  is,  therefore,  thirty -two,  as  against  thirty -six 
in  the  common  otter ;  there  being,  as  in  the  Indian  clawless  otter,  but  three  pairs  of 
premolar  teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaws.  The  cheek-teeth,  although  of 
the  same  general  plan  of  structure  as  in  the  true  otters,  differ  by  their  extremely 
blunted  and  rounded  cusps.  "  If,"  remarks  Dr.  Coues,  "  the  teeth  of  ordinary 
carnivorous  quadrupeds  be  likened  to  fresh-chipped,  sharp,  and  angular  bits  of 
rock,  those  of  the  sea-otter  are  comparable  to  water- worn  pebbles  "  ;  and  we  know 
of  no  simile  which  can  better  express  the  difference  between  the  cheek-teeth  of  the 
common  and  the  sea-otter. 

The   sea-otter   is   an   inhabitant  of   both   coasts  of   the   North 
Habitat. 

Pacific;   its  chief  haunts  on  the  American  side  being  Alaska,  the 

Aleutian  Islands,  the  neighbourhood  of  Sitka  Island  on  the  west  coast  of  Canada, 
and  Vancouver  Island;  its  southern  limits  being  the  shores  of  Oregon.  On  the 
Asiatic  side  it  occurs  in  Kamschatka,  but  apparently  more  rarely  than  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

It  is  stated  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Elliot  that  when  the  Russian  traders  first  opened  up 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  they  found  the  natives  commonly  wearing  cloaks  made  of  the 
fur  of  the  sea-otter,  which  they  were  at  first  willing  to  sell  for  a  mere  trifle, 
esteeming  these  skins  much  less  than  they  did  those  of  the  fur-seals.  Again,  when 
the  Prybiloff  Islands,  situated  in  Behring  Sea  to  the  eastward  of  the  Aleutians, 
were  first  discovered,  upwards  of  five  thousand  skins  of  this  species  were  taken  in 
the  first  season,  while  in  six  years  these  animals  had  completely  disappeared  from 
the  islands.  Nearly  the  same  story  is  told  in  all  the  haunts  of  the  sea-otter,  which 
has  now  become  a  very  rare  animal  indeed,  and  stands  in  sore  need  of  protection  if 
it  is  to  escape  total  extermination.  Mr.  Elliot  states  that  "  over  two-thirds  of  all 
the  sea-otters  taken  in  Alaska  are  secured  in  two  small  areas  of  water,  little  rocky 
islets  and  reefs  around  the  islands  of  Saanach  and  Chernobours,  which  proves  that 
these  animals,  in  spite  of  the  incessant  hunting  all  the  year  round  on  this  ground, 
seem  to  have  some  particular  preference  for  it  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  nearly 
all  the  rest  of  the  territory,  This  may  be  due  to  its  better  adaptation  as  a  breeding- 
ground.''  A  similar  preference  for  a  small  area  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gray's 
Harbour  over  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  coast  of  Washington  and  Oregon 
is  also  exhibited  by  these  animals. 


100 


It  is  not  the  mainland  of  Saanach  Island  which  is  frequented  by  the  sea-otters, 
but  the  small  islets  and  reefs  lying  to  the  southward  and  westward  at  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles,  and  thence  stretching  seawards,  most  of  which  are  left  bare  at 
low  water.  Either  on  these  islets  and  reefs,  or,  in  calm  weather,  in  the  open  sea 
around,  the  sea-otters  are  to  be  found. 

The  female  sea-otter  has  only  two  teats,  and  produces  but  a 

single  young  one  at  a  birth,  so  that  the  increase  of  the  species  can  be, 
at  the  best,  but  slow.  The  young  may  apparently  be  born  at  any  season  of  the 
year,  and  do  not  attain  maturity  till  four  or  five  years  old.  Writing  of  the  general 
habits  of  the  species,  Mr.  Elliot  observes  that  the  "  mother  sleeps  in  the  water  on 
her  back,  with  her  young  clasped  between  her  fore-paws.  The  pup  cannot  live 
without  its  mother,  though  frequent  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  natives  to 
raise  them,  as  they  often  capture  them  alive,  but,  like  some  other  species  of  wild 
animals,  it  seems  to  be  so  deeply  imbued  with  fear  of  man  that  it  invariably  dies 
from  self-imposed  starvation." 

The  remarkable  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  of 

the  sea-otter  from  those  of  the  true  otters,  clearly  indicates  that  there 
must  be  an  equally  marked  difference  in  the  food  of  the  two ;  and  the  rounded 
prominences  on  the  crowns  of  those  of  the  present  species  would  further  suggest 
that  they  were  adapted  for  pounding  and  crushing  hard  substances.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  Mr.  Elliot  tells  us  that  the  food  of  the  sea-otters  "  is  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  clams,  mussels,  and  sea-urchins,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  which 
they  break  by  striking  the  shells  together,  held  in  each  fore-paw,  sucking  out 
the  contents  as  they  are  fractured  by  these  efforts;  they  also  undoubtedly  eat 
crabs,  and  the  juicy  tender  fronds  of  kelp  or  sea- weed,  and  fish.  They  are  not 
polygamous,  and  more  than  one  individual  is  seldom  seen  at  a  time  when  out  at 
sea.  The  flesh  is  very  unpalatable,  highly  charged  with  a  rank  smell  and  flavour. 
They  are  playful,  it  would  seem,  for  I  am  assured  by  several  old  hunters  that  they 
have  watched  the  sea-otter  for  half  an  hour  as  it  lay  upon  its  back  in  the  water 
and  tossed  a  piece  of  sea-weed  up  in  the  air  from  paw  to  paw,  apparently  taking 
great  delight  in  catching  it  before  it  could  fall  into  the  water.  It  will  also  play 
with  its  young  for  hours.  The  quick  hearing  and  acute  smell  possessed  by  the 
sea-otter  are  not  equalled  by  any  other  creatures  in  the  territory.  They  will  take 
alarm  and  leave  from  the  effects  of  a  small  fire  four  or  five  miles  to  the  windward 
of  them ;  and  the  footstep  of  man  must  be  washed  by  many  tides  before  its  trace 
ceases  to  alarm  the  animal,  and  drive  it  from  landing." 

In  Alaska  the  sea-otter  is  often  captured  by  shooting  it  in  the 
Hunting.  . 

head  with  a  rifle-bullet  when  the  animal  is  sporting  in  the  surf ;  the 

booming  of  the  surf  deadening  the  report  of  the  rifle,  and  thus  allowing  successive 
shots  to  be  taken  till  one  is  successful.  An  older  plan  is,  however,  for  a  party  to 
go  out  in  canoes  when  a  sea-otter  has  been  observed,  and  by  arranging  themselves 
in  a  circle  around  its  last  point  of  disappearance,  so  harass  the  creature  on  its 
subsequent  emergence  that  eventually  it  becomes  exhausted  from  sheer  inability 
to  breathe.  The  third  method  is  by  knocking  the  animals  on  the  head  with  heavy 
clubs ;  but  this  can  only  be  done  during  the  winter,  at  such  times  when  strong 
gales  are  blowing  from  the  northward.  Then,  writes  Mr.  Elliot,  the  boldest  of  the 


SEA-OTTER.  ici 

natives  set  out  in  their  canoes  from  Saanach,  "  and  scud  on  the  tail  of  the  gale  to 
the  far  outlying  rocks,  just  sticking  out  above  surf -wash,  where  they  creep  up  from 
the  leeward  to  the  sea-otters  found  there  at  such  times,  with  their  heads  stuck  into 
the  beds  of  kelp  to  avoid  the  wind.  The  noise  of  the  gale  is  greater  than  that 
made  by  the  stealthy  movements  of  the  hunters,  who,  armed  each  with  a  short, 
heavy  wooden  club,  despatch  the  animals  one  after  another  without  alarming  the 
whole  body,  and  in  this  way  two  Aleuts  were  known  to  have  slain  seventy-eight  in 
less  than  an  hour  and  a  half."  Instead  of  these  methods,  which  are  employed  in 
Unalaska  Island  and  the  districts  to  the  eastwards,  among  the  Atka  Aleuts  the 
sea-otters  are  caught  in  small  coarse-meshed  nets.  These  nets  are  spread  out  over 
the  kelp-beds  upon  which  the  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  sleeping.  The  animals, 
getting  entangled  in  the  meshes  on  their  arrival,  appear  to  become  almost  paralysed 
with  fear,  and  thus  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  hunters. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Kamschatka,  according  to  Dr.  Guillemard,  the  sea-otter 
is  always  shot  with  a  bow  and  arrows.  "  The  former  is  a  tough  piece  of  wood  five 
or  six  feet  in  length,  which  is  enormously  strengthened  by  a  band  of  plaited  hide 
on  the  outer  face,  so  tightly  fixed  as  to  give  the  bow  a  curve  in  the  opposite  direction 
when  unstrung.  The  arrows  are  of  wood  for  three-quarters  of  their  length,  with 
feathers  fitted  diagonally  along  the  shaft,  so  as  to  produce  a  rotatory  motion.  The 
remaining  portion  is  of  walrus  ivory,  provided  at  the  end  with  a  socket,  into  which 
a  barbed  copper  point  is  inserted.  This  is  connected  to  the  arrow  by  a  long  string 
of  plaited  sinew  wound  around  the  shaft.  When  the  otter  is  hit,  the  barb,  which 
is  very  loose,  becomes  at  once  detached,  and  if  the  animal  gain  the  sea,  its  where- 
abouts is  indicated  by  the  arrow  floating  above  it." 

The  skin  of  the  sea-otter  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  furs, 
Pelage. 

and  when  prepared  for  use  has  all  the  long  hairs  removed,  leaving 

only  the  under- fur.  In  Kamschatka  Dr.  Guillemard  states  that  a  good  skin  will 
bring  even  as  much  as  a  hundred  roubles  to  the  native  hunter,  while  a  perfect 
example  has  been  known  to  realise,  according  to  Mr.  Poland,  as  much  as  £200  in 
the  European  market.  The  average  price  in  1891  was  £57  per  skin. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

CARNIVORES, — concluded. 

EARED  SEALS,  WALRUSES,  AND  SEALS. 

Families  OTARIID^:,  TRICHECHID^E,  and  PHOCIDJE. 

THE  whole  of  the  Carnivores  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapters  constitute  the 
more  typical  representatives  of  the  order,  and  are  hence  collectively  termed  by 
zoologists  true  or  fissiped  Carnivores.  In  contrast  to  these  is  a  much  smaller  group 
comprising  the  eared  seals,  the  walruses,  and  the  true  seals,  differing  from  the 
above  by  their  flipper-like  limbs,  and  hence  known  as  the  pinniped  or  fin-footed 
Carnivores.  By  some  writers  the  pinnipeds  are  regarded  as  entitled  to  form  an 
order  by  themselves,  quite  distinct  from  the  Carnivores ;  but  by  the  majority  of 
naturalists,  in  England  at  least,  they  are  considered  to  form  merely  a  sub-order. 

The  members  of  the  pinniped  group  have  their  entire  organisation  adapted 
for  ah  aquatic  life ;  this  adaptation  showing  itself  most  markedly  in  the 
structure  of  their  limbs.  Thus  both  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  are  modified  into 
paddle  or  flipper-like  organs,  with  nearly  the  whole  of  their  upper  portions,  as  far 
as  the  wrist  and  ankle,  enclosed  in  the  common  integument  of  the  body ;  while  the 
feet  themselves  are  greatly  elongated — more  especially  in  the  hind-limb — and  much 
expanded,  with  the  whole  of  the  five  toes  completely  connected  together  by  web. 
A  peculiarity  of  the  toes  of  the  hind-foot  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that 
the  first  and  the  fifth  toes,  that  is  to  say  those  corresponding  respectively  with  the 
human  great  and  little  toes,  are  stouter,  and  in  most  cases  also  longer,  than  the 
three  middle  toes ;  an  arrangement  which  is  quite  unknown  among  the  true 
Carnivores,  where  the  first  toe  is  the  shortest  of  the  series.  The  pinnipeds  are 
also  characterised  by  the  structure  of  their  teeth,  which  are  simpler  than  those  of 
the  true  Carnivores,  and  never  show  a  specially-modified  "  flesh-tooth  "  in  one  jaw 
biting  against  a  somewhat  similarly  modified  tooth  in  the  opposite  jaw.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  cheek-teeth  comprise  four  premolars  and  one  molar  on  either  side 
of  each  jaw ;  all  these  teeth  being  very  similar  to  one  another  in  general  structure, 
and  usually  consisting  of  a  pointed  main  cone,  which  may  be  flanked  in  front  and 
behind  by  smaller  cones,  so  as  to  produce  a  tricuspid  tooth.  Moreover,  the  number 
of  incisor  teeth  is  invariably  reduced  below  the  typical  three  pairs  in  each  jaw ; 
there  being  very  frequently  three  pairs  of  these  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  two  in  the 
lower  jaw,  or  but  two  pairs  in  each  jaw.  Then,  again,  all  the  pinnipeds  are 
characterised  by  the  reduced  or  rudimentary  condition  of  their  milk  or  baby  series 
of  teeth ;  these  teeth  being  never  of  any  real  use  to  their  owners,  and  being  not 
unfrequently  shed  previous  to  birth.  The  foregoing  characteristics  are  amply 


SEALS  AND    WALRUSES.  105 

sufficient  to  distinguish  the  pinnipeds  from  the  true  Carnivores,  although  these 
animals  also  possess  certain  peculiarities  in  regard  to  their  soft  parts,  into  the  con- 
sideration of  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  here.  It  may  be  mentioned,  how- 
ever, that  all  the  members  of  the  group  have  very  short  tails,  while  they  are  all 
remarkable  for  the  large  size  and  prominence  of  their  eyes,  this  being  probably 
necessary  in  order  to  secure  accurate  vision  under  water.  It  is  also  noteworthy 
that  in  all  the  members  of  the  group  the  rudimentary  collar-bones  found  in 
most  of  the  true  Carnivores  have  completely  disappeared. 

Those  who  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  organic  nature  can  have  no 
hesitation  in  regarding  the  pinnipeds  as  a  highly-specialised  group,  which  has 
originated  either  from  some  section  or  sections  of  the  true  Carnivores,  or  from  an 
extinct  group,  to  be  noticed  later  on.  In  the  structure  of  their  skulls  the  eared 
seals  come  nearest  to  the  bears ;  and  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  whole  group  must 
have  descended  from  Carnivores  which  still  retained  the  typical  five  digits  on  each 
foot.  On  the  other  hand,  the  true  seals  present  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the 
otters,  and  the  sea-otter  shows  us  how  easily  the  transition  from  the  ordinary  otter 
type  to  the  pinnipeds  might  have  taken  place.  The  sea-otter,  however,  is  clearly 
(from  the  structure  of  its  teeth)  in  no  sense  a  "  missing  link " ;  and  it  is  by  no 
means  improbable  that  the  pinnipeds  will  be  found  to  trace  their  origin  directly 
to  the  extinct  group  of  Carnivores  to  which  allusion  has  been  already  made. 

The  pinnipeds  are  divided  into  three  distinct  families,  namely,  the  eared  seals, 
the  walruses,  and  the  true  seals.  Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  these 
several  families,  we  may  refer,  however,  to  a  few  characteristics  common  to  the 
whole  group.  In  the  first  place,  the  pinnipeds,  as  already  mentioned,  are  thoroughly 
aquatic  in  their  habits,  resorting  to  the  land  only  for  the  purpose  of  repose  or 
breeding,  and  when  there  moving  in  an  awkward  and  clumsy  fashion.  Moreover, 
they  are,  as  a  rule,  marine ;  although  some  ascend  tidal  rivers,  and  a  few  are  found 
in  inland  seas  and  lakes.  In  the  latter  instance  there  is,  however,  no  reasonable 
doubt  but  that  access  to  the  ocean  has  been  cut  off  since  the  date  when  the  seals 
first  reached  the  waters  in  which  they  are  now  confined. 

In  regard  to  their  general  characteristics,  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen,  who  has  paid  special 
attention  to  the  American  representatives  of  the  group,  observes  that  all  the 
pinnipeds  are  distinguished  by  their  high  degree  of  intelligence,  and  are  all  capable 
of  being  easily  domesticated,  when  placed  under  favourable  conditions.  They  are, 
almost  without  exception,  thoroughly  carnivorous,  "  subsisting  upon  fishes,  molluscs, 
and  crustaceans,  of  which  they  consume  enormous  quantities.  The  walruses  and 
eared  seals  are  polygamous,  and  the  males  greatly  exceed  the  females  in  size.  The 
ordinary  or  earless  seals  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  monogamous,  and  there  is 
generally  little  difference  in  the  size  of  the  sexes.  The  walruses  and  eared  seals 
usually  resort  in  large  numbers  to  certain  favourite  breeding-grounds,  and,  during 
the  season  of  reproduction,  leave  the  water,  and  pass  a  considerable  period  upon 
land.  The  earless  seals,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  exception  of  the  sea-elephants, 
do  not  so  uniformly  resort  to  particular  breeding-grounds  on  land,  and  leave  the 
water  only  for  very  short  intervals." 

Only  one  member  of  the  whole  group  appears  to  be  strictly  tropical,  and 
comparatively  few  even  range  into  tropical  regions;  the  great  majority  being 


I06  CARNIVORES. 

found  in  the  Arctic,  Antarctic,  and  Temperate  zones,  many  of  them  being 
exclusively  Arctic  or  Sub- Arctic,  while  one  is  as  entirely  Antarctic.  And  whereas 
the  walruses  are  restricted  mainly  at  the  present  day  to  the  Northern  regions,  the 
other  two  families  are  well  represented  on  both  sides  of  the  Equator.  Most  of  the 
true  or  earless  seals  are  confined  to  the  colder  latitudes,  and  generally  produce 
their  young  on  the  ice. 


THE  EARED  SEALS. 

Family  QTARIIDJE. 

Genus  Otaria. 

The  eared  seals  form  a  well-marked  family,  which  tends  to  connect  the  other 
and  more  specialised  representatives  of  the  group  with  ordinary  terrestrial  Carni- 
vores. In  the  first  place,  their  hind-limbs  are  decidedly  less  modified;  all  the 
eared  seals,  as  is  well  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  103,  being  characterised  by 
having,  when  on  land,  the  hind-flippers  turned  forwards  under  the  body  in  the 
direction  of  the  head,  so  that  they  aid  in  the  support  of  the  trunk  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  They  derive  their  distinctive  title  from  the  presence  of  a  small  but  well- 
defined  external  ear ;  and  by  these  two  characters  an  eared  seal  may  always  be 
distinguished  at  the  first  glance  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  group.  They 
are  further  characterised  by  having  the  soles  of  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet  entirely 
devoid  of  hair. 

These  animals  also  have  well-marked  necks,  and  their  fore-feet  are  nearly  as. 
long  as  the  hind  ones.  In  the  fore-feet  the  toes  decrease  in  length  from  the  first  to- 
the  fifth,  and  have  merely  rudimentary  claws;  while  in  the  hind-feet  the  three 
small  middle  toes  generally  have  better  developed  claws,  while  the  lateral  pair  are 
quite  clawless.  In  both  fore  and  hind-feet  the  skin  extends  considerably  in  advance 
of  the  tips  of  the  toes,  where  it  terminates  in  flaps.  Usually  there  are  thirty-four 
teeth,  but  sometimes,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  second  pair  of  molars  in  the  upper 
jaw,  there  may  be  thirty-six.  There  are  always  three  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  the 
upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw. 

The  eared  seals  include  the  animals  commonly  known  as  sea-lions  and  sea- 
bears  ;  and  some  of  them  furnish  the  "  sealskin "  of  commerce.  This  sealskin  is 
the  under-fur,  from  which  the  long  hairs  of  the  outer  coat  have  been  removed ; 
and  such  species  as  possess  this  under-fur  are  consequently  termed  fur-seals. 
Those  species,  on  the  other  hand,  which  have  only  the  ordinary  close  coat  of  hair,, 
without  any  woolly  under-fur,  are  commonly  termed  hair-seals;  and  their  com- 
mercial value  is  limited  to  the  oil  and  leather  which  they  yield.  In  regard  to  the 
number  of  species  of  eared  seals,  and  likewise  as  to  whether  they  should  all  be 
included  in  a  single  genus  (Otaria),  or  referred  to  two  or  more  genera,  there  have 
been  much  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion.  Writing  in  1880  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen 
put  down  the  number  of  definable  species  as  nine,  of  which  five  are  hair-seals  and 
four  fur-seals.  In  the  present  work  the  whole  of  these  will  be  included  under  the 
single  generic  title  of  Otaria ;  but  an  alternative  plan  is  to  restrict  that  name  to 


EARED  SEALS.  107 

the  Patagonian  sea-lion,  which  differs  in  certain  points  from  all  the  rest ;  and  to 
refer  the  rest  to  a  second  genus  (Arctocephalus). 

This  group  is  widely  distributed  over  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  both 
the  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres;  but,  doubtless  from  the  absence  of 
suitable  sites  for  breeding-places,  is  quite  unrepresented  in  the  North  Atlantic. 
As  a  rule,  sea-lions  or  hair-seals,  and  sea-bears  or  fur-seals,  are  found  frequenting 
the  same  shores,  but  generally  living  apart  from  one  another ;  while,  with  but  rare 
exceptions,  only  one  species  of  each  section  occurs  in  any  one  locality.  Of  the 
nine  species  provisionally  recognised  by  Mr.  Allen,  two  out  of  the  five  hair-seals 
are  northern,  and  three  arc  southern  ;  while  of  the  four  fur-seals  one  is  northern 
and  three  are  southern.  By  later  writers  it  is  considered,  however,  that  there 
are  certainly  two  other  species  of  southern  eared  seals. 

As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  whole  of  the 
eared  seals  spend  a  good  deal  of  their  time  on  land,  where  they 
assemble  in  large  companies ;  and  they  are  also  polygamous.  Moreover,  the  males 
are  generally  much  superior  in  size  to  their  consorts.  At  the  breeding-places, 
which  are  known  among  sealers  by  the  very  inappropriate  name  of  "  rookeries," 
the  older  males  are  always  the  first  to  arrive,  and  thereupon  select  particular 
stations  for  themselves,  where  they-await  the  advent  of  the  females.  A  continual 
warfare  is  maintained  by  the  males  among  themselves  for  the  preservation  of  these 
stations,  and  also  for  the  defence  of  their  females.  The  strongest  males  are 
naturally  successful  in  obtaining  possession  of  the  largest  number  of  females ;  the 
number  of  females  on  the  stations  of  the  largest  males  usually  varying  from  ten  to 
fifteen  or  more.  To  guard  such  large  harems  requires  constant  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  the  males,  who  remain  on  land  throughout  the  whole  breeding-season, 
during  which  period  they  undergo  an  unbroken  fast  of  several  weeks'  duration. 
When  they  first  take  up  their  stations  on  land,  the  males  are  fat  and  in  good 
condition ;  but  at  the  end  of  their  sojourn  they  become  emaciated  and  weak  to  the 
last  degree.  The  females,  although  after  their  arrival  they  remain  continuously 
for  a  certain  period  on  the  stations  of  their  lords,  do  not  spend  nearly  such  a  long 
unbroken  period  on  shore. 

The  largest  members  of  the  family  are  hair-seals,  and  the  smallest 
Colour. 

fur-seals.  Mr.  Allen  states  that  "  all  the  hair-seals  are  yellowish  or 
reddish  brown  (in  the  Californian  sea-lion  sometimes  brownish  black),  generally 
darkest  when  young,  and  becoming  lighter  with  age,  and  also  in  the  same 
individuals  towards  the  moulting  season.  .  .  .  All  the  fur-seals  are  black  when 
young,  but  they  become  lighter  with  age,  through  an  abundant  mixture  of  greyish 
hairs  which  vary  from  yellowish  grey  to  whitish  grey.  The  southern  fur-seals 
are  generally,  when  adult,  much  greyer  than  the  northern."  There  is,  however, 
much  individual  variation  in  colour  among  the  members  of  a  species  according 
to  age. 

The  fur-seals  are,  of  course,  far  more  valuable  commercially  than 

the  hair-seals.  The  best  skins  are  afforded  by  young  males  and 
females ;  and  these  are  prepared  for  use  by  the  inner  layer  of  the  skin  being  shaved 
away  with  a  sharp  knife,  thus  causing  the  long  hairs,  which  are  deeper  rooted  than 
the  woolly  under-fur,  to  fall  out. 


io8  CARNIVORES. 

At  the  close  of  the  last  and  during  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century  fur-seals  existed  in  countless  numbers  in  many  parts  of  the 
world ;  but  human  greed  and  folly  have  succeeded  in  so  reducing  their  numbers  in 
most  regions  that  their  pursuit  is  no  longer  profitable.  Fortunately,  however, 
both  for  science  and  for  commerce,  the  seal  rookeries  of  the  Prybiloff  Islands  in 
Behring  Sea  have  been  placed  under  such  restrictions  as  to  render  the  annual 
slaughter  compensated  by  the  number  of  births.  As  an  indication  of  the  hosts 
of  fur-seals  formerly  existing  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  we  may  quote  some 
figures  given  by  Mr.  Allen.  Thus  it  is  stated  that  in  the  year  1798  Captain 
Fanning,  of  the  ship  Betsy  of  New  York,  after  obtaining  a  full  cargo  of  skins  from 
the  island  of  Musapura,  011  the  Chilian  coast,  estimated  the  number  of  fur-seals 
remaining  on  the  island  at  from  500,000  to  700,000;  and  it  appears  that  but 
little  less  than  a  million  skins  were  subsequently  taken  from  the  same  locality. 
Fur-seals  were  still  found  on  the  Chilian  coast  in  1815.  From  the  Georgian 
Islands,  at  the  extremity  of  South  America,  no  less  than  112,000  fur-seals  are 
reported  to  have  been  taken  in  the  year  1800,  of  which  57,000  were  obtained  by 
one  American  vessel.  About  this  date  the  discovery  of  fur-seals  in  Australia 
was  announced ;  and  in  1804  a  single  ship  obtained  74,000  skins.  Large  numbers 
were  also  taken  about  the  same  period  on  Prince  Edward's  Islands,  lying  a  few 
hundred  miles  to  the  south-eastwards  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Again,  between 
the  years  1820  and  1821,  more  than  300,000  skins  were  taken  from  the  South 
Shetland  Islands  alone;  while  it  is  estimated  that  at  least  100,000  young  seals 
were  left  to  perish  miserably,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  their  mothers.  In  1814 
and  1815  the  number  of  skins  exported  from  Antipodes  Island,  off  the  coast  of 
New  South  Wales,  was  upwards  of  400,000,  of  which,  it  is  said,  no  less  than  a 
fourth  were  spoilt  owing  to  bad  curing,  and  on  arrival  in  Europe  were  sold  as 
manure.  As  early,  however,  as  the  year  1830  the  number  of  fur-seals  in  the  southern 
seas  had  been  so  greatly  diminished  that  vessels  generally  made  losing  voyages ; 
and  at  the  present  day  such  a  voyage  partakes  largely  of  the  nature  of  a  lottery. 
During  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challenger,  the  late  Professor  Moseley  states  that 
a  considerable  number  of  fur-seals  were  observed  about  Kerguelen  Land;  two 
schooners  having  obtained  seventy  in  one  day,  and  twenty  in  another.  The  number 
of  skins  taken  in  the  Prybiloff  Islands  will  be  referred  to  later  on ;  but  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  at  the  present  time,  according  to  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas,  the  annual 
slaughter  of  fur-seals  throughout  the  world  averages  185,000,  while  that  of  hair- 
seals  reaches  the  enormous  number  of  875,000. 

THE  SOUTHERN  SEA-Liox  (Otaria  jubata). 

The  southern  or  Patagonian  sea-lion,  of  which  a  group  is  represented  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  103,  is  a  hair-seal,  and  differs  in  certain  respects  both  externally 
and  internally  from  all  the  other  species.  It  inhabits  the  Galapagos  Islands,  and 
the  coasts  of  South  America  from  Peru  and  Chili  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  from  the 
Rio  cle  la  Plata  on  the  Atlantic  border,  southwards  to  the  Falkland  Islands  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  Externally  this  species  is  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by 
the  long  hair  of  the  neck,  which  forms  a  kind  of  mane ;  although  this  mane  is  but 


&  ; 


£ 


EARED  SEALS.  109 

indistinctly  seen  when  the  skin  is  wet.  The  profile  of  the  head  is  nearly  straight, 
the  muzzle  deep  and  somewhat  truncated,  and  the  naked  portion  of  the  nose  large ; 
while  the  upper  lip  has  a  number  of  thick  bristles  of  considerable  length,  and 
hanging  nearly  straight  down.  The  ears  are  also  shorter  in  this  species  than  in 
any  other  member  of  the  group.  There  are  likewise  several  features  in  the  skull 
of  this  seal  by  means  of  which  it  can  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  eared 
seals ;  but  it  will  suffice  to  mention  here  that  the  palate  is  deeply  hollowed  out  and 
truncated  behind,  whereas  in  the  other  species  it  is  neither  hollowed  out  nor 
truncated  behind.  There  are  six  upper  cheek-teeth.  The  males  of  this  species 
attain  a  length  of  about  7  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
although  Captain  Cook  states  that  in  his  time  much  larger  individuals  were  to  be 
met  with. 

This  species  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  group  known  in 
Habitat 

Europe,  having  been  met  with  by  Magellan  as  long  ago  as  the  year 

1579,  and  long  afterwards  by  Cook.  It  was  likewise  the  first  exhibited  alive  in 
England,  a  specimen  having  been  bought  by  the  London  Zoological  Society  in  1866. 
Subsequently  other  examples  were  obtained  from  the  Falkland  Islands  by  a  French 
sailor  named  Lecomte ;  and  all  who  visited  the  Society's  Gardens  during  1868  and 
a  few  years  later  will  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  docility  and  cleverness  of 
these  animals — to  say  nothing  of  their  marvellous  activity  when  in  the  water. 
Formerly  these  seals  were  extremely  numerous  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Patagonia  and  other  parts  of  South  America ;  but  they  are  now  compara- 
tively few,  and  their  distribution  is  restricted. 

The  following  particulars  of  the  habits  of  the  sea-lion  in  the 
Falklands  were  communicated  by  Lecomte  to  Dr.  J.  Murie.  At 
various  times  these  seals  were  seen  in  parties  of  from  six  to  twelve,  and  even  as 
many  as  twenty ;  but  fifteen  may  be  taken  as  the  average.  Several  such  families 
may  congregate  in  the  same  creek,  to  the  number  of  from  forty  to  a  hundred ;  but 
the  individuals  of  different  families  do  not  associate  with  one  another.  "They 
seem  to  prefer  headlands  or  isthmuses,  and  choose  the  most  southern  locality 
thereon  as  a  resting-place.  One  of  the  old  males  is  on  guard  as  a  sentinel.  Usually 
he  is  seen  perched  on  an  eminence,  and  invariably,  as  Lecomte  affirms,  with  out- 
stretched neck  and  upraised  head,  as  if  sniffing  around  for  the  slightest  ominous 
warning.  The  signal  of  a  grunt  or  growl  sets  the  others  on  the  alert ;  and  on  any 
real  approach  of  danger  they  rush  all  helter-skelter  towards  the  water,  from  which 
they  never  wander  far.  Their  daily  occupation  seems  divided  between  sleeping 
and  procuring  food.  They  lie  huddled  together  in  a  drowsy  condition,  or  slumber, 
for  a  great  part  of  their  time,  and  this  both  during  the  day  and  night.  At  high 
tides,  night  and  day,  they  take  to  fishing  near  the  entrance  of  the  fresh-water 
rivulets  into  the  sea.  At  such  times  they  will  remain  a  whole  tide  dabbling  about 
singly  after  food.  This  consists  of  fish  and  crustaceans.  In  capturing  their  prey 
they  swallow  it  either  above  or  below  the  water.  .  .  .  Lecomte  says  these  eared 
seals  never  drink  water;  and  he  substantiates  the  fact  that  he  kept  the  first 
animal  he  brought  to  this  country  for  a  year  without  fluid,  except  such  as  adhered 
to  the  fish  he  fed  it  with.  He  tells  me,  moreover,  he  has  noticed  the  common  seals 
occasionally  suck  in  water  as  a  horse  would,  but  the  otaria  never.  Another  curious 


no  CARNIVORES. 

circumstance  he  assures  me  of  is,  that  in  the  stomach  of  every  one  he  has  examined, 
with  the  single  exception  of  a  young  animal,  there  existed  a  quantity  of  pebbles. 
The  amount  varied  in  individuals  from  a  few  to  many." 

The  females  give  birth  to  a  single  young  one  about  the  end  of 
the  year,  equivalent  to  our  midsummer.  During  the  pairing  season, 
which  is  in  February  and  March,  pitched  battles  occur  between  the  males,  during 
which  the  females  look  quietly  on.  At  such  times  the  males  are  savage ;  and  if 
attacked  will  stand  their  ground.  The  old  males  generally  utter  a  low  kind  of 
growl,  but  in  the  breeding-season  this  is  prolonged  into  a  loud,  voluminous,  inter- 
rupted roar.  The  young  utter  a  kind  of  bleating  cry.  From  July  to  November 
these  seals  migrate  southwards  from  the  Falklands.  In  colour  the  young  are  of  a 
deep  chocolate,  but  paler  after  the  first  year ;  the  old  males  being  of  a  rich  brown 
tint,  and  the  females  greyer ;  while  at  all  ages,  and  in  both  sexes,  the  flippers  are 
of  a  darker  hue  than  the  body. 

THE  NORTHERN  SEA-LION  (Otaria  stelleri). 

The  northern  sea-lion,  which  is  likewise  a  hair-seal,  differs  from  the  preceding 
species,  and  agrees  with  all  those  that  follow  by  the  absence  of  a  mane  011  its  neck, 
by  its  narrow  and  pointed  nose,  relatively  long  ears,  and  by  the  flattened  palate  of 
the  skull,  which  is  not  truncated  behind.  In  the  concave  facial  profile  it  differs 
from  the  southern  sea-lion. 

This  is  the  largest  member  of  the  whole  group,  full-grown  males,  according 
to  Mr.  Allen,  measuring  from  11  to  12^  or  13  feet  in  total  length,  of  which  the  tail 
forms  3  or  4  inches  ;  while  their  girth  varies  from  about  8  to  10  feet,  and  their 
weight  is  estimated  at  from  1000  to  1300  Ibs.  In  colour  the  young  are  of  a 
rich  dark  chestnut-brown.  The  adults,  when  they  first  reach  the  breeding-grounds, 
are  of  a  light  brownish  rufous  colour  in  both  sexes,  the  tint  being  darker  between 
the  fore-limbs  and  on  the  under-parts.  Later  on  in  the  season  the  colour  changes, 
however,  to  a  golden  rufous  or  ochrey  tint ;  and  when  the  new  winter  coat  appears 
in  November,  the  colour  has  been  described  as  a  light  sepia,  or  Vandyke  brown, 
with  deeper  tints  on  the  under-parts ;  and  at  this  season  of  the  year  the  females 
are  distinctly  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  males. 

This  fine  seal  inhabits  the  shores  of  the  North  Pacific  from  Behring 

Strait  southwards  to  California  and  Japan,  and  is  one  of  the  species 
found  in  the  Prybiloff  Islands  in  Behring  Sea ;  its  northern  limits  being  apparently 
determined  by  the  southern  border  of  the  Polar  floating  ice.  It  was  first  discovered 
in  the  year  1741,  during  Behring's  first  expedition,  and  was  described  by  the 
naturalist  Steller,  who  accompanied  that  navigator. 

.  Mr.  W.  D.  Elliot,  writing  of  this  species  in  the  Prybiloff  Islands, 

observes  that  it  has  a  really  leonine  appearance  and  bearing,  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  rich  golden-rufous  of  its  coat,  and  the  ferocity  of  its  expression. 
Although  provided  with  flippers,  to  all  external  view  the  same  as  in  the  fur-seal,  it 
cannot,  however,  make  use  of  them  in  the  same  free  manner.  While  the  fur-seal 
can  be  driven  five  or  six  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  the  sea-lion  can  barely  go  two, 
the  conditions  of  weather  and  roadway  being  the  same.  The  sea-lions  balance  and 


EARED  SEALS. 


in 


swing  their  long  heavy  necks  to  and  fro,  with  every  elevation  of  their  hind- 
quarters, which  they  seldom  raise  from  the  ground,  drawing  them  up  after  the 
fore-feet  with  a  slide  over  the  grass,  sand,  rock,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be ;  and 
pausing  frequently  to  take  a  sullen  and  ferocious  survey  of  the  field  and  the 
drivers.  It  further  appears  from  the  same  account  that  the  males  are  less  systematic 
and  exacting  in  the  formation  and  protection  of  their  parties  of  females  than  is  the 
case  with  the  northern  sea-bear ;  and  they  are  not  known  to  travel  so  far  inland. 
Moreover,  these  seals  are  very  shy  and  wary,  and  never  allow  their  haunts  to  be 


THE   NORTHERN   SEA-LION  (;)V  nat.  Size). 

visited  by  man  without  making  a  sudden  rush  to  the  sea.  The  males  leave  the  sea 
and  take  up  their  stations  on  the  narrow  belts  of  ground,  which  they  prefer,  early 
in  May,  while  the  females  follow  them  after  an  interval  of  three  or  four  weeks, 
thus  arriving  during  the  first  weeks  in  June.  Usually  each  male  during  the 
breeding-season  is  accompanied  by  from  ten  to  fifteen  females.  The  latter  are 
allowed  to  move  freely  from  place  to  place ;  and  are  accustomed  to  go  down  to 
the  shore,  accompanied  by  their  young — often  carried  by  the  nape  of  the  neck 
— and  disport  themselves  in  the  surf;  such  rambles  being  never  undertaken  by 
the  female  sea-bears.  On  the  two  main  islands  of  the  Prybiloff  group,  respect- 
ively known  as  St.  Paul's  and  St.  George's,  it  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Elliot  that 


ii2  CARNIVORES. 

not  more  than  25,000  of  these  seals  were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  former; 
while  from  7000  to  8000  landed  on  the  latter.  The  voice  of  this  species  is  described 
as  a  deep,  grand  roar,  forming  a  low  muttering  growl. 

Another  observer,  Captain  Charles  Bryant,  gave  the  following  account  of  the 
habits  of  these  seals  to  Mr.  Allen  : — "  From  15,000  to  20,000  sea-lions  breed 
annually  on  the  Prybiloff  or  Fur-Seal  Islands.  They  do  not  leave  the  islands  in 
winter,  as  do  the  fur-seals,  to  return  in  spring ;  but  remain  during  the  whole  year. 
They  bring  forth  their  young  a  month  earlier  than  the  fur-seal,  landing  during  the 
months  of  May  and  June.  They  advance  but  little  above  high  tide-mark ;  and 
those  of  all  ages  land  together.  The  strongest  males  drive  out  the  weaker,  and 
monopolise  the  females,  and  continue  with  them  till  September.  They  go  with 
them  into  the  water  whenever  they  are  disturbed ;  and  also  watch  over  the  young. 
When  in  the  water,  they  swim  about  the  young,  and  keep  them  together  until  they 
have  an  opportunity  to  land  again.  The  females  also  keep  near,  rushing  hither 
and  thither,  appearing  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other  of  the  groups  of 
young,  constantly  uttering  a  deep,  hoarse  growl  at  the  intruder  whenever  they 
come  to  the  surface.  When  left  undisturbed  they  all  soon  land  again,  preferring 
to  spend  the  greater  portion  of  their  time  at  this  season  on  the  shore.  During  the 
breeding-season  they  visit  the  same  parts  of  the  shore  as  the  fur-seals ;  but  the 
sea-lions,  by  their  superior  power  and  strength,  crowd  out  the  fur-seals — the  latter 
passively  yielding  their  places  without  presuming  to  offer  battle  to  their  formidable 
visitors.  After  having  been  disturbed,  the  sea-lions  continue  for  some  time  in  a 
state  of  unrest,  occasionally  uttering  a  low  moaning  sound,  as  though  greatly 
distressed.  Even  after  the  breeding -season  they  keep  close  to  the  shore  near 
the  breeding -station  until  the  severe  weather  of  January.  After  this,  they 
are  seen  only  in  small  groups  till  the  islands  are  free  from  ice  and  snow  in  the 
spring." 

The  sea-lions  on  St.  Paul's  Island  are  driven  a  distance  of  from 
Capture. 

ten  to  twelve  miles  along  the  shore  to  the  village  where  they  are  to 

be  killed  ;  and  from  their  slow  rate  of  motion,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been 
made,  the  journey  is  a  long  and  protracted  business,  usually  taking  about  five  days. 
When  once  fairly  started,  and  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  man,  the  animals  are, 
however,  readily  controlled,  and  kept  in  the  desired  direction.  At  the  end  of  a 
day's  journey  they  are  allowed  to  refresh  themselves  by  plunging  in  the  pools  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  route.  When  thoroughly  tired  out  at  the  end  of  a  day's 
march,  the  unfortunate  animals  stretch  themselves  at  full  length  on  the  ground, 
with  extended  limbs.  Even  then,  however,  writes  Captain  Bryant,  "  their  rest  is 
not  peaceful,  for  some  restless  one  soon  starts  up  and  flounders  over  the  others,  as 
if  seeking  a  better  place.  This  disturbs  the  whole  herd,  which  constantly  keeps  up  a 
low  moaning,  apparently  expressive  of  sore  distress."  "  By  this  time,"  the  author 
continues,  the  sea-lions  have  "  become  so  accustomed  to  their  captors  that  they  will 
sooner  fight  than  run  from  them ;  and  they  are  too  much  deafened  by  their  own 
noise  to  hear  or  fear  any  other  sound.  As  they  lie  on  the  ground  in  a  compact 
mass,  one  of  the  men  takes  an  umbrella,  and  goes  twenty  to  thirty  yards  to  the 
rear  of  the  herds,  and  approaching  stealthily  until  he  is  quite  near,  suddenly 
expands  the  umbrella,  and  runs  with  it  all  along  the  edge  of  the  herd ;  then,  closing 


EARED  SEALS. 


it,  he  retires  to  repeat  the  manoeuvre.  This  lias  the  effect  of  rousing  the  rear  rank, 
which,  thus  suddenly  alarmed,  plunges  forward  and  arouses  those  in  front,  which 
suddenly  begin  struggling  and  biting.  The  return  of  the  man  with  the  umbrella 
communicates  another  shock,  and  adds  another  wave  to  the  sluggish  mass.  This 
is  repeated  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  minutes,  till  the  successive  shocks  have 
aroused  the  whole  herd,  when,  with  much  roaring  and  bellowing,  the  whole  mass 
begins  to  move,  gradually  extending  itself  in  a  long  irregular  line  in  open  order, 
each  animal  lumbering  along  as  best  it  can.  By  shouting  and  waving  flags  at  the 
rear,  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  herd,  they  are  kept  moving  until  it  is  necessary  to 
halt  them  again  for  rest." 

Finally,  the  herd  reaches  the  village,  when  the  sea-lions,  being  far  too  formid- 
able animals  to  be  despatched  with  clubs,  are  shot  with  rifles ;  the  full-grown  males 
being  killed  first,  after  which  the  fore-part  of  the  herd  is  driven  back  upon  and 
over  the  rear,  when  the  slaughter  is  continued  with  lances.  The  description  of 
this  scene  is,  however,  by  no  means  pleasant  reading,  and  may  accordingly  be 
passed  over. 

caiifornian  The  Calif ornian  sea-lion  (0.  gillespii),  which,  far  from  being  re- 

Sea-Lion.  stricted  to  the  country  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  is  found  on 
both  sides  of  the  North 
Pacific,  is  a  much  smaller 
species  than  the  last,  from 
which  it  is  readily  distin- 
guished by  the  convex 
crown  of  the  head,  and  the 
sudden  descent  of  the 
profile  at  the  eye ;  the  side 
view  of  the  head  somewhat 
recalling  that  of  the  dog- 
faced  baboons.  The  bristles 
on  the  side  of  the  muzzle 
are  also  very  small.  The 
skull  is  characterised  by  its 
narrowness  and  elongation, 
and  also  by  the  great 
development  of  the  bony 

crests  on  the  brain-case.  The  general  colour  is  a  dark  chestnut-brown,  becoming 
blackish  brown  on  the  under-parts  and  limbs;  but  there  is  great  seasonal  and 
individual  variation  in  this  respect.  Mr.  Allen  gives  the  total  length  of  adult 
males  as  varying  from  7  to  8  feet;  those  measurements  being  taken  from  the 
muzzle  to  the  end  of  the  outstretched  flippers. 

There  has  been  some  confusion  as  regards  the  habits  of  this 
species,  owing  to  its  having  been  confounded  with  the  northern  sea- 
lion.  Both  species  occur  on  the  Farallone  Islands,  near  San  Francisco ;  but  the 
present  species  is  by  far  the  more  numerous  of  the  two,  and  appears  to  be  the  only 
one  represented  on  the  neighbouring  island  of  Santa  Barbara.  Mr.  Elliot  states 
that  the  two  species  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  their  voices ;  the  northern 

VOL.  II. — 8 


HEAD  OP  CALIFORNIAN  SEA-LION. —After  Forbes. 


Habits. 


II4  CARNIVORES. 

sea-lion  uttering  only  a  deep,  bass  growl,  and  a  prolonged,  steady  roar ;  whereas 
the  Californian  sea-lion  never  roars,  but  utters  a  sharp  bark,  sometimes  almost 
approaching  a  howl. 

The  general  habits  of  this  species  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
northern  sea-lion.  On  the  Farallones  these  seals  are  found  in  vast  numbers,  and 
their  barking  is  described  as  forming  an  incessant  din.  Captain  Scammon,  writing 
of  his  experiences  with  these  animals  on  the  island  of  Santa  Barbara,  during  the 
sealing  season  of  1852,  states  that  soon  after  the  arrival  of  his  party,  about  the 
end  of  May,  the  colonies  of  Californian  sea-lions  "began  to  augment,  and  large 
numbers  of  huge  males  made  their  appearance,  belching  forth  sharp,  ugly  howls, 
and  leaping  out  of  or  darting  through  the  water  with  surprising  velocity,  frequently 
diving  outside  the  rollers,  the  next  moment  emerging  from  the  crest  of  the  foaming 
breakers  and  waddling  up  the  beach  with  head  erect,  or,  with  seeming  effort, 
climbing  some  kelp-fringed  rock  to  doze  in  the  scorching  sunbeams ;  while  others 
would  lie  sleeping  or  playing  among  the  beds  of  sea-weed,  with  their  heads  and 
outstretched  limbs  above  the  surface.  But  a  few  days  elapsed  before  a  general 
contention  with  the  adult  males  began  for  the  mastery  of  the  different  rookeries ; 
and  the  victims  of  the  bloody  encounter  were  to  be  seen  on  all  sides  of  the  island, 
with  torn  lips  or  mutilated  limbs  and  gashed  sides,  while  now  and  then  an 
unfortunate  creature  would  be  met  with  minus  an  eye,  or  with  the  orb  forced  from  its 
socket,  and,  together  with  other  wounds,  presenting  a  ghastly  appearance.  As  the 
time  for  '  hauling  up '  drew  near,  the  island  became  one  mass  of  animation ;  every 
beach,  rock,  and  cliff,  where  a  seal  could  find  foothold,  became  its  resting-place, 
while  a  countless  herd  of  old  males  capped  the  summit,  arid  the  united  clamourings 
of  the  vast  assemblage  could  be  heard  on  a  calm  day  for  miles  at  sea.  The  south 
side  of  the  island  is  high  and  precipitous,  with  a  projecting  ledge,  hardly  perceptible 
from  the  beach  below,  upon  which  one  immense  sea-lion  managed  to  climb,  and 
there  remained  for  several  weeks." 

The  same  observer  adds  that  "  at  the  close  of  the  season — which  lasts  about 
three  months  on  the  Californian  coast — a  large  majority  of  the  great  herds,  both 
males  and  females,  return  to  the  sea,  and  roam  in  all  directions  in  quest  of  food, 
as  but  few  of  them  could  find  sustenance  about  the  waters  contiguous  to  the  islands, 
or  points  on  the  mainland,  which  are  their  annual  resorting  places.  They  live 
upon  fish,  molluscs,  and  sea-fowls,  always  with  the  addition  of  a  few  pebbles 
or  smooth  stones,  some  of  which  are  a  pound  in  weight."  The  quantity  of  fish 
consumed  by  these  seals  must,  indeed,  be  enormous.  Some  years  ago  it  was 
estimated  that  the  total  number  of  sea-lions  in  the  neighbourhood  of  San  Fran- 
cisco was  upwards  of  twenty-five  thousand,  each  of  which  consumed  from  10  to  40 
Ibs.  weight  of  fish  per  diem.  In  capturing  gulls  the  Californian  sea-lions  display 
no  little  skill  and  cunning.  When  in  pursuit  of  a  gull  Captain  Scammon  states 
that  the  seal  dives  deeply  under  water,  and  swims  some  distance  from  where  it  dis- 
appeared, then,  rising  cautiously,  it  exposes  the  tip  of  its  nose  above  the  surface,  at 
the  same  time  giving  it  a  rotary  motion,  like  that  of  a  water-buoy  at  play.  The 
unwary  bird  on  the  wing,  seeing  the  object  near  by,  alights  to  catch  it,  while  the 
sea-lion  at  the  same  moment  settles  beneath  the  waves,  and  at  one  bound,  with 
extended  jaws,  seizes  its  screaming  prey,  and  instantly  devours  it. 


EARED  SEALS.  115 

The  Californian  sea-lion  is  the  species  most  commonly  seen  in  captivity  in 
Europe,  as  it  appears  to  thrive  better  than  any  other  of  the  eared  seals  in  that 
state. 

In  captivity  these  sea-lions  display  great  affection  for  one  another ;  and  when 
one  of  a  pair  dies  the  survivor  not  unfrequently  pines  away  and  dies  soon  after. 
From  observations  made  on  captive  specimens  in  Chicago,  it  appears  that  before 
the  cub  takes  to  the  water  the  parent  secretes  a  kind  of  oily  fluid  from  her  body, 
with  which  the  hair  of  the  cub  becomes  anointed,  owing  to  both  animals  rolling  on 
the  same  spot. 

Hooker's  With  this  sea-lion  (0.  hookeri),  we  come  to  a  southern  species  of 

sea-Lion.  hair-seal,  first  obtained  from  the  Auckland  Islands,  lying  to  the  south 
of  New  Zealand,  during  the  voyage  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror.  This  species,  of 
which  examples  have  of  late  years  been  exhibited  alive  in  the  London  Zoological 
Society's  Gardens,  is  subject  to  great  variation  in  colour,  some  specimens  being 
greyish,  while  others  have  a  more  or  less  markedly  brown  tinge.  The  head 
is  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  the  preceding  species  by  its  nearly  straight 
profile;  the  muzzle  is  of  considerable  length,  the  ear  of  medium  size,  and  the 
bristles  on  the  muzzle  well  developed.  The  skull  is  characterised  by  the  extreme 
narrowness  of  the  palate,  and  has  seven  upper  cheek-teeth — in  the  latter  respect 
agreeing  with  that  of  the  southern  sea-lion. 

Australian  Hair-  The  hair-seal  (0.  lobata),  inhabiting  the  seas  of  Australia,  appears 
seaL  to  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  hair  and  the  fur-seals, 
the  cubs  having  a  thick  coat  of  soft  under-fur,  which  quite  disappears  in  the 
adult.  This  indicates  that  the  distinction  between  hair  and  fur-seals  is  of  no  great 
zoological  importance,  although  it  forms  a  convenient  mode  of  classifying  the 
members  of  this  difficult  group.  The  profile  of  the  head  is  nearly  straight,  and  the 
whole  head  large  and  massive,  with  rather  small  ears.  The  males  are  considerably 
darker  than  the  females,  and  the  cubs  are  black.  From  the  presence  of  a  stripe 
of  rich  deep  fawn  colour  (which  is  lighter  than  the  general  tint  of  the  body) 
running  across  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  nape,  and  sides  of  the  neck,  the  name 
of  cowled  seal  has  been  applied  to  this  species.  The  general  length  of  old  males  is 
from  8  to  9  feet,  but  few  such  specimens  are  stated  now  to  exist.  These  seals  were 
found  abundantly  in  King  George's  Sound,  and  also  in  Bass  Strait.  The  Seal 
Rocks  off  Port  Stephens,  to  the  northward  of  Sydney,  partly  derive  their  name 
from  the  presence  of  colonies  of  this  species. 

THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  (Otaria  ursina). 

The  well-known  northern  sea-bear,  or  northern  fur-seal,  is  the  first  representa- 
tives of  the  true  fur-seals,  and  the  only  one  found  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
In  this,  as  in  the  other  fur-seals,  the  pelage  is  soft,  with  an  abundant  under-fur ; 
and  the  colour  of  the  adult  is  some  shade  of  dark  grey,  while  the  young  are  black. 
There  are  six  cheek-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 

The  northern  sea-bear,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  is 
distinguished  at  a  glance  from  all  the  southern  fur-seals  by  its  extremely  short 
face,  in  which  the  profile  is  nearly  straight,  and  likewise  by  its  relatively  weak 


u6 


CARNIVORES. 


dentition.  In  the  adult  males  the  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts,  with  the 
exception  of  the  shoulders,  is  nearly  black,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  grey,  or 
reddish  grey  grizzle ;  but  the  shoulders  are  distinctly  grey.  The  sides  of  the  nose 
and  lips  are  brownish,  the  breast  is  brownish  orange,  while  the  limbs  and  under- 
parts  are  reddish  brown.  The  females  are  much  lighter  in  colour,  being  uniformly 
grey  above,  with  the  under-parts  brownish  or  rufous.  In  both  sexes  the  individual 
variations  in  colour  are  largely  due  to  the  varying  proportions  of  the  grey  in  the 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  (ijV  nat.  size). 

hairs.     The  young  when  first  born  are  of  a  uniform  glossy  black  colour,  with  the 
under-fur  lighter  in  hue,  and  less  abundant  than  in  the  adults. 

These  seals  are  much  smaller  than  the  larger  sea-lions,  the  old  males,  according 
to  Captain  Bryant,  measuring  from  7  to  8  feet  in  total  length,  and  having  a  girth 
of  from  6  to  7  feet;  while  their  weight  is  estimated  at  from  700  to  800  Ibs. 
They  do  not  attain  their  full  size  till  about  the  sixth  year.  The  females,  which 
reach  their  full  dimensions  when  five  years  old,  measure  4  feet  in  length  and  2£ 
feet  in  girth,  and  weigh  from  80  to  100  Ibs.  The  ears  are  absolutely  longer  than 
in  the  far  larger  northern  sea -lion.  The  difference  in  the  dimensions  of  the  two 
sexes  is  greater  than  in  any  other  member  of  the  family. 


EARED  SEALS.  117 

The  northern  sea-bear  inhabits  both  shores  of  the  Northern 
Pacific,  and  is  known  to  have  been  formerly  abundant  on  the  American 
side  as  far  south  as  California,  although  the  precise  limits  to  which  it  once  ranged 
in  this  direction  have  not  been  ascertained.  On  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Pacific  its 
range  embraced  Kamschatka  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  extended  as  far  as  the 
southern  extremity  of  Saghalien  Island,  where  it  was  still  abundant  at  the  period 
of  the  Crimean  war. 

At  the  present  day,  as  is  well  known,  the  headquarters  of  the  sea-bear  are  the 
Prybiloff  Group,  which  comprises  four  islands,  respectively  known  as  St.  Paul's, 
St.  George's,  Otter,  and  Walrus  Islands ;  the  two  former  of  which  are  alone  visited 
by  the  seals.  Here  the  capture  of  the  seals  is  strictly  regulated,  only  a  certain 
number  being  allowed  to  be  captured  annually.  The  Alaska  Commercial  Company 
leased  from  the  United  States  Government  in  1869  the  sole  right  of  sealing  on 
these  islands ;  the  lease  permitting  them  to  capture  25,000  seals  on  St.  George's  and 
75,000  on  St.  Paul's.  And  it  appears  that  in  the  twenty  years,  from  1869  to  1889, 
the  company  has  realised  upwards  of  thirty-three  millions  of  dollars  by  the  sale  of 
seal-skins.  Of  recent  years  large  numbers  of  British  vessels  fitted  out  from 
Victoria  and  British  Columbia  have,  however,  been  in  the  habit  of  visiting  Behring 
Sea  for  the  purpose  of  taking  seals ;  and  it  is  stated  that  in  consequence  of  this  the 
profits  of  the  Alaska  Company  have  considerably  diminished.  In  the  recent  dispute 
between  the  British  and  United  States  Governments  regarding  this  sealing  in 
Behring  Sea  the  United  States  declared  that  the  sea  in  question  was  a  mare 
clausum,  a  claim  which  the  British  Government  successfully  resisted. 

Besides  St.  George's  and  St.  Paul's,  no  other  islands  in  Behring  Sea  appear  to 
form  suitable  habitats  for  the  sea-bears,  which  require  a  low,  shelving  coast,  either 
of  smooth  rocky  ledges  or  of  shingle,  with  a  cold  climate  and  a  fog-laden  atmo- 
sphere. If  the  ground  is  such  that  water  can  collect  in  puddles,  the  seals  avoid  it, 
and  if  the  coast  is  sandy  the  wind  blows  the  sand  into  their  large,  sensitive  eyes, 
causing  them  intolerable  discomfort.  The  number  of  sea-bears  on  these  two  islands 
during  the  breeding-season  is  so  enormous  as  to  defy  anything  like  exact  calcula- 
tion. In  the  summer  of  1872  Mr.  Elliot  estimated,  however,  that  there  were 
upwards  of  3,000,000  on  St.  Paul's,  while  in  the  following  year  he  put  down  the 
number  on  St.  George's  at  about  163,000. 

It  is  mainly  to  Mr.  Elliot  that  we  are  indebted  for  a  full  and 

Habits 

adequate  account  of  the  habits  of  the  sea-bears  on   the   Prybilofis, 
and  it  is  from  his  graphic  descriptions  that  the  following  summary  is  derived. 

During  the  winter  the  Prybiloffs  are  deserted  by  these  animals,  which  follow 
the  southward  migration  of  the  fish  upon  which  they  chiefly  subsist.  The  old 
males  are  the  first  to  revisit  their  old  haunts  in  the  following  spring ;  and  a  few  of 
these  may  generally  be  found  on  the  islands  during  the  first  week  in  May.  At 
this  time  the  males  are  very  shy  and  sensitive,  and  remain  near  the  shore ;  indeed, 
many  of  them  will  sometimes  spend  several  days  in  swimming  round  the  rocks 
before  venturing  to  land.  The  first  arrivals  are  not  always  the  oldest,  but  rather 
the  finest  specimens  of  their  race ;  and  are  always  fully  capable  of  maintaining 
possession  of  the  stations  they  select  immediately  after  coming  ashore.  As  a  rule, 
it  appears  that  the  males  do  not  reoccupy  the  same  stations  year  after  year,  although 


n8  CARNIVORES. 

sometimes  a  few  may  do  this  for  a  few  seasons.  "  From  the  time  of  the  first 
arrival  in  May,  up  to  the  first  of  June,  or  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  month," 
writes  Mr.  Elliot,  "  if  the  weather  be  clear,  is  an  interval  in  which  everything  seems 
quiet ;  very  few  seals  are  added  to  the  pioneers.  By  the  first  of  June,  however,  or 
thereabouts,  the  foggy  humid  weather  of  summer  sets  in,  and  with  it  the  bull-seals 
come  up  by  hundreds  and  thousands,  and  locate  themselves  in  advantageous 
positions  for  the  reception  of  the  females,  which  are  generally  three  weeks  or  a 
month  later."  Then  comes  the  great  struggle  for  obtaining  and  maintaining  a 
position  on  the  land,  those  males  which  are  the  last  to  arrive,  and  also  those 
occupying  the  posts  nearest  the  water's  edge,  having  the  greatest  difficulties  to 
overcome.  Frequently  the  combats  which  then  take  place  result  in  death ;  while 
some  of  the  earlier  arrivals  which  have  taken  up  stations  near  the  shore  become 
exhausted  by  repeated  struggles,  and  have  to  shift  to  more  inland  quarters.  "  The 
fighting,"  says  Mr.  Elliot,  "  is  mostly  or  entirely  done  with  the  mouth,  the  opponents 
seizing  each  other  with  the  teeth,  and  clenching  the  jaws.  Nothing  but  sheer 
strength  can  shake  them  loose  and  that  effect  almost  always  leaves  an  ugly 
wound,  the  sharp  canines  tearing  out  deep  gutters  in  the  skin  and  blubber,  or 
shredding  the  flippers  into  ribbon-strips." 

During  the  time  that  the  males  are  thus  engaged  in  selecting  and  maintaining 
their  positions,  they  may  be  approached  from  the  leeward  when  asleep  so  closely  as 
to  admit  of  the  bristles  on  their  muzzles  being  pulled.  The  adventurous  investi- 
gator is,  however,  warned  that  after  one  such  experiment  he  must  beat  a  hasty 
retreat,  if  he  would  escape  an  unpleasant  mauling  from  the  animal's  teeth. 

At  this  period  the  males  give  vent  to  four  distinct  cries,  namely,  a  hoarse, 
resonant,  long,  and  loud  roar ;  a  low,  gurgling  growl ;  a  kind  of  hissing,  chuckling, 
piping  whistle,  which  must  be  heard  to  be  recognised ;  and  a  kind  of  spitting  sound 
and  action,  which  is  the  most  characteristic  of  all.  The  females,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  only  a  kind  of  bleating  cry,  used  merely  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  cubs ; 
while  the  call  of  the  latter  is  still  more  sheep-like.  Indeed,  it  is  stated  that  some 
sheep  imported  into  St.  George's  were  constantly  misled  by  the  cries  of  the  females 
and  young  seals  into  believing  that  others  of  their  own  species  were  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  seals  when  on  land  are  extremely  impatient  of  heat,  a 
temperature  of  48°  being  unpleasant  to  them  ;  while  when  the  thermometer  ranges 
from  55°  to  60°  they  appear  to  suffer  great  inconvenience.  On  such  occasions  they 
may  be  seen  lying  in  every  conceivable  position,  industriously  fanning  themselves 
with  their  flippers,  sometimes  holding  the  fore-flippers  vertically  upwards  as  a 
kind  of  ventilator,  while  one  or  both  of  the  hinder  pair  are  employed  as  fans. 

From  their  first  arrival  until  the  end  of  the  pairing  season,  which  terminates 
during  the  first  third  of  August,  all  the  males  which  succeed  in  maintaining  their 
posts  never  leave  them  for  a  single  instant ;  and  consequently  never  partake  of 
either  food  or  water  for  at  least  three  months,  while  in  some  instances  this  fast 
endures  for  upwards  of  four  months.  During  this  time  they  must  subsist  entirely 
on  their  own  fat ;  and  it  will  not  fail  of  notice  that  such  a  fast  is  very  different 
from  that  endured  by  bears  and  other  hibernating  animals,  during  which  most  of 
the  functions  of  the  body  are  dormant.  Nevertheless,  no  ill  consequences  appear  to 
accrue,  since  the  old  male  sea-bears  come  back  year  after  year  as  fat  and  sleek  as  ever. 


EARED  SEALS.  119 

Between  the  12th  and  14th  of  June  the  first  females  make  their  appearance 
on  the  Prybiloffs.  When  they  first  land,  wet  and  dripping  from  the  sea,  they  are 
of  a  dirty  grey  colour,  darker  on  the  head  and  back  than  elsewhere ;  but  when 
thoroughly  dried  their  coat  is  of  a  steel-grey  above,  and  nearly  white  beneath,  with 
a  brilliant  gloss.  A  few  days'  exposure  to  the  weather  is,  however,  sufficient  to 
tone  down  this  brilliant  dress  to  a  sombre  greyish  brown  above,  and  an  ochrey  tint 
below.  Immediately  on  their  arrival,  the  females  are  received  with  most  marked 
attention  by  the  males  nearest  the  shore,  but  they  are  seldom  allowed  to  rest  long 
with  these,  as  the  males  on  the  more  inland  stations  are  ever  on  the  watch  to  seize 
and  take  possession  of  them  during  the  time  that  their  temporary  masters  are  on 
the  look-out  for  fresh  wives.  In  this  manner  the  unhappy  females  may  be  seized 
by  the  scruff  of  their  necks  as  unceremoniously  as  a  cat  takes  its  kitten,  and 
passed  on  from  male  to  male,  until  they  reach  a  place  of  security  in  the  stations 
farthest  away  from  the  water.  During  all  this  time  fierce  contests  are  continually 
taking  place  among  the  males.  By  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  last  batches  of 
females,  which  takes  place  usually  between  the  10th  and  15th  of  July,  the  males 
have  become  thoroughly  exhausted,  and  have  obtained  as  many  females  as  they 
desire.  Consequently,  the  females  are  now  allowed  to  crowd  in  through  the  fifteen 
or  sixteen  rows  of  stations  usually  intervening  between  the  shore  till  they  reach 
the  open  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  colony,  where  they  congregate  in  droves,  care- 
fully selecting  places  where  there  are  no  pools  of  water. 

It  is  considered  by  Mr.  Elliot  that,  on  the  average,  each  male  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  shore  has  from  twelve  to  fifteen  females,  while  those  more  inland  have 
only  from  five  to  nine.  One  old  male  was  observed  with  upwards  of  forty-five 
females  under  his  charge,  but  this  individual  was  favoured  by  his  situation,  which 
had  but  one  path  of  access.  A  certain  number  of  males  in  the  rear  of  the  colony 
never  obtain  partners  at  all ;  though  towards  the  close  of  the  season  some  of  them 
may  step  into  the  places  of  those  of  their  sex  as  have  to  leave  their  stations 
through  exhaustion.  The  males  display  extreme  courage  in  defending  and  main- 
taining their  positions;  and  will  even  stand  being  fired  at  with  shot  without 
forsaking  their  posts.  The  females,  on  the  other  hand,  are  remarkable  for  their 
gentle  disposition,  never  quarrelling  among  themselves,  and  but  seldom  uttering 
a  cry  when  roughly  handled  and  severely  wounded  by  the  contending  males. 
During  their  sleep  the  bodies  of  all  the  sea-bears  are  continually  undergoing 
various  quivering  and  rolling  motions,  accompanied  by  twitchings  of  the  paddles. 

The  cubs  are  born  shortly  after  the  landing  of  the  females,  coming  into  the  world 
with  their  eyes  open,  and  soon  finding  their  voice,  and  taking  to  the  water.  It  is 
but  rarely  that  there  is  more  than  a  single  cub  at  a  birth.  They  weigh  from  3  to 
4  Ibs.,  and  vary  from  12  to  14  inches  in  length  when  born;  their  jet-black  coat 
being  retained  for  three  months.  Both  parents  seem  to  treat  their  offspring  with 
marked  indifference ;  and  a  cub  which  has  strayed  a  short  distance  from  the  station 
of  the  father  may  be  killed  before  the  eyes  of  the  mother  without  evoking  any 
concern  on  her  part.  Although  the  males  will  often  rush  right  into  the  middle  of 
a  whole  party  of  cubs,  it  is  but  seldom  that  any  of  the  latter  are  killed. 

After  the  birth  of  their  offspring,  the  females  appear  to  make  frequent  visits 
to  the  sea,  usually  returning  close  to  the  spot  where  their  cubs  were  left,  and 


120  CARNIVORES. 

singling  out  their  own  offspring  by  its  cries  without  a  moment's  hesitation.  The 
cubs  are  accustomed  at  an  early  period  to  collect  in  large  numbers,  while  from  the 
latter  part  of  September  to  the  time  of  departure  in  November,  they  assemble 
together  in  tens  of  thousands.  Even  among  such  numbers,  the  female  instantly 
recognises  the  voice  of  her  own  offspring,  and  promptly  makes  her  way  by  thrust- 
ing right  and  left  to  that  spot  in  the  assembly  where  it  may  happen  to  be.  It  is 
said  that  the  cubs  themselves  do  not  know  their  own  mothers,  but  as  they  inces- 
santly utter  their  cry  at  short  intervals,  the  females  have  no  difficulty  when  return- 
ing from  the  sea  in  finding  their  offspring. 

Between  the  end  of  July  and  the  close  of  the  first  week  in  August,  the  seal 
colonies  have  entirely  altered  in  appearance,  owing  to  the  breaking  up  of  the 
various  family  parties.  The  old  males  leave  their  stations,  and  betake  themselves 
to  the  sea,  in  a  very  emaciated  condition ;  the  majority  of  them  not  returning  to 
the  land.  Such,  however,  as  do  make  a  second  visit  are  in  fine  condition,  and  have 
grown  a  new  and  brilliant  coat  of  fur.  The  return  visit  does,  not  take  place  till 
the  end  of  September;  and  the  males  then  prefer  to  congregate  on  the  beach, 
instead  of  going  up  to  their  old  ground.  After  the  departure  of  the  old  males  in 
the  beginning  of  August,  the  females,  cubs,  and  those  males  which  did  not  succeed 
in  obtaining  wives,  take  possession  of  the  entire  seal  area  in  a  very  disorderly 
manner ;  while  their  numbers  are  augmented  by  the  landing  of  a  host  of  young 
males  which  had  hitherto  been  prevented  by  their  elder  brethren  from  obtaining  a 
footing  on  shore.  At  this  time  three-fourths  of  the  females  are  generally  in  the 
water,  only  coming  ashore  for  short  intervals  to  look  after  their  cubs.  They  lie 
idly  in  the  waves,  now  and  again  lazily  rolling  over,  and  continually  scratching 
their  sides  and  backs  with  their  nippers.  After  the  first  week  in  August  the  cubs 
nearest  the  shore  make  their  first  attempts  at  swimming,  but  are  extremely 
awkward,  and  quickly  tire  with  their  efforts.  Soon,  however,  they  become  adepts 
in  the  art,  and  may  then  be  seen  sporting  and  frolicking  in  the  water  with  the 
greatest  apparent  enjoyment.  By  the  middle  of  September  all  the  cubs  have 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  water,  and  have  entirely  deserted  the  higher 
grounds  to  take  up  a  position  on  the  rocks  and  beaches  near  the  water's  edge, 
previously  unoccupied  by  any  of  the  seals.  Finally,  in  November  the  islands  are 
deserted  by  the  great  mass  of  the  sea-bears,  although  some  do  not  leave  for  their 
southerly  migration  until  driven  off  by  the  snow  and  ice,  as  late  as  the  end  of 
December  or  the  12th  of  January. 

The  preceding  observations  relate  almost  exclusively  to  the  old  males,  the 
females,  and  the  cubs ;  but  a  few  words  are  necessary  as  to  the  young  males  under 
six  years  of  age,  which  are  known  to  the  sealers  as  "  bachelors."  In  the  early  part 
of  the  season  these  come  out  of  the  sea  in  detachments  of  from  a  hundred  to  a 
thousand  strong,  but  later  on  by  hundreds  of  thousands.  They  generally  go  to  a 
distance  of  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  on  what  are  technically 
known  as  the  "  hauling-grounds,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  "  rookeries."  These 
seals  are  in  some  cases  allowed  to  pass  up  and  down  to  their  haunts  by  passages 
left  between  the  family  parties  on  the  rookeries  ;  but  more  generally  repair  to  the 
beaches  unoccupied  by  the  rookeries,  where  they  will  occupy  the  whole  space  from 
the  shore  to  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  more  inland.  Some  of  the  younger 


EARED  SEALS.  121 

ones  will,  moreover,  occasionally  desert  the  neighbourhood  of  the  shore,  and  proceed 
still  further  inland  to  play  among  the  fresh  moss  and  grass  which  grows  in  the 
interior.  These  young  seals  do  not  undergo  any  long  periods  of  fasting,  but  are 
constantly  repairing  to  the  sea  at  short  but  uncertain  intervals.  For  instance, 
during  a  few  dull  and  foggy  days  they  may  be  found  by  hundreds  of  thousands  on 
the  hauliiig-grounds ;  but  a  single  warm  and  sunny  day  will  drive  almost  the 
whole  assemblage  to  the  sea,  leaving  their  haunts  well-nigh  deserted.  They  are 
thoroughly  restless  creatures,  being  constantly  on  the  move ;  and  although  very 
frolicsome  and  sportive,  never  seen  to  quarrel  or  fight.  In  the  water  these  young 
seals  distinguish  themselves  by  their  active  evolutions ;  frequently  jumping  out  after 
the  manner  of  dolphins,  more  especially  when  surprised,  and  in  such  cases  turning 
their  heads  when  in  the  air  to  catch  a  glimpse  at  the  cause  of  their  disturbance. 

Mr.  Elliot  adds  that  sea-bears  of  all  ages  "  swim  with  great  rapidity,  and  may 
be  fairly  said  to  dart  along  with  the  velocity  of  a  bird  on  the  wing  under  the 
surface  of  the  water;  and  in  all  their  swimming  I  have  not  been  able  yet  to 
satisfy  myself  how  they  used  their  long,  flexible  hind-feet,  other  than  as  steering 
mediums.  The  propelling  motion,  if  they  have  any,  is  so  rapid,  that  my  eye  is  not 
quick  enough  to  catch  it ;  the  fore-feet,  however,  can  be  very  distinctly  seen  to 
work,  feathering  forwards  and  sweeping  back  flatly,  opposed  to  the  water,  with 
great  rapidity  and  energy,  and  are  evidently  the  sole  propelling  power." 

It  appears  that  of  the  total  number  of  sea-bears  about  half  are 
males  and  half  females ;  but  some  two-thirds  of  the  former  are  never 
permitted  by  their  older  and  stronger  brethren  to  mix  with  the  females,  but  herd 
together  by  themselves  in  the  manner  just  described.  It  is  these  bachelor  seals 
which  are  alone  allowed  to  be  killed  in  the  Prybiloffs ;  and  it  will  be  evident  that 
their  association  by  themselves — frequently  miles  away  from  the  breeding-grounds 
— must  greatly  facilitate  the  arrangements  for  their  slaughter.  When  the  bachelor 
seals  are  assembled  near  the  water,  on  some  morning  early  in  June,  a  small  party 
of  natives  will  run  along  the  beach,  and  readily  turn  thousands  of  them  inland. 
When  once  turned,  the  party  is  easy  to  manage ;  and  on  firm  or  grassy  ground  the 
whole  herd  in  cool  weather  can  be  driven  at  the  rate  of  half  a  mile  an  hour,  but 
frequent  halts  must  be  made.  The  weaker  seals  will,  however,  drop  out  from  time 
to  time,  and  are  left  either  to  recover  or  to  perish,  especially  when  the  march  is 
long ;  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  make  the  journey  as  short  as  possible. 

Arrived  at  the  place  of  slaughter,  the  seals  are  herded,  and  allowed  to  rest  and 
cool ;  after  which  they  are  driven  off  in  detachments  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred, 
and  knocked  on  the  head  with  heavy  oaken  bludgeons.  The  work  of  killing  and 
skinning  is  carried  out  with  great  rapidity ;  a  party  of  forty-five  men  having 
driven,  killed,  and  skinned  upwards  of  seventy-two  thousand  sea-bears  in  less  than 
four  weeks  during  the  summer  of  1872. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  number  of  the  sea-bears  allowed  to  be 
killed  annually  on  the  Prybiloffs  is  limited  by  the  terms  of  the  lease  to  100,000. 
There  is,  however,  reason  to  believe  that  considerably  more  than  this  number  are 
killed  by  the  natives  ;  and  it  is  further  asserted  that  the  total  number  of  sea-bears 
visiting  the  islands  is  steadily  diminishing. 

In  addition  to  the  seals  killed  on  the  Prybiloffs,  a  large  number  have  of  recent 


I22  CARNIVORES. 

years  been  taken  in  open  water  by  British  vessels  cruising  in  Behring  Sea ;  and  it 
was,  as  already  said,  in  regard  to  these  that  the  international  dispute  referred  to 
above  arose.  The  seals  thus  taken  appear  to  be  exclusively  young  males  or 
barren  females,  which  have  remained  at  sea  during  the  months  of  May  and 
June,  when  the  great  body  has  gone  northwards  to  the  Prybiloffs.  Well-appointed 
schooners  are  engaged  in  this  trade,  and  the  method  of  procedure  is  thus 
described  by  a  correspondent  of  the  Times.  When  one  of  these  vessels  is  at  sea, 
"  and  seal  are  sighted,  the  little  boats  are  hoisted  out ;  a  hunter,  armed  with  two 
shot  guns  and  a  rifle,  and  two  sailors  to  pull  the  boat,  take  their  places,  and  the 
hunt  begins.  A  seal  swimming  on  the  water,  or  perchance  sleeping,  is  sighted,  and 
the  boat  is  pulled  quietly  toward  the  animal.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  seal 
takes  alarm  and  dives  out  of  sight  before  the  boat  is  brought  close  enough  to  use 
the  guns  with  effect,  and  in  no  case  does  the  hunter  shoot  unless  he  feels  sure  of 
his  quarry.  The  seal,  when  shot,  at  once  commences  to  sink,  and  the  boat  has  to 
be  pulled  rapidly  up  to  it,  when  the  carcase  is  '  gaffed '  and  hauled  aboard.  This 
is  repeated  as  long  as  a  seal  can  be  seen.  In  many  instances  only  one  or  two  will 
be  killed  during  a  whole  day's  hunting,  but  at  other  times  as  many  as  twenty  will 
be  taken.  After  a  day's  hunt  the  boats  return  to  the  schooner,  and  the  seals  are 
skinned  and  the  pelts  laid  in  salt  in  the  hold.  This  goes  on  from  day  to  day  during 
the  season.  The  seal  has  a  chance  of  escaping,  and  the  percentage  killed  is  very 
small.  When  it  is  considered  that  an  extent  of  ocean  of  nearly  twelve  thousand 
square  miles  is  hunted  over,  the  chance  is  slight  of  the  seals  being  exterminated  by 
the  fleet  of  fifty  or  so  vessels  engaged  in  the  seal-hunting  business.  It  has  been 
asserted  that  only  a  few  seals  out  of  every  hundred  shot  are  captured  by  the 
hunters ;  that  the  balance  sink  or  escape  wounded,  to  die  later  on.  This  is  not  so. 
On  the  contrary,  a  seal  hardly  ever  escapes  when  shot.  Of  course  a  few  do,  but 
the  percentage  is  small,  probably  not  over  five  or  six  out  of  the  hundred."  Although 
it  has  been  asserted  that  the  number  of  sea-bears  in  the  open  sea  is  annually 
diminishing,  this  is  denied  by  unprejudiced  experts ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  the 
writer  last  cited  that  "the  oldest  hands  in  the  business  state  that  there  are 
apparently  as  many  seals  in  the  sea  nowadays  as  there  were  many  years  ago. 
There  is,  however,  some  greater  difficulty  experienced  in  capturing  them.  The 
older  ones  have  learned  what  a  sealing  boat  is,  and  at  the  sound  of  a  gun,  or  at 
the  approach  of  a  boat,  the  wary  arimal  is  on  its  guard,  and  thus  it  is  harder  for 
the  hunter  to  get  within  range  of  his  quarry.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  large 
numbers  are  killed,  and  the  business  is  fairly  profitable."  Of  the  two  methods  of 
sealing,  the  shooting  in  the  open  sea  is  decidedly  to  be  preferred  on  humanitarian 
grounds,  more  especially  if  it  be  true,  as  asserted,  that  on  the  Prybiloffs  a  con- 
siderable number  of  breeding  female  seals  are  killed  before  their  cubs  are  old 
enough  to  shift  for  themselves. 

THE  SOUTHERN  FUR-SEALS. 

In  the  Southern  Hemisphere  there  are  some  four  species  of  sea-bears  or  fur- 
seals,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  Northern  sea-bear  in  their  much  longer, 
narrower,  and  more  depressed  muzzles,  and  also  in  the  circumstance  that  the  flaps 


EARED  SEALS.  123 

of  skin  projecting  in  advance  of  the  toes  of  the  hind-flippers  are  much  less  elongated. 
The  Southern  fur-seals  are  also,  as  a  rule,  decidedly  greyer  in  colour  than  their 
northern  cousin.  There  is  still  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  number  of  species 
belonging  to  this  group,  and  their  resemblance  to  one  another  is  so  close  that  it 
requires  an  expert  to  distinguish  between  them. 
South  American  The  South  American,  or  Falkland  Island  fur-seal  (0.  australis) 

Fur-seals,  inhabits  the  Galapagos  Islands,  and  the  shores  and  islands  of  South 
America  southwards  from  Chili  on  the  western,  and  from  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  on  the 
eastern  side ;  being  more  numerous  on  the  Falkland  and  South  Shetland  Islands 
than  on  the  continent  itself.  The  males  attain  a  length  of  from  6  to  7  feet,  while 
the  females  average  about  5  feet ;  the  disproportion  between  the  sexes  being  thus 
much  less  than  in  the  northern  sea-bear.  The  colour  of  the  fur  is  distinctly  grey. 

The  habits  of  this  species  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  its 
northern  cousin ;  the  old  males  arriving  on  the  Falklands  before  the 
females,  and  similar  contests  taking  place  for  the  possession  of  the  latter,  which 
arrive  in  December.  The  cubs  are  born  during  the  same  month,  and  are  able  to 
swim  well  by  February.  The  young  males  remain  at  sea  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  summer,  not  landing  till  February  or  March.  They  sojourn  on  land  till  the 
latter  part  of  April,  when  they  again  take  to  the  water ;  but  towards  the  end  of 
June  they  once  more  visit  the  shore  for  several  weeks,  remaining  partly  on  land 
and  partly  in  the  sea.  When  Weddell  visited  the  South  Shetlands  during  his 
voyage,  lasting  from  1818  to  1821,  these  seals  were  very  numerous,  and  had  so 
little  fear  of  man  that  numbers  of  them  were  killed  and  skinned  without  disturbing 
the  remainder  of  the  party.  Moseley,  during  the  voyage  of  the  Challenger,  found, 
as  already  mentioned,  these  seals  still  fairly  numerous  on  Kerguelen's  Land,  although, 
from  the  reckless  way  in  which  they  were  slaughtered,  they  appeared  in  imminent 
danger  of  total  extermination.  Like  the  sea-lions  of  the  same  regions,  the  southern 
fur-seals  prey  at  times  upon  penguins. 

The  Cape  fur-seal  (0.  pusilla)  is  a  very  well-marked  species, 
characterised  by  the  straight  profile  of  the  head,  the  overhanging 
and  sharply-pointed  muzzle,  the  relatively  long  ears,  and  the  extreme  length  of  the 
numerous  bristles  depending  from  the  upper  lip.  A  living  example,  formerly 
exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  had  a  whitish  red  fur 
grizzled  with  blackish  hairs,  while  the  under-parts  were  of  a  reddish  brown  colour. 
This  seal  appears  to  be  confined  to  South  Africa,  inhabiting  the  small  islands  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  well  as  others  some  forty  miles  distant  from  Port 
Elizabeth.  It  probably  also  once  inhabited  Tristan  da  Cunha.  It  is  still  fairly 
common,  but  its  fur  is  of  comparatively  little  value,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the 
hair,  although  that  of  the  young  animals  is  longer.  Some  years  ago,  from  70,000 
to  80,000  skins  were  annually  imported  from  the  Cape  into  London,  but  the  number 
is  now  much  reduced.  In  Algoa  Bay  as  many  as  from  200  to  300  of  these  seals 
have  been  taken  during  a  single  night. 
New  Zealand  There  has  been  much  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  fur-seals 

Fur-seal.  of  the  Australian  seas,  but  it  now  appears  that  there  is  but  one 
species,  namely,  the  New  Zealand  fur-seal  (0.  forsteri),  of  which  the  so-called 
cinereous  fur-seal  CO.  cinerea),  according  to  Mr.  H.  O.  Forbes,  is  the  female.  This 


124 


CARNIVORES. 


seal  is  the  only  one  found  on  the  New  Zealand  coasts,  and  it  also  occurs  at  Chatham 
Island  and  the  Seal  Rocks  near  Port  Stephens.  Although  formerly  abundant,  it  is 
now  becoming  very  rare.  At  the  time  of  Flinders'  visit  in  1798  it  was  found  in 
thousands  at  Passage  Point,  to  the  north  of  Tasmania.  The  males  are  usually  dark 
grey  above  and  brown  below,  while  the  lighter  females  are  generally  yellowish 
brown  above  and  dark  below,  some  of  them  having  a  crest  of  long  whitish  hairs. 
While  the  fur  of  the  male  is  valuable  and  beautifully  curled,  that  of  the  female 
seems  to  have  frequently  but  little  under-fur,  so  that  skins  have  been  described  as 
those  of  hair-seals. 

THE  WALRUS. 
Family  TniCHECHIDJE. 

The  huge  and  ungainly  animals,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  walrus 
(from  the  Scandinavian  valross,  meaning  whale-horse),  constitute  not  only  a 
distinct  genus  of  the  Pinniped  Carnivores,  but  are  likewise  the  sole  representatives 


SKELETON   OF  THE  WALRUS. 


of  a  special  family.  Walruses  are  strictly  confined  at  the  present  day  to  the  Arctic 
regions  (of  both  hemispheres ;  but  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
those  found  in  the  Pacific  are  specifically  distinct  from  the  typical  Atlantic  form. 
The  two  are,  however,  so  extremely  closely  allied  that  we  prefer  to  regard  them  as 
belonging  to  a  single  species  (Trichechus  rosmarus). 

In  many  respects  the  walrus  is  nearly  allied  to  the  eared  seals,  this  being 
especially  shown  in  the  structure  of  the  hind-limbs.  Thus  the  hind-feet  are  capable 
of  being  turned  forwards  beneath  the  body,  and  are  employed  in  locomotion  on 
land ;  while  they  have  the  three  middle  digits  much  smaller  than  the  outer  pair. 
Moreover,  the  toes  of  the  hind-feet  are  similarly  terminated  by  large  lobes 
projecting  far  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  bones ;  and  the  fore-limbs  are  nearly 
as  large  as  the  hinder  ones. 

The  walrus  differs,  however,  from  the  eared  seals  in  the  total  absence  of 
external  ears,  and  also  in  its  massive  and  clumsy  build,  as  well  as  in  the  number 
and  structure  of  its  teeth.  Thus  the  front  portion  of  the  skull  is  greatly  swollen, 
and  carries  a  pair  of  very  long  and  laterally  compressed  tusks,  or  canine  teeth, 


WALRUS. 


I25 


depending  from  the  upper  jaw.  In  the  adult  animal  internally  to  these  tusks  there 
is  usually  a  row  of  four  small  teeth,  of  which  in  the  young  state  the  first  is 
situated  in  advance  of  the  latter,  and  is,  therefore,  an  incisor ;  the  other  three  being 
premolars.  The  lower  jaw  has  but  four  teeth  on  each  side,  of  which  the  foremost 
corresponds  to  the  upper  tusk,  while  the  other  three  represent  the  premolars. 
Consequently,  an  adult  walrus  has  but  eighteen  teeth  altogether.  The  young 
animal  has,  however,  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  five  upper  and 
four  lower  cheek-teeth ;  thus,  with  the  tusks,  bringing  up  the  total  number  of  teeth 
to  thirty.  We  thus  see  that  the  young  walrus  presents  resemblances  to  the  eared 
seals  in  respect  of  the  number  of  its  teeth,  which  are  totally  lost  in  the  adult 
animal.  Our  figure  of  the  skeleton 
of  the  walrus  shows  the  tusks  in 
their  full  development;  the  illus- 
tration of  the  living  animal  being 
taken  from  examples  with  poorly- 
developed  tusks.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  these  large  upper  tusks,  all 
the  teeth  have  low,  blunted,  sub- 
conical  crowns,  admirably  adapted 
for  crushing  the  molluscs  on  which 
these  animals  so  largely  subsist. 

In  comparison  with  the  size 
of  the  body,  the  head  of  the  walrus 
is  rather  small,  and  while  squared 
and  abruptly  truncated  in  front  is 
somewhat  rounded  behind ;  this 
rounded  appearance  being  increased 
by  the  absence  of  all  trace  of 
external  ears.  The  muzzle  seems  to 
be  divided  into  two  lobes  by  the 

vertical  groove  below  the  nostrils,  and  is  furnished  on  either  side  with  a  number  of 
stout  translucent  bristles  growing  from  the  upper  lips.  The  eye  is  very  small ;  and 
the  entire  head  has  a  remarkably  rugged  and  battered  appearance ;  the  lower  jaw 
narrowing  to  a  point  between  the  upper  tusks.  The  latter,  which  ordinarily  project 
to  a  length  of  from  12  to  15  or  more  inches  below  the  level  of  the  gum,  com- 
municate, of  course,  the  most  striking  and  characteristic  feature  to  the  head,  and 
indeed  to  the  whole  animal.  Although  relatively  longer  than  in  the  true  seals,  the 
neck  is  shorter  than  in  the  eared  seals,  and  gradually  thickens  posteriorly,  where 
it  imperceptibly  merges  into  the  trunk.  The  body  is  extremely  bulky  and 
ungainly,  with  a  rounded  outline,  and  diminishing  gradually  in  size  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  hind-quarters.  The  tail  is  very  small ;  and  the  limbs  are  to  a 
great  extent  enclosed  in  the  skin  of  the  trunk.  There  are  five  rudimentary  claws 
on  both  the  fore  and  the  hind-feet,  the  soles  of  which  are  completely  devoid 
of  hair. 

In  the  youngof  the  walrus  the  body  is  thickly  covered  with  short,  yellowish  brown 
fur,  which  is  thinner  and  shorter  on  the  under-parts  and  limbs  than  elsewhere, 


HEAD  OP  WALRUS. 


126 


CARNIVORES. 


where  it  also  becomes  of  a  reddish  brown  or  chestnut  tinge.  This  fur  persists  till 
middle  age,  but  in  old  age  becomes  gradually  more  and  more  scanty,  frequently 
disappearing  almost  completely,  or  even  entirely,  from  patches  of  larger  or  smaller 


WALRUSES  ON  THE  ICE  (fa  nat.  size). 


extent  ;  while  in  some  very  old  males  of  the  Pacific  walrus  the  whole  skin  may  be 
almost  naked.  The  skin  over  the  entire  body  is  thrown  into  a  number  of  folds 
and  wrinkles,  these  folds  being  heaviest  in  the  region  of  the  shoulders.  The 
frequent  fights  in  which  these  animals  engage  add  a  number  of  scars  to  the  skin. 
Of  four  adult  males  measured  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  the  smallest  had  a  length  of  9| 


WALRUS.  127 

and  the  largest  of  11  feet,  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Other 
individuals  have,  however,  been  recorded,  measuring  somewhat  more  than  12  feet 
in  total  length;  but  the  statements  of  15  or  even  16-feet  walruses  must  be 
received  with  hesitation.  There  is  still  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  weight  which 
thrse  animals  will  attain.  Parry  gives  the  weight  of  an  immature  female  as 
1550  Ibs. ;  while  other  trustworthy  writers  set  down  the  weight  of  full-grown 
males  at  from  2250  to  3000  Ibs.  Larger  weights  have,  indeed,  been  suggested, 
but  it  is  probable  that  in  those  cases  the  estimates  were  far  too  high.  In  regard 
to  the  size  of  the  tusks  of  the  Atlantic  walrus,  a  fine  pair  mentioned  by  Mr. 
Allen  had  a  total  length  of  24  inches,  of  which  probably  about  18  inches  would 
have  protruded  from  the  jaw  during  life ;  the  weight  of  each  of  these  being  4  Ibs. 
Others  have,  however,  been  obtained  with  a  total  length  of  31  inches,  and  a  weight 
of  upwards  of  8  Ibs.  apiece ;  but  such  are,  now  at  least,  extremely  rare.  The  tusks 
of  females  seldom  exceed  20  inches  in  length.  In  the  Pacific  walrus  the  tusks 
are  said  to  be  longer  and  thicker,  and  more  convergent ;  but  we  have  not  met 
with  any  account  of  their  maximum  dimensions. 

In  addition  to  this  difference  in  the  form  of  the  tusks,  the  Pacific  walrus  has 
the  muzzle  proportionately  broader  and  deeper,  while  the  bristles  on  the  upper  lip 
are  shorter  and  smaller.  Important  differences  also  occur  in  the  form  of  the  skull 
of  the  two  varieties. 

The   geographical  range  of   the  walrus  has  been  considerably 

Distribution.  .  ?  \  .  .  / 

restricted  in  modern  times  owing  to  the  incessant  persecution  or  the 

animal  in  all  accessible  regions,  and  it  is  now  exterminated  in  many  places  where 
it  was  formerly  abundant.  Its  numbers  have,  indeed,  been  sadly  diminished 
everywhere,  and  unless  it  receive  prompt  and  efficient  protection  it  is  one  of  those 
creatures  which  stand  a  good  chance  of  becoming  extinct ;  this  being  more 
especially  the  case  with  the  Pacific  variety.  The  Atlantic  walrus  was  known  in 
Europe  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  and  appears  to  have  been 
hunted  on  the  coast  of  Finmark  about  a  century  later,  while  by  the  year  1600 
walrus-hunting  was  a  regular  trade.  Occasionally  these  animals  wandered  as  far 
southwards  as  the  coasts  of  Scotland ;  and  they  were  abundant  on  many  of  the 
islands  near  the  northern  coast  of  continental  Europe,  and  even  on  the  shores  of 
the  continent  itself ;  while  eastward  their  range  extended  into  Asia  as  far  as  the 
River  Lena.  Northwards  the  walrus  appears  to  extend  as  far  as  vessels  have 
penetrated.  In  1600  it  was  very  abundant  on  Cheric,  or  Bear  Island,  lying 
about  two  hundred  and  eighty  miles  to  the  northward  of  the  North  Cape,  in 
Norway ;  no  less  than  six  or  seven  hundred  having  been  killed  on  one  occasion  in 
six  hours,  while  on  another  from  nine  hundred  to  a  thousand  were  slaughtered  in 
less  than  seven  hours.  The  animals  were  accustomed  to  collect  in  large  parties  on 
the  shore ;  and  the  plan  adopted  was  first  to  shoot  those  nearest  the  sea,  whose 
bodies  then  formed  a  barrier,  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  the  rest.  In  less  than  eight 
years  the  walruses  on  Bear  Island  had  become  scarce  and  shy,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  they  were  completely  exterminated.  The  retreating  walruses  were  then 
followed  to  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  and  even  there  their  numbers  have  so- 
diminished  that  walrus  hunting  cannot  be  profitably  conducted  unless  carried  on  in 
conjunction  with  whaling.  Baron  Nordenskiold  states  that  at  the  present  day 


i28  CARNIVORES. 

the  walrus  is  seldom  found  during  summer  on  the  west  coast  of  Novaia  Zemlia 
to  the  south  of  Matotschkin  Skar,  but  that  on  the  east  coast  of  the  same  island, 
and  in  parts  of  the  Kara  Sea  it  is  fairly  common.  It  is  but  rarely  seen  in  Iceland, 
but  is  not  unfrequent  on  the  coasts  of  Western  Siberia. 

In  America  the  Atlantic  walrus  formerly  ranged  from  Nova  Scotia  to  about 
latitude  80°,  and  was  at  one  time  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador.  About  1534  walruses  were  very 
abundant  on  the  Magdalen  Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  and  many 
expeditions  were  soon  after  fitted  out  in  Europe  for  the  capture  of  the  animals  on 
these  and  adjacent  islands.  Till  a  few  years  ago,  the  heaps  of  walrus  bones  on  the 
shores  of  the  Magdalen  Islands  attested  the  slaughter  that  had  taken  place. 
According  to  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard,  the  last  walrus  seen  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
was  killed  in  1840;  but  a  few  have  been  observed  subsequently  on  some  of  the 
neighbouring  coasts  and  islands.  In  Greenland  it  was  stated  that  about  the  year 
1877  the  walrus  was  only  sparsely  distributed  in  most  places,  with  the  exception 
of  the  tract  lying  between  the  66th  and  68th  parallels,  where  it  was  sometimes 
met  with  in  considerable  numbers,  and  was  regularly  hunted  by  the  natives  in 
their  canoes.  Walruses  also  occur  on  the  west  c'oast  of  Baffin's  Bay,  and  some  of 
the  islands  to  the  north ;  but  their  range  appears  to  be  limited  by  the  western 
shore  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  and  as  they  are  not  again  met  with  till  we  reach 
Alaska,  a  large  part  of  the  coast  of  Arctic  America  is  probably  uninhabited  by 
them. 

Although  the  Pacific  walrus  has  been  known  in  Europe  since  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  not  much  molested  by  hunters  till  about  the  year 
1860,  by  which  date  whaling  had  become  much  less  profitable  than  it  had  been. 
The  range  of  this  variety  was  always  much  more  restricted  than  that  of  its 
Atlantic  cousin,  reaching  from  the  limit  of  ice  southwards  on  the  American  coast 
as  far  as  latitude  55°,  and  on  the  Asiatic  shores  to  latitude  60°.  In  longitude  its 
range  to  the  north  of  Behring  Strait  in  the  Arctic  Sea  was  limited  to  the  eastwards 
by  Point  Barrow  in  Northern  Alaska,  and  to  the  westward  by  Cape  Chelagskoi, 
in  longitude  170°,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia.  As  on  the  latter  coast  the 
range  of  the  Atlantic  walrus  did  not  extend  eastwards  of  the  Lena,  the  two  varieties 
were  widely  separated  from  one  another  in  this  direction,  as  they  also  were  in  the 
opposite  direction.  On  the  Alaskan  side  of  Behring  Sea  and  Behring  Strait  the 
Pacific  walrus  was  formerly  found  in  enormous  herds  in  Bristol  Bay  and  Norton 
and  Kotzebue  Sounds ;  and  in  summer  it  also  visited  the  Prybiloff  Islands  in  large 
numbers.  These  animals  were  likewise  common  on  the  Aleutian  Islands ;  but  in 
the  more  southern  portions  of  their  range  they  were  always  sparsely  distributed. 
Up  to  the  year  1874  they  were  still  found  in  innumerable  herds  where  the  waters 
of  the  Arctic  Sea  join  with  those  of  Behring  Strait,  and  also  in  Behring  Sea ; 
but  since  that  date  their  diminution  has  been  rapid.  It  is  stated  that  between 
the  years  1870  and  1880  close  on  2,000,000  gallons  of  walrus-oil,  and  400,000  Ibs. 
weight  of  ivory  were  obtained  from  these  regions ;  thus  representing  the  destruc- 
tion of  not  far  short  of  100,000  animals.  When  the  Russians  first  opened  up  the 
Prybiloff  Islands,  walruses  were  found  in  numbers  on  both  St.  Paul's  and  St. 
George's,  but  they  soon  retreated  to  Walrus  Island,  leaving  the  other  two  to  their 


WALRUS.  129 

less  timorous  cousins  the  sea-bears  and  sea-lions.  It  is  stated  that  in  a  single  year 
upwards  of  28,000  Ibs.  weight  of  walrus-ivory  was  obtained  from  the  Prybiloffs 
alone. 

In  prehistoric  times  the  range  of  the  Atlantic  walrus  was  much  more  exten- 
sive than  during  the  historic  epoch,  on  both  the  eastern  and  the  western  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  Thus  its  remains  have  been  dredged  up  from  the  Dogger  Bank  off  the 
eastern  coast  of  England ;  while  a  skull  was  dug  up  from  the  peat  near  Ely,  in- 
dicating that  the  animal  formerly  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  Ouse,  which  was  at 
that  time  probably  an  estuary.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  America  walrus  bones 
have  been  dug  up  as  far  south  as  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  even  California.  At  a 
still  earlier  period  walruses,  which  are  considered  to  belong  to  an  extinct  species, 
inhabited  both  the  eastern  coast  of  England  and  the  shores  of  Belgium ;  numerous 
remains  having  been  obtained  from  the  so-called  crags  of  the  Pliocene  period  in 
both  countries. 

There  appears  to  be  no  well-marked  difference  between  the  habits 

Ma/bits 

of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  varieties.  Walruses  are  usually  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  shores  or  masses  of  floating  ice,  and  are  but  seldom  seen  in 
the  open  sea.  As  a  rule,  they  associate  in  companies  or  herds,  depending  in  size 
upon  the  number  of  individuals  in  the  particular  locality.  In  addition  to  this 
fondness  for  each  other's  company,  Baron  Nordenskiold  states  that  curiosity  is  a 
distinguishing  trait  of  the  walrus,  and  relates  how  that  when  on  one  occasion  he 
rowed  right  into  the  midst  of  a  herd,  "  part  followed  the  boat  long  distances  quite 
peaceably,  now  and  then  emitting  a  grunting  sound ;  others  swam  quite  close,  and 
raised  themselves  high  out  of  the  water,  in  order  to  take  a  view  of  the  strangers. 
Others,  again,  lay  so  closely  packed  on  pieces  of  drift-ice  as  to  sink  them  down  to 
the  water's  edge,  while  their  comrades  swimming  about  in  the  sea  endeavoured 
with  violence  to  gain  a  position  on  the  already  overfilled  resting-places,  though  a 
number  of  unoccupied  pieces  of  ice  floated  up  and  down  in  the  neighbourhood." 
When  on  shore,  or  on  an  ice-floe,  the  various  members  of  a  party  of  walruses  are 
described  as  huddling  and  pressing  together  against  one  another  like  pigs.  From 
April  to  June,  according  to  the  latitude,  is  the  breeding-season ;  and  during  this 
period  the  walruses  are  stated  to  remain  on  shore  for  about  a  fortnight,  during 
which  time  they  neither  eat  nor  drink.  Usually  there  is  but  a  single  young 
produced  at  a  birth ;  and  there  is  never  more  than  a  pair.  The  young  are  stated 
to  be  suckled  by  the  parent  for  upwards  of  two  years ;  and  it  is  hence  believed 
that  the  same  female  breeds  but  once  in  every  three  years.  The  females,  while 
suckling  their  young,  are  said  to  assemble  in  herds  apart  from  the  males.  Like 
seals,  walruses  appear  to  have  circular  breathing-holes  in  the  ice,  to  which  they 
can  resort  from  below  without  exposing  themselves.  The  voice  of  these  animals  is 
a  loud  roar,  which  in  the  case  of  large  herds  can  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  several 
miles. 

Unless  molested,  the  walrus  is  stated  to  be  gentle  and  inoffensive  in  dis- 
position ;  but  when  attacked  displays  great  fierceness  and  vindictiveness,  while  its 
huge  bulk  renders  it  a  formidable  antagonist,  especially  when  its  aggressors  are 
afloat  in  a  small  boat.  Not  less  noteworthy  is  the  affection  of  the  female  walrus 
for  its  young,  and  likewise  the  sympathy  of  all  the  members  of  a  herd  for  a 

VOL.  n. — 9 


I3o  CARNIVORES. 

wounded  comrade.  When  one  of  the  herd  is  wounded,  all  its  fellows  are  stated  to 
combine  together  for  its  defence ;  and  on  such  occasions  the  aspect  of  the  animals 
is  described  as  absolutely  terrific.  Either  through  confidence  in  their  size  and 
power,  or  from  want  of  appreciation  of  danger,  walruses  when  on  shore  or  on  the 
ice  can  often  be  approached  very  closely,  and  may  thus  be  easily  dispatched ;  they 
learn,  however,  greater  caution  with  experience.  In  other  cases  they  seem  to  be 
more  vigilant  on  all  occasions,  having  a  certain  number  of  their  body  acting  as 
sentinels.  In  hunting  them  the  great  object  is  to  cut  off  their  retreat  to  the 
water,  as  if  they  once  gain  the  open  sea  they  generally  escape.  The  number  of 
walruses  formerly  found  on  the  ice-floes  of  Spitzbergen  was  so  great,  and  so  thickly 
were  the  creatures  crowded  together,  that  an  eye-witness  wrote  of  them  as  pre- 
senting the  appearance  of  solid  islands  of  animals. 

The  walrus  feeds  chiefly  upon  thick-shelled  bivalve  molluscs, 
especially  those  commonly  known  as  gapers.  For  crushing  the  shells 
of  these  molluscs  the  stunted  and  short  cheek-teeth  of  the  walrus  are  admirably 
adapted ;  but  it  appears  that,  after  being  broken,  the  shells  themselves  are  rejected, 
and  only  the  soft  portions  of  the  molluscs  swallowed.  This  molluscan  diet  is  also 
supplemented  by  fish  and  various  crustaceans;  while  in  addition  to  these,  large 
quantities  of  sea-weed  are  also  swallowed,  although  it  is  quite  probable  that  their 
introduction  into  the  creature's  mouth  is  not  intentional.  It  appears  to  be  now 
ascertained  beyond  doubt  that  the  chief  use  of  the  tusks  of  the  walrus  is  to  dig  in 
the  mud  and  ooze  for  the  purpose  of  raking  up  the  molluscs,  on  which  it  feeds  so 
largely.  Dr.  K.  Brown  states,  however,  that  he  has  seen  walruses  employ  their 
tusks  to  aid  in  dragging  their  unwieldy  bodies  on  to  the  ice,  and  also  to  aid  their 
clumsy  progress  when  on  land.  These  observations  are  fully  confirmed  by  Dr. 
Kane,  who  states  that  he  has  known  walruses  in  this  manner  drag  themselves  on 
rocky  islands  to  heights  of  sixty  or  a  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water. 

The  walrus  is  killed  when  on  land  or  ice  either  by  means  of  long 
lances,  or  with  rifles;  while  when  at  sea  it  is  chased  with  special 
boats  and  harpooned.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  enormous  numbers 
of  these  animals  killed  in  the  Magdalen  Islands,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries ;  but  one  more  instance  of  an  enormous  de- 
struction of  these  animals  may  be  referred  to  in  greater  detail.  This  occurred  in 
the  summer  of  1852,  on  Thousand  Island,  lying  off  the  south-west  coast  of  Spitz- 
bergen. Here,  writes  the  narrator,  Mr.  Lament,  "two  small  sloops,  sailing  in 
company,  approached  the  island,  and  soon  discovered  a  herd  of  walruses,  number- 
ing, as  they  calculated,  from  three  to  four  thousand,  reposing  upon  it.  Four  boats' 
crews,  or  sixteen  men,  proceeded  to  the  attack  with  spears.  One  great  mass  of 
walruses  lay  in  a  small  sandy  bay,  with  rocks  inclosing  it  on  each  side,  and  on  a 
little  mossy  flat  above  the  bay,  but  to  which  the  bay  formed  the  only  convenient 
access  for  such  unwieldy  animals.  A  great  many  hundreds  lay  on  other  parts  of 
the  island  at  a  little  distance.  The  boats  landed  a  little  way  off,  so  as  not  to 
frighten  them,  and  the  sixteen  men,  creeping  along  shore,  got  between  the  sea  and 
the  bay,  full  of  walruses  before  mentioned,  and  immediately  commenced  stabbing 
the  animals  next  them.  The  walrus,  although  so  active  and  fierce  in  the  water,  is 
very  unwieldy  and  helpless  on  shore,  and  those  in  front  soon  succumbed  to  the 


EARLESS  SEALS.  131 

lances  of  their  assailants ;  the  passage  to  the  shore  soon  got  so  blocked  up  with  the 
dead  and  dying  that  the  unfortunate  wretches  could  not  pass  over,  and  were  in  a 
manner  barricaded  by  a  wall  of  carcases."  The  slaughter  went  on  until  the  men 
were  drenched  with  blood  and  thoroughly  exhausted,  while  their  lances  became  so 
blunt  as  to  be  useless.  After  returning  to  the  ship  to  refresh  themselves  and  grind 
their  lances,  the  work  of  destruction  was,  however,  resumed,  and  did  not  cease  until 
upwards  of  nine  hundred  animals  had  been  slain.  Even  then,  however,  so  sluggish 
and  lethargic  were  the  walruses,  that  several  hundreds  were  still  lying  on  adjacent 
parts  of  the  island.  When  the  narrator  visited  the  spot  six  years  later  the 
carcases  were  still  lying  as  they  fell,  in  some  instances  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and 
the  stench  from  them  was  perceptible  for  miles  out  at  sea.  The  worst  feature  of 
this  great  slaughter  was,  indeed,  the  circumstance  that  the  perpetrators,  owing  to 
the  size  of  their  vessels,  were  only  able  to  carry  away  a  small  proportion  of  their 
victims. 

The  walrus  is  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  oil,  hide,  and  tusks.  The  yield  of 
oil  is  proportionately  less  than  in  the  seals  ;  the  amount  obtained  from  the  largest 
specimens  seldom  exceeding  500  Ibs. ;  and  the  quality  also  is  stated  to  be  inferior 
to  seal-oil.  The  hides  are  chiefly  exported  to  Russia  and  Sweden,  where  the  leather 
is  used  for  harness  and  the  soles  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  also  is  twisted  into  tiller- 
ropes.  The  value  of  the  hides  in  America  is  stated  to  be  from  two  to  four  dollars 
per  half  skin.  In  thickness  the  skin  varies  from  1  to  \\  inches.  More  valuable 
are  the  tusks,  although  their  ivory  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  elephants.  The 
large  amount  of  walrus-ivory  annually  obtained  has  been  already  mentioned ;  and 
it  may  be  added  that,  in  America,  while  the  price  per  Ib.  was  only  40  or  45  cents. 
in  1879,  it  had  risen  to  a  dollar  or  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  in  1880 ;  while  in  1883 
the  price  varied  from  four  to  four  and  a  half  dollars. 

Another  Scandinavian  name  for  the  walrus  is  morse,  while  to  the  Inuits  the 
animals  is  known  as  the  awuk. 


THE  TRUE,  OR  EARLESS  SEALS. 
Family  PHOClD^l. 

With  the  true  seals  we  come  to  the  third  and  last  family  of  the  Pinniped 
Carnivores.  These  animals  are  at  once  distinguished  from  the  eared  seals 
and  the  walruses  by  the  characters  of  the  hind-limbs,  which,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  are  permanently  directed  backwards,  and  conjointly  form  a 
kind  of  rudder-like  organ.  Then,  again,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  external  ear ;  and 
the  neck  is  shorter  than  in  either  of  the  two  preceding  families.  As  additional 
characters  of  the  limbs,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  front  pair  are  always  smaller 
than  the  hinder,  and  that  the  first  digit  or  thumb  of  the  former  is  always  longer 
than  the  other  digits ;  while  the  whole  of  the  digits  are  furnished  with  well- 
developed  claws  situated  at  their  extremities.  The  hind-feet,  which  are  incapable 
of  the  great  expansion  characterising  those  of  the  eared  seals,  usually  have  all 
the  digits  armed  with  claws,  and  generally  want  the  long  flaps  of  skin  at  their 
•extremities,  which  characterise  those  of  the  eared  seals.  The  number  of  front  or 


132 


CARNIVORES. 


incisor  teeth  is  variable  in  the  different  groups ;  but  there  are  constantly  five  pairs 
of  cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw,  of  which  the  first  four  belong  to  the  premolar  series. 

In  all  the  species  the  under-surfaces 
of  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet  are 
covered  with  hair ;  while  the  fur 
clothing  the  body  is  invariably 
stiff  and  devoid  of  any  woolly 
under-fur. 

The  true  seals  form  a  much 
less  homogeneous  group  than  the 
eared  seals,  and  are  arranged  under 
several  distinct  genera;  the  total 
number  of  species  being  about 
sixteen  or  seventeen,  although  there 
is  still  a  certain  amount  of  doubt  in 
some  cases  as  to  whether  some  forms 
should  be  regarded  merely  as  local 
races  or  as  distinct  species.  The 
greater  number  of  the  genera  have 
but  a  single  species  each,  and  in 
only  one  of  the  genera  does  the 
number  of  species  exceed  two. 

Distribution  and  True  seals  occur  along  the  shores  of  the  temperate  and  colder 
Habits.  portions  of  the  globe;  but  the  greater  number  are  found  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  Moreover,  with  the  exception  of  the  elephant-seals,  the  seals 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  belong  to  genera  distinct  from  those  inhabiting  the 
Southern  Hemisphere ;  and  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  species  are  generically  distinct 
from  those  of  the  Antarctic  regions.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  true  seals  are 
characterised  by  their  strongly-developed  social  instincts  and  their  extraordinary 
affection  for  their  young.  In  disposition  they  are,  as  a  rule,  gentle  and  submissive, 
offering  no  resistance  when  attacked  by  man;  although  the  crested  seal  of  the 
North  Atlantic  is  an  exception  in  this  respect.  Many  of  the  species  are  accustomed 
to  assemble  in  large  flocks  during  the  breeding-season,  while  others  are  gregarious 
at  all  periods  of  the  year.  It  is,  however,  only  the  elephant-seals  that  resemble  the 
eared  seals  in  passing  a  period  of  several  weeks,  during  the  breeding-season,  entirely 
on  land,  and  without  partaking  of  any  kind  of  food.  As  a  rule  there  is  but  a  single 
young  one  produced  at  a  birth,  and  there  is  never  more  than  a  pair.  All  the  seals 
are  in  the  habit  of  spending  a  large  portion  of  their  time  basking  in  the  sun  on 
sandy  beaches  or  ice-floes. 

Their  food,  of  which  a  large  quantity  is  necessary,  consists  chiefly  of  fish,  but 
also  comprises  crustaceans  and  molluscs ;  and  most  of  the  species,  like  the  eared 
seals,  are  in  the  habit  of  swallowing  a  number  of  pebbles. 

As  may  be  at  once  seen  from  the  total  absence  of  external  ears  and  the 
structure  of  the  hind-limbs,  these  seals  are  more  specialised  creatures  than  the  eared 
seals,  and  are  thus  more  completely  adapted  for  an  aquatic  life.  This  is  especially 
shown  by  the  long  period  these  animals  can  remain  under  water  without  coming 


HIND-FLIPPERS   OF  RINGED   SEAL— OPEN  (A)  AND  CLOSED  (B). 


EARLESS  SEALS.  133 

up  to  breathe.  According  to  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  the  average  time  of  a  seal's 
submergence  is  from  five  to  eight  minutes,  while  the  limit  is  set  down  by  the  same 
observer,  at  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Other  authorities  state,  however,  that  the  time 
may  be  extended  to  as  much  as  twenty  or  thirty  minutes.  The  sounds  uttered  by 
seals  are  various,  in  some  cases  taking  the  form  of  a  kind  of  barking  note,  while  in 
others  they  assume  a  more  bleating  tone,  or  even  resemble  the  cry  of  a  child ;  the 
note  of  the  young  being  always  more  plaintive  and  less  hoarse  than  that  of  the  adult. 
In  no  cases,  however,  do  they  utter  barking  roars  comparable  to  those  characteristic 
of  the  eared  seals. 

The  strange  circumstance  that  young  seals  take  to  the  water  reluctantly,  and 
have  to  be  taught  the  art  of  swimming  by  their  parents,  would  alone  appear  to  be 
a  sufficient  indication  that  seals  are  originally  descended  from  land  Carnivores. 
Among  some  species  the  young  remain  entirely  on  the  land  or  the  ice  for  the  first 
two  or  three  weeks  of  their  existence,  or  until  they  have  shed  their  first  coat  of 
woolly  hair.  Numbers  of  seals  are  destroyed  by  the  Polar  bear,  while  others  fall 
victims  to  the  rapacious  killer-whale.  Others  again  are  frequently  destroyed  by 
being  jammed  between  ice-floes ;  and  it  is  stated  that  thousands  are  sometimes 
killed  by  this  means.  The  reduction  in  their  numbers  by  all  these  causes  are, 
however,  trivial  compared  to  those  inflicted  by  man,  who,  according  to  Mr.  J.  A. 
Allen,  requires  about  a  million  and  a  half  to  supply  his  annual  needs.  So  reckless, 
indeed,  has  been  the  destruction  of  seals,  that  some  species  are  already  well  nigh 
exterminated,  while  others  have  been  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  render  their 
pursuit  no  longer  profitable. 

Several  species  of  seals  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere  are  in  the  habit  of 
making  long  migrations,  moving  southward  to  avoid  the  intense  cold  of  winter, 
and  returning  northward  in  summer ;  such  migrations  being  most  marked  in  the 
Greenland  and  the  hooded  seal.  These  movements  have  been  carefully  observed 
by  Mr.  J.  C.  Stevenson,  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  America.  The  southern 
migration  commences  soon  after  the  frost  sets  in ;  and  at  this  season,  he  writes, 
"  a  fisherman,  posted  as  sentinel  on  some  headland  commanding  an  extensive 
sea-view,  communicates  to  the  hamlet  the  first  indication  of  the  approaching 
host,  the  vanguard  of  which  invariably  consists  of  small  detachments  of  from 
half  a  dozen  to  a  score  of  seals.  Such  parties  continue  to  pass  at  intervals,  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  frequency  and  numbers  during  the  first  two  or  three  days'  of 
the  exodus,  by  the  end  of  which  time  they  are  seen  in  companies  of  one  or  more 
hundreds.  The  main  body  is  now  at  hand,  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  next 
two  days  one  continuous  uncountable  crowd  is  constantly  in  sight.  The  whole 
procession  coasts  along  at  no  great  distance  from  the  shore,  presenting  to  an  eye- 
witness a  most  extraordinary  scene.  In  all  quarters,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  carry, 
nothing  is  visible  but  seals — the  sea  seems  paved  with  their  heads." 

From  the  conformation  of  their  hind-limbs,  the  true  seals  are  unable  to  progress 
on  land  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  the  eared  seals  and  the  walrus ;  both  the 
latter  being  able  to  bring  their  hind-limbs  under  the  body  by  arching  the  back  and 
carrying  forward  the  hind-feet  by  a  kind  of  jerk.  Very  generally  the  true  seals 
move  on  land  merely  by  a  kind  of  wriggling  motion  of  the  body,  with  the  fore- 
limbs  held  close  to  the  sides  of  the  trunk  and  the  hind-limbs  stretched  out  straight 


i34  CARNIVORES. 

behind.  Dr.  Murie  has,  however,  ascertained  that  in  the  case  of  the  Greenland  and 
crested  seals  there  is  a  kind  of  motion  somewhat  intermediate  between  the  above 
and  that  characteristic  of  the  eared  seals.  Thus  the  former  of  these  two  species 
"  very  often  uses  its  fore-limbs,  placing  these  on  the  ground  in  a  semi-grasping 
manner,  and,  by  an  alternate  use  of  them,  drags  its  body  along.  The  hind-legs 
meantime  are  either  trailed  behind  slightly  apart,  or  with  opposed  plantar  surfaces 
slightly  raised  and  shot  stiffly  behind.  On  uneven  ground,  or  in  attempting  to 
climb,  a  peculiar  lateral  wriggling  motion  is  made ;  and  at  such  times,  beside  alter- 
nate palmar  action,  the  body  and  the  hind- limbs  describe  a  sinuous  spiral  track." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  common  seal  appears  far  less  capable  of  making  use  of  its 
fore-limbs  in  progression  on  land,  these  being  only  occasionally  employed  to  obtain 
a  hold  on  rocks. 

On  smooth  ice  seals  are  able  to  progress  with  considerable  rapidity;  the 
average  rate  being  about  one  mile  an  hour  in  cool  weather.  Such  journeys  are 
always  undertaken  during  the  night ;  and  the  seals  advance  by  raising  their  bodies 
from  the  ice  by  means  of  the  fore-limbs,  and  then  drawing  themselves  forward. 
On  land,  seals  will  occasionally  travel  considerable  distances ;  and  it  is  on  record 
that  in  the  winter  of  1829  a  grey  seal  in  Norway  travelled  through  the  snow  a 
distance  of  fully  thirty  miles;  the  time  occupied  in  accomplishing  this  journey 
being  believed  to  have  been  about  a  week,  during  which  period  the  creature  could 
not  have  touched  food. 

The  true  seals  are  not  a  very  ancient  group,  geologically  speaking,  although 
their  remains  are  found  through  the  Pleistocene  and  Pliocene  strata,  and  in  a  portion 
of  those  belonging  to  the  Miocene  period.  Fossil  seals  are  very  common  in  the 
Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium  ;  most  of  them  being  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to  the 
species  now  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  It  is  very  noteworthy  that  while 
true  seals  range  downwards  to  the  Miocene  period,  no  remains  which  can  be 
definitely  assigned  to  the  eared  seals  have  hitherto  been  discovered  in  any  but  the 
most  recent  and  superficial  deposits.  If  this  apparently  late  origin  of  the  eared 
seals  be  confirmed  by  future  researches,  it  will  go  far  to  confirm  the  suggestion 
that  the  latter  have  taken  rise  from  land  Carnivores  quite  independently  of  the 
true  seals. 

THE  GREY  SEAL. 
Genus  Halichoerus. 

The  grey  seal  (Halichoerus  grypus),  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its 
genus,  belongs  to  a  group  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  the  presence  of  three  pairs  of  incisor 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  two  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw.  A  further  characteristic 
of  the  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  claws  on  all  the  toes  of  both  pairs  of 
limbs ;  while  all  those  of  the  hind-feet  are  of  nearly  equal  length. 

The  grey  seal  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  this  group  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  crowns  of  the  relatively  large  cheek-teeth  are  composed 
of  but  a  single  conical  cusp,  although  there  may  occasionally  be  fore-and-aft  cusps 
in  the  last  two  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.  Another  peculiar  feature  of  these  teeth  is 


EARLESS  SEALS.  135 

that,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  one  or  two  in  the  upper  and  the  last  one  in  the 
lower  jaw,  they  are  implanted  in  the  jaws  by  means  of  only  a  single  root  each. 

The  grey  seal  is  a  rather  large  species,  full-grown  males  usually  measuring 
about  8  feet  in  length,  although  occasionally  reaching  as  much  as  9  feet;  these 
measurements  being  taken  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  hind-feet. 
The  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  silvery  or  yellowish  grey,  becoming  lighter  on  the 
under-parts,  and  marked  with  a  number  of  blackish  or  dusky  ill-defined  spots. 
There  is,  however,  great  individual  variation  in  this  respect,  some  specimens  being 
uniformly  silvery  or  yellowish  white,  with  little  or  no  trace  of  spots,  while  others 
are  almost  black.  The  young  are  always  white  or  yellowish  white  at  birth,  but, 
as  a  rule,  soon  acquire  darker  tints. 

The  grey  seal,  according  to  Mr.  Allen,  is  one  of  the  least  common 
Distribution. 

of  the  northern  members  of  the  family,  and  has  a  somewhat  restricted 

distribution,  being  only  found  within  comparatively  narrow  limits  in  the  North 
Atlantic.  On  the  shores  of  northern  Europe  it  appears  to  be  commoner  than  on 
the  American  side ;  and  it  occurs  in  Iceland,  Scandinavia  as  far  north  as  Finmark, 
the  British  Islands,  and  probably  Greenland.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  unknown 
in  Spitzbergen  and  the  islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  is  not  met  with,  at  all 
events  as  a  regular  inhabitant,  on  the  shores  of  the  English  Channel.  On  the 
American  coast  this  species  extends  as  far  south  as  Sable  Island,  off  Nova  Scotia, 
while  northwards  it  is  met  with  occasionally  in  the  Straits  of  Labrador  and  Belle 
Isle,  and  ranges  as  far  as  Disco  Island. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  the  bearded  seal,  the  present 
species  is  peculiar  in  breeding  in  the  autumn ;  the  young  being  pro- 
duced in  the  Shetland  Islands  from  September  to  November.  There  the  grey  seal 
is  commonly  found  associating  in  pairs,  and  frequenting  the  most  exposed  positions. 
Describing  the  habits  of  this  seal  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Mr.  Lucas  writes 
that  "  it  is  fond  of  crawling  out  on  the  rocks,  especially  on  sunny  days,  when  it  will 
lie  basking  in  the  sunshine  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  seals  do  not  come  on  shore  at 
any  convenient  spot,  but  at  a  limited  number  of  chosen  localities,  and  these  vary 
according  to  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind.  Except  in  very  light  breezes  the 
lee-side  of  the  island  is  selected,  not  entirely  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  effecting 
a  landing  on  the  windward  side,  but  also  because  the  seal  relies  very  largely  upon 
its  acute  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  to  warn  it  of  approaching  danger  from  the 
land.  The  chosen  landing-places  are  where  a  shelf  of  rock,  raised  but  little  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  descends  vertically  for  several  feet  beneath,  thus  enabling  the 
seal  to  plunge  head-first  into  the  water  and  disappear  at  once  from  sight.  Before 
landing,  the  animal  will  swim  back  and  forth  several  times  with  head  raised,  and 
eye,  ear,  and  nose  on  the  alert  to  detect  any  sign  of  danger,  the  wary  nature  of  the 
creature  being  well  shown  by  the  fact  that  almost  immediately  after  emerging  from 
the  water  the  animal  turns  completely  around  so  as  to  lie  with  the  head  seaward, 
and  in  readiness  for  an  instant  dive.  The  fairer  the  day  and  the  lighter  the  breeze 
the  more  readily  the  seals  come  ashore,  while  during  rough  weather  they  not  only 
do  not  land  so  often  but  are  more  watchful  when  they  do  come  out."  This  species 
is  less  docile  and  intelligent  than  the  common  seal,  and  cannot  be  tamed  in  the 
same  manner.  A  specimen  measuring  8  feet  in  length  weighed  nearly  400  Ibs. 


136  CARNIVORES. 

THE  COMMON  SEAL  AND  THE  GREENLAND  SEAL. 
Genus  Phoca. 

The  common  seal  (Phoca  vitulina)  and  the  Greenland  seal  (P.  grcenlandica) 
may  be  selected  as  well-known  examples  of  the  genus  Phoca,  which  is  the  only 
genus  in  the  family  containing  more  than  two  species.  All  the  members  of  this 
genus  differ  from  the  grey  seal  by  their  smaller  and  more  pointed  teeth,  but  more 
especially  by  the  circumstance  that  each  of  the  cheek-teeth,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  in  each  jaw,  is  implanted  by  two  distinct  roots,  and  has  its  crown  composed 
of  three  or  four  compressed  cusps  arranged  in  a  line.  In  such  a  tooth  there  is  one 
large  main  cusp  in  the  middle,  which  corresponds  to  the  single  cusp  of  the  teeth  of 
the  grey  seal ;  while  in  front  and  behind  this  are  one  or  two  much  smaller  cusps. 

The  common  seal,  which  is  the  only  species  in  addition  to  the 
Common  Seal. 

grey  seal  ordinarily  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  is 

one  of  three  nearly-allied  forms,  which  in  the  young  condition  cannot  always  be 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COMMON  SEAL. 


satisfactorily  distinguished  from  one  another  by  colour  alone.  The  three  species 
in  question  are  the  common  seal,  the  ringed  seal  (P.  hispida),  and  the  Greenland 
seal.  All  these  three  species  are  much  smaller  than  the  grey  seal ;  the  ringed  seal 
being  the  smallest  of  all.  The  latter  species  can  always  be  distinguished  from  either 
of  the  others  by  the  greater  length  of  the  first  digit  in  the  fore-foot,  which  exceeds 
that  of  the  other  toes.  When  adult,  the  ringed  seal  is  blackish  grey  above,  with 
oval  whitish  rings,  and  whitish  on  the  under-parts ;  its  usual  length  varying  from 
4|  to  5|  feet.  The  common  seal,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  either  of  the  others  by  its  more  massive  teeth ;  the  cheek-teeth  being  very 
broad  and  thick,  and  set  obliquely  and  close  together  in  the  jaws,  instead  of  being 
placed  in  the  same  straight  line,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  distinct 
intervals.  It  is,  moreover,  a  relatively  stouter-built  animal,  with  a  larger  head, 
broader  nose,  and  shorter  limbs. 

The  adult  of  the  common  seal  is  very  variable  in  colour,  but  the  usual  tint  of 
the  hair  on  the  upper-parts  is  some  shade  of  yellowish  grey,  with  irregular  dark 
brown  or  blackish  spots ;  the  under-parts  being  yellowish  white,  generally  marked 
with  smaller  spots  of  brown.  The  length  of  the  male  varies  from  5  to  6  feet.  The 


EARLESS  SEALS.  137 

young  when  first  born  are  yellowish  white,  and  are  peculiar  in  that  they  shed  their 
woolly  coat  either  on  the  day  of  birth  or  very  shortly  afterwards. 

The  common  seal  has  a  much  wider  distribution  than  the  grey 
seal,  occurring  not  only  in  the  North  Atlantic  but  also  in  the  North 
Pacific,  and  extending  on  the  shores  of  both  oceans  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  thus 
being  doubtless  circumpolar.  In  the  Atlantic  it  is  found,  though  rarely,  as  far 
southwards  as  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  American  side  as  far  as  New  Jersey. 
In  the  Pacific  its  southern  limits  appear  to  be  marked  on  the  Asiatic  side  by 
Kamschatka,  and  on  the  American  by  Southern  California.  It  is,  moreover,  by 
no  means  confined  to  the  coasts,  but  ascends  some  of  the  larger  tidal  rivers  to  a 
considerable  distance  from  their  mouths ;  and  it  has  been  known  to  pass  up  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Great  Lakes.  In  the  North  Atlantic  this  seal  is  strictly  littoral 
in  its  habits,  and  always  avoids  the  ice  of  the  open  seas.  It  is  very  common  in 
Spitzbergen  and  Greenland ;  the  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  this  species 


THE   COMMON  SEAL. 


and  the  ringed  seal  captured  annually  some  years  ago  in  the  Danish  settlements 
in  Greenland  being,  according  to  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  upwards  of  700,000.  In  the 
British  Islands,  according  to  the  authors  of  Bell's  British  Quadrupeds,  this  seal 
"  is  found  all  round  the  coast  in  suitable  places,  but  is  much  less  abundant  than  it 
formerly  was,  and  has  been  quite  banished  from  many  places  where  it  was  formerly 
well  known.  It  is  common  on  many  parts  of  the  Irish  coast,  and  is  very  abundant 
among  the  Scotch  islands,  especially  in  Shetland  and  Orkney.  In  Wales  and 
Cornwall  it  is  well  known,  but  is  now  very  rarely  seen  on  the  shores  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  counties  of  England."  Not  many  years  ago  one  of  them 
was  observed  on  the  beach  at  Brighton. 

The  common  seal  does  not  make  any  seasonal  migrations,  but  is 
found  in  the  same  haunts  throughout  the  year.  It  prefers  sheltered 
sounds  and  bays,  with  shallow  water  and  an  abundant  supply  of  fish,  to  more 
exposed  positions ;  and  leaves  the  water  at  every  tide  to  rest  on  the  rocks  or  beach, 
almost  invariably  selecting  such  rocks  as  are  separated  from  the  mainland.  The 
young  are  born  in  the  latter  part  of  May  or  June,  and  take  to  the  water  at  an  early 


133 


CARNIVORES. 


period.  Like  other  members  of  the  family,  this  seal  is  readily  attracted  by  music, 
and  will  follow  boats  from  which  such  sounds  proceed  to  a  considerable  distance. 
Whether,  however,  this  attraction  by  musical  sounds  is  due  merely  to  the  curiosity 
characterising  all  the  Pinniped  Carnivores,  or  to  an  appreciation  of  the  music  itself, 
has  not  been  ascertained.  In  disposition  the  common  seal  is  more  intelligent  and 
gentle  than  most  of  its  congeners;  these  qualities  being  displayed  not  only  in 
the  care  and  affection  they  bestow  on  their  offspring,  but  likewise  by  the 
readiness  with  which  they  can  be  tamed,  and  their  fidelity  and  affection  for  their 
masters.  There  are,  indeed,  many  instances  where  these  seals  have  followed  their 
owners  about  like  a  dog ;  and  some  where  they  have  come  back  to  a  house  after 
every  effort  had  been  made  to  drive  them  away. 


Greenland  Seal. 


THE   GREENLAND   SEAL  (^  nat.  size). 

Although  the  Greenland  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  harp,  or 
saddle-backed  seal,  in  its  immature  condition  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish from  the  common  seal,  in  the  case  of  adult  males  of  the  two  species 
there  is  no  sort  of  difficulty  in  this  respect,  the  peculiar  coloration  of  the  Greenland 
species  being  amply  sufficient.  In  the  adult  male,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  the 
general  colour  is  yellowish  white  or  white ;  the  nose  and  the  fore-part  of  the  head 
to  behind  the  eyes  are  black ;  and  there  are  very  generally  some  black  spots  on 
the  throat  and  chest.  The  most  characteristic  mark  is,  however,  the  irregular 
crescentic  band  of  black  on  each  side  of  the  body,  extending  from  the  shoulders 
nearly  to  the  tail ;  these  bands  being  generally  widest  where  they  unite  in  the 
middle  line  over  the  shoulders.  They  may  be  interrupted  posteriorly,  but  more 
generally  join  once  more  in  front  of  the  tail,  so  as  to  enclose  an  ellipsoidal 


EARLESS  SEALS.  139 

area.  The  length  of  the  male  is  usually  from  5  to  5i  feet,  but  may,  it  is 
said,  be  as  much  as  6  feet.  The  female  has  generally  much  the  same  colora- 
tion as  the  male  when  adult,  but  the  black  markings  are  less  distinct,  and  may  be 
wanting.  The  full  coloration  is  not  obtained  till  the  fifth  year,  and  so  different  is 
the  appearance  of  the  animal  at  different  stages  of  its  growth  that  the  Greenlanders 
have  distinct  names  for  it  according  to  age.  The  white  or  yellowish  white  woolly 
fur  of  the  young  is  not  changed  for  the  hairy  coat  till  several  weeks  after  birth. 
The  Greenland  seal,  which  can  at  most  be  regarded  only  as  a  very  occasional 
visitant  to  the  British  Isles,  is  essentially  a  northern  species,  ranging  in  the 
Atlantic  from  Newfoundland  and  the  North  Sea  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
also  occurring  in  the  North  Pacific. 

The  migratory  habits  of  this  species  have  been  already  alluded 
to  at  sufficient  length;  the  most  noted  breeding-stations  are  New- 
foundland and  the  vicinity  of  Jan-Mayen,  at  which  localities  these  animals  may  be 
seen  in  enormous  herds  in  the  spring ;  but  where  they  pass  the  remainder  of  the 
season  is  not  ^ascertained.  In  Greenland  these  seals  visit  the  coasts  both  in  the 
autumn  and  in  the  spring ;  and  it  may  be  some  of  these  herds  that  pass  westwards 
to  Jan-Mayen.  During  their  migrations  the  seals  keep  close  to  the  coasts,  and 
frequently  enter  the  bays  and  estuaries ;  but  when  settled  at  their  breeding-resorts 
they  prefer  exposed  ice-floes  in  the  open  sea,  never  resorting  to  the  shores,  and  being 
seldom  met  with  on  the  firm  ice.  Everywhere  the  Greenland  seal  is  in  the  habit 
of  assembling  in  immense  herds ;  and  it  is  so  abundant  that  its  numbers  probably 
exceed  those  of  all  the  other  species  put  together.  In  consequence  of  this  abund- 
ance, it  is  this  species  which  forms  the  main  basis  of  the  sealing  trade  of  the 
northern  seas.  Unlike  the  bearded  and  ringed  seals,  the  Greenland  seal  never 
forms  a  breathing-hole  in  the  ice ;  and  this  is  doubtless  the  reason  that  it  frequents 
the  ice-floes  rather  than  the  continuous  stretches  of  unbroken  ice.  Off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland  the  young  are  born  in  the  early  part  of  March,  but  in  the  Jan- 
Mayen  district  not  until  the  end  of  that  month.  When  assembled  in  their  count- 
less herds  on  the  ice-floes  during  the  breeding-season,  it  is  stated  that  their  cry 
may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles,  more  especially  if  the  ear  be  applied  to 
the  ice.  As  an  indication  of  the  enormous  numbers  in  which  these  seals  once 
existed,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  during  the  year  1866  a  single  steamer  obtained 
22,000  seals  in  nine  days ;  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  ship's  crew  to  kill  from 
500  to  800  adults  and  2000  young  ones  in  a  day.  In  Greenland  the  annual  catch 
was  estimated  at  33,000,  while  that  in  Newfoundland  used  to  exceed  500,000,  and 
in  the  Jan-Mayen  seas  the  total  number  killed  each  year  was  fully  30,000. 

Of  the  remaining  members  of  the  genus  Phoca  our  notice  must 
Other  Species. 

be  very  brief.     It  has  been  already  mentioned  how  the  ringed  seal  (P. 

hispida)  may  be  distinguished  at  all  ages  from  the  two  preceding  species,  and  refer- 
ence has  likewise  been  made  to  its  adult  coloration.  It  may  be  added  that  the  ringed 
seal  differs  from  the  common  seal  by  its  more  slender  form,  longer  limbs  and  tail, 
narrower  head,  and  more  pointed  nose.  The  ringed  seal  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  occasionally  visiting  the  British 
Islands ;  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  pre-eminently  boreal,  its  true  home  being  the 
icy  Arctic  seas.  Its  favourite  resorts  are  stated  to  be  sheltered  bays  and  fjords, 


140 


CARNIVORES. 


in  which  it  remains  so  long  as  they  are  filled  with  solid  ice ;  but  when  this 
breaks  up  the  seals  betake  themselves  to  the  ice-floes,  upon  which  the  young  are 
born  in  the  months  of  March  and  April.  The  ringed  seal  is  not  a  migratory  species, 
and  in  some  localities  is  found  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is  one  of  those  seals 
which  make  a  circular  "  blow-hole  "  in  the  ice,  through  which  they  can  ascend  or 
descend  at  pleasure ;  such  apertures  being  made  while  the  ice  is  forming. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  ringed  seal  are  the  Baikal  seal  (P.  sibirica)  and  the 
Caspian  seal  (P.  caspica),  which  are  respectively  confined  to  the  inland  seas  from 
which  they  take  their  names.  Both  these  seals  are  rather  larger  than  the  ringed 
seal,  and  are  very  similar  to  one  another.  Their  especial  interest  is  derived  from 


SEALS   SWIMMING. 


their  habitat ;  the  Baikal  seal  inhabiting  a  fresh-water  lake,  while  the  waters  in 
which  the  Caspian  seal  dwells  are  but  slightly  salt.  The  curious  part  of  the  matter 
is  that  neither  Lake  Baikal  nor  the  Caspian  Sea  appear  to  have  had  any  recent 
connection  with  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  and  if,  as  is  most  probably  the  case  with  the 
latter,  we  have  to  look  to  a  former  connection  with  the  ocean  to  the  southward,  it 
becomes  difficult  to  see  whence  came  the  stock  from  which  these  two  allied  species 
were  derived.  Mr.  Allen  has  suggested,  however,  that  the  ringed,  the  Baikal,  and 
the  Caspian  seal  may  be  all  descended  from  an  allied  extinct  species  whose  remains 
are  found  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  bearded  seal  (P.  barbata),  which  is  distinguished  from  all 
the  other  members  of  the  genus  by  its  superior  size,  its  broad  muzzle  and  convex 


EARLESS  SEALS.  141 

forehead,  as  well  as  by  its  small  and  weak  teeth,  some  of  which  generally  fall  out 
in  the  adult.  Moreover,  the  front  flipper  differs  from  that  of  all  the  other  species 
in  having  the  third  or  middle  digit  longer  than  the  rest ;  whereas  in  the  other 
species  the  digits  decrease  in  size  from  the  first  or  first  and  second  together.  The 
colour  of  the  bearded  seal  is  some  shade  of  grey,  darker  on  the  middle  of  the  back 
than  elsewhere,  but  varying  considerably  in  different  individuals.  In  distribution 
the  bearded  seal  is  circumpolar  and  almost  exclusively  boreal,  its  only  migration 
in  winter  being  that  due  to  the  extension  of  the  unbroken  ice-fields,  by  which  it  is 
compelled  to  move  somewhat  to  the  southward.  On  the  American  side  of  the 
Atlantic  this  seal  extends  as  far  as  Labrador,  but  not  apparently  down  to  New- 
foundland. It  is  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  but  in  Europe  does  not 
appear  to  occur  further  south  than  Iceland  and  the  North  Sea. 

The  bearded  seal  is  by  far  the  largest  of  all  the  northern  seals,  full-grown 
males  being  said  to  attain  a  length  of  about  10  feet.  An  adult  female  skeleton, 
measured  by  Mr.  Allen,  had  a  length  of  7  feet  2  inches.  The  species  is  said  to  be 
nowhere  abundant,  and  is  more  or  less  solitary  in  its  habits,  never  congregating  in 
large  herds.  It  is  fond  of  basking  upon  large  pieces  of  floating  ice,  and  generally 
keeps  well  out  to  sea ;  and  upon  such  occasions  is  easily  approached  and  killed  by 
the  Eskimos.  A  distinctive  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  its  habit  of  turning  a 
complete  somersault  when  about  to  dive,  especially  when  fired  at.  The  skin  is 
thicker  than  that  of  any  other  northern  seal,  and  is  consequently  valued  by  the 
Eskimos,  who  employ  it  in  making  their  harpooning  lines.  Its  flesh  and  blubber 
are  stated  to  be  more  delicate  in  flavour  than  those  of  other  species.  Owing  to  its 
comparative  rarity,  the  bearded  seal  is  of  no  commercial  importance;  the  total 
annual  number  caught  some  years  ago  in  Greenland  not  exceeding  a  thousand. 

THE  MONK-SEAL. 
Genus  Monachus. 

The  monk-seal  (Monachus  albiventer)  belongs  to  a  group  differing  from  the 
preceding  by  having  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws ;  and  also  by  the  first  and  fifth  toes  of  the  hind-feet  being  much  longer  than 
the  others,  and  having  their  claws  either  rudimentary  or  absent.  With  the 
exception  of  the  first  in  each  jaw,  the  cheek-teeth  are  implanted  by  double  roots ; 
and  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  thirty -two,  against  the  thirty-four  of  the  last 
group.  The  monk-seal  is  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group  by 
the  character  of  its  cheek-teeth ;  these  being  large,  hollowed  on  the  inner  side,  and 
marked  with  a  prominent  ring  at  the  base,  while  the  cusps  on  either  side  of  the 
main  cusp  are  very  small.  Moreover,  the  claws  on  all  the  toes  are  small  and 
rudimentary.  The  fur  is  short,  and  is  dark  brown  mingled  with  grey  on  the 
upper-parts,  and  whitish  beneath.  Full-grown  males  attain  a  length  of  from  7  to 
8  feet,  or  more. 

Together  with  its  ally  the  West  Indian  seal  (M.  tropicalis).  the 
Distribution.  B       .  J  .  .        ^    . 

monk-seal  is  the  only  species  or  the  family  inhabiting  the  warmer 

seas ;  it  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas,  and  on  the  coasts  of  the 


I42 


CARNIVORES, 


neighbouring  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  extending  to  Madeira  and  the  Canary 
Islands.  Although  but  little  is  known  of  its  habits  in  a  wild  state,  the  monk-seal 
is  very  readily  tamed,  and  is  the  species  which  used  to  be  exhibited  in  England  as 
the  "  talking  fish." 

The  closely-allied  West  Indian  seal  is  of  nearly  the  same  colour 
as  the  monk-seal  in  the  adult  state,  but  the  young  are  of  a  deep 
glossy  black.  This  species  is  interesting  from  its  restricted  distribution,  and  the 
prospect  of  its  impending  extermination.  Although  discovered  as  far  back  as  the 
year  1494  by  the  flotilla  of  Columbus,  when  cruising  in  the  West  Indies,  this  seal, 
up  to  the  year  1883,  was  represented  in  scientific  collections  only  by  a  single  skin 
sent  to  the  British  Museum  in  1846  by  Mr.  P.  H.  Gosse.  In  the  year  1687,  when 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  visited  the  Bahamas,  these  seals  were  extraordinarily  abundant, 
the  sealers  sometimes  killing  as  many  as  a  hundred  in  a  single  night.  In  less  than 
two  centuries  they  had,  however,  become  exterminated  from  most  of  their  former 
haunts,  although  some  were  known  to  remain  on  the  rocky  islands  of  Pedro  Keys, 
to  the  southward  of  Jamaica.  In  1886,  as  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas  tells  us,  a  vessel  visited 
three  small  islands  lying  between  Yucatan  and  Florida,  known  as  the  Triangles, 
with  the  hope  of  finding  a  colony  of  these  seals.  In  this  hope  the  expedition  was 
not  disappointed,  upwards  of  forty  specimens  being  secured  before  the  vessel  was 
compelled  to  put  back  from  stress  of  weather.  We  are  not  told  how  many  of  these 
seals  were  then  remaining  on  the  islands. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  seals  of  this  group  have  the  first  and 
fifth  toes  of  the  hind-feet  much  longer  than  the  others,  and  since  this  is  a  character 
which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  eared  seals,  it  is  interesting  to  learn  that 
the  West  Indian  seal  has  the  power  of  bringing  the  hind-feet  forwards  to  a  certain 
extent  when  on  land  by  curving  the  body  upwards.  When  straightening  itself 
the  creature  pitches  ahead  on  its  breast,  advancing  about  a  foot  by  the  operation. 


THE   LEOPARD-SEAL. 
Genus  Ogmorhinus. 

The  leopard-seal  (Ogmorhinus  leptonyx)  may  be  taken  as  the  best  known 

representative  of  four  genera 
confined  to  the  Southern 
and  Antarctic  Seas,  and 
each  containing  but  a  single 
species.  These  seals  differ 
fa-"  «ie  monk -seal  by 
certain  characters  of  their 
skulls,  and  are  likewise  dis- 
tinguished from  that  species 
and  from  one  another  by  the 

SKULL  OF  LEOPAED-SEAL.  „  „    .,       .         .         ,  ,, 

form  or  their  cheek-teeth. 

The  leopard -seal   or,  as   it  is  often  called,  the   sea-leopard   is  distinguished   by 
the  great  length  of  its  skull,  and  by  the  cheek-teeth  consisting  of  three  large  and 


EARLESS  SEALS.  143 

distinct  cusps.  The  middle  and  largest  of  these  cusps  has  its  tip  slightly  inclined 
backwards,  while  the  summits  of  the  two  smaller  cusps  are  curved  towards  the 
middle  one.  Adult  males  of  this  species  attain  a  length  of  as  much  as  12  feet. 
Moseley  describes  these  animals  as  much  resembling  the  common  seal  in  coloration ; 
the  short  and  glossy  fur  being  spotted  yellowish  white  and  dark  grey  on  the 
back,  and  the  under-surface  of  a  general  yellowish  colour.  The  females  are 
usually  darker  than  the  males,  in  which  the  ground-colour  of  the  fur  is  often 
of  a  silvery  grey. 

The  leopard-seal  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  southern,  temperate, 
and  Antarctic  seas,  having  been  recorded  from  the  coasts  of  New 
Zealand,  Australia,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  from  the  Falkland  Islands, 
Kerguelen  Land,  and  the  shores  of  Patagonia,  and  being  also  found  on  the 
pack-ice  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  migratory,  and  is 
sometimes  found  on  the  ice  or  on  islands  in  considerable  herds.  In  Kerguelen 
Land  it  was  still  pretty  common  at  the  date  of  the  visit  of  the  Challenger,  a  herd 
estimated  at  four  hundred  in  number  being  reported  on  one  of  the  small  islands 
adjacent. 

The  first  of  the  remaining  members  of  this  group  is  the  crab- 
Crab-Eating  Seal.  fe 

eating   seal   (Looodon   carcinopriaga)   ot    the   Antarctic   Ucean.     It 

is  of  a  nearly  uniform  olive  colour  above,  with  the  sides  of  the  face  and  the 
under-parts  yellowish  white,  and  sometimes  a  few  light-coloured  spots  on  the 
flanks.  The  cheek-teeth  are  even  more  complex  than  those  of  the  leopard-seal, 
having  one  cusp  in  front  of  the  large  main  cusp,  and  from  one  to  three  distinct 
cusps  behind  the  latter.  The  claws  are  entirely  wanting  on  the  hind-feet. 
Practically  nothing  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  species. 

Weddell's    seal   (Leptonychotes    weddelli)   is   another   Antarctic 
Weddell's  Seal 

species,  distinguished  by  the  teeth  having  simple  conical  and  some- 
what compressed  crowns,  without  additional  fore-and-aft  cusps.  It  was  originally 
obtained  from  the  Southern  Orkneys,  but  has  also  been  obtained  from  Patagonia 
and  the  Antarctic  pack-ice.  The  general  colour  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
leopard-seal,  being  pale  greyish  above,  spotted  with  yellowish  white  on  the  back, 
and  yellowish  beneath.  The  jaw  is  weaker  and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  larger  than 
in  the  leopard-seal. 

The  last  of  these  four  southern  species  is  Ross's  seal  (Omma- 
Ross's  Seal.  .  ... 

tophoca  rossi),  long  known  by  two  skulls  and  a  single  skin  obtained 

from  the  Antarctic  pack-ice  during  the  voyage  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror  in  the 
years  1839-1843,  and  appropriately  named  after  the  commander  of  that  expedition. 
The  fur  is  rough  and  coarse,  with  a  general  greenish  yellow  colour,  marked  with 
oblique  yellow  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  paler  on  the  under-parts. 
There  are  no  claws  on  the  hind-feet,  and  but  very  small  ones  in  front.  The 
skull  is  characterised  by  the  immense  capacity  of  the  sockets  of  the  eyes,  and 
also  by  the  small  size  of  the  teeth.  The  cheek-teeth  have  very  small  fore-and-aft 
cusps. 

One  of  the  two  known  skulls  of  this  seal  is  peculiar  in  that,  while  on  one  side 
the  first  upper  cheek-tooth  and  both  the  corresponding  lower  teeth  are  imperfectly 
divided  by  a  vertical  groove,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  upper  jaw  the  place  of  this 


144 


CARNIVORES. 


tooth  is  taken  by  two  complete  simple  teeth.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  we  have 
here  a  case  where  an  originally  single  tooth  divides  into  two  distinct  but  simpler 
teeth.  This  may  not  at  first  sight  seem  a  fact  of  much  importance ;  but  in  reality 
it  serves  to  show  how  the  numerous  simple  teeth  characteristic  of  the  toothed 
whales  may  have  been  derived  by  the  splitting  up  of  teeth  originally  composed  of 
three  distinct  cusps  like  those  of  the  leopard-seal ;  each  cusp  of  such  a  tooth  forming, 
as  we  shall  see,  a  distinct  tooth  in  the  whales. 

THE  CRESTED  SEAL. 
Genus  Cystophora. 

The  remarkable-looking  animal  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration, 
and  commonly  known  as  the  crested,  hooded,  or  bladder-seal  (Cystophora  cristata),  is 


THE  CRESTED  SEAL  (^  nat.  size). 


at  once  distinguished  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  the  casque-like 
prominence  crowning  the  fore-part  of  the  head.  This  seal,  together  with  the 
under-mentioned  elephant-seal,  differs  from  all  the  species  yet  noticed  in  having  but 
thirty  teeth,  owing  to  the  reduction  of  the  incisors  to  two  pairs  in  the  upper,  and 
to  one  pair  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  both  the  cheek-teeth  are  small  and  simple,  with, 


EARLESS  SEALS.  145 

in  general,  but  a  single  root  each ;  and  in  the  males  of  both  the  nose  is  furnished 
with  an  appendage  which  can  be  inflated  at  will.  Moreover,  the  first  and  fifth 
toes  of  the  hind-feet  are  considerably  longer  than  the  three  middle  ones,  and  are 
furnished  with  long  lobes  projecting  in  advance  of  the  rudimentary  claws,  or  the 
position  which  these  should  occupy. 

In  the  crested  seal  the  appendage  on  the  nose  takes  the  form  of  a  large  sac, 
which  is  in  communication  with  the  nostrils,  and  when  inflated  covers  the  head  as 
far  back  as  the  eye  ;  but  the  female  has  no  trace  of  this  appendage,  which  does  not 
make  its  appearance  in  the  male  till  a  considerable  time  after  birth.  The  hind-feet 
of  this  species  are  provided  with  small  claws ;  and  the  last  cheek-tooth  generally 
has  two  roots.  The  ground-colour  of  the  fur  is  bluish  black,  becoming  lighter  on 
the  flanks  and  under-parts,  and  marked  with  small  irregular  whitish  spots ;  the 
head  and  limbs  being  uniformly  black.  Sometimes,  however,  the  ground-colour  is 
light  greyish  white,  varied  with  dark  brown  or  blackish  spots.  The  woolly  fur  of 
the  newly -born  young  is  pure  white.  In  size,  full-grown  males  of  this  seal 
vary  from  7|  to  8  feet  in  total  length ;  females  measuring  about  7  feet.  The 
skull  is  very  short  and  broad;  and  the  bony  partition  dividing  the  nostrils 
is  produced  above  the  level  of  their  margin  in  order  to  support  the  sac.  This 
seal  is  restricted  to  the  colder  regions  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  certain 
portions  of  the  Arctic  Sea;  its  range  extending  from  Greenland  eastwards  to 
Spitzbergen,  and  thence  along  the  northern  coast  of  Europe.  Southwards  these 
seals  are  but  seldom  found  below  Norway  on  the  one  side,  and  Newfoundland 
on  the  other. 

.  In  habits  the  crested  seal  is  essentially  migratory  and  pelagic, 

travelling  south  in  winter,  and  always  preferring  the  drift-ice  of  the 
open  sea  to  the  neighbourhood  of  land ;  indeed,  it  very  seldom,  if  ever,  resorts  to 
the  shores  or  even  to  outlying  rocks.  Compared  with  the  Greenland  seal,  the 
present  species  is  a  comparatively  rare  one,  and  is  nowhere  met  with  in  large 
numbers,  although  apparently  more  numerous  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  than  in 
most  of  its  haunts.  Although  at  times  the  sexes  are  said  to  live  apart,  they  usually 
associate  together  in  family  parties  or  small  herds  during  the  breeding-season, 
previous  to  which  the  males  engage  in  fierce  contests  for  the  possession  of  the 
females.  While  these  fights  are  going  on,  the  males  utter  cries  which  may  be 
heard  at  the  distance  of  several  miles.  The  young  are  born  on  the  ice,  far  away 
from  land,  during  March ;  and  in  defence  of  their  offspring  both  parents  will  lose 
their  own  lives  rather  than  escape  by  flight.  In  disposition  the  crested  seal  is 
much  fiercer  and  bolder  than  any  of  the  other  members  of  the  family ;  and  it  will 
not  unfrequently  turn  upon  its  aggressor,  so  that  its  pursuit  in  the  frail  kayaks,  or 
canoes,  of  the  Eskimo  is  attended  with  a  considerable  share  of  danger,  the  pro- 
tection afforded  to  the  head  by  the  inflated  sac  rendering  the  males  difficult 
to  kill  in  the  ordinary  manner  by  means  of  clubs.  What  is  the  precise  use 
of  the  appendage  in  question  has  not  yet  been  fully  determined;  but  from  its 
presence  in  the  males  only  it  may  be  inferred  to  be  a  sexual  feature  analogous  to 
the  antlers  of  the  deer.  It  was  estimated  some  years  ago  that  the  total  number  of 
these  seals  annually  killed  in  Greenland  did  not  exceed  3000.  In  addition  to  fish, 
the  crested  seal  feeds  largely  upon  cuttles  and  squids. 

VOL.  ii. — 10 


146 


CARNIVORES. 


THE  UPPER  TEETH  OP  THE  ELEPHANT-SEAL. 


THE  ELEPHANT-SEAL. 
Genus  Macrorhinus. 

In  the  elephant-seal  or  sea-elephant  (Macrorhinus  leoninus)  the  appendage  on 
the  nose  of  the  male  takes  the  form  of  a  short  proboscis,  which,  though  generally 
hanging  in  a  limp  condition,  can  be  expanded  and  dilated  at  the  will  of  its  owner. 
The  end  of  this  proboscis  is  obliquely  truncated,  and  penetrated  by  the  nostrils,  and 
the  whole  organ  communicates  a  most  peculiar  and  almost  ridiculous  physiognomy 
to  the  animal.  The  female,  however,  resembles  an  ordinary  seal  in  the  form  of  the 
head.  The  teeth  (which  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  woodcut)  are  very 

small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  head;  those  of  the  cheek- 
series  being  of  simpler  structure 
than  in  the  crested  seal,  and  each 
inserted  only  by  a  single  root.  In 
the  hind-feet  the  claws  are  want- 
ing, and  their  first  and  fifth  toes 
are  longer  in  proportion  to  the 
others  than  is  the  case  with  the 
crested  seal. 

The  elephant-seal  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  pinnipeds,  not  even  ex- 

The  two  on  the  right  are  the  incisors,  the  next  the  tusk,  and    eluding     the    walrus,    adult     males 
the  five  small  ones  to  the  left  the  cheek-teeth.— After  Sir  W.        , ,    •    •  ••         ,,        ,.   £ 

H  Flower  attaining  a   length  of  from  15  to 

16  feet  to  the   end  of  the   body, 

or,  reckoning  from  the  tip  of  the  trunk  to  the  extremities  of  the  outstretched 
flippers,  a  length  of  20  or  22  feet.  When  in  good  condition  the  girth  of  an  old 
male  will  be  as  much  as  15  or  16  feet,  while  the  yield  of  oil  from  such  an  animal 
will  reach  210  gallons.  The  females  are  much  smaller,  not  exceeding  9  or  10  feet 
in  total  length.  The  general  colour  of  the  coarse  and  short  fur  is  grey,  with  a  more 
or  less  marked  blackish  or  olive  tinge,  darker  on  the  upper  than  on  the  under- 
parts. 

The  typical  elephant-seal  formerly  inhabited  many  of  the  islands 
in  the  South  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans,  as  well  as  those  in 
the  Antarctic  Sea ;  some  of  its  favourite  haunts  being  Juan  Fernandez,  the  Falk- 
land Islands,  Kerguelen  Land,  New  Georgia,  the  South  Shetlands,  and  Tristan 
da  Cunha.  In  such  places,  during  the  earlier  portions  of  this  century  and  in  the 
preceding  one,  these  animals  were  met  with  in  enormous  herds,  as  described  in  the 
accounts  of  the  voyages  of  Cook,  Peron,  and  Anson.  Northwards  the  elephant- 
seal  reaches  Patagonia,  and  extends  some  distance  up  the  western  coast  of  South 
America,  but  how  far  does  not  seem  to  be  clearly  ascertained,  although  it  certainly 
stops  short  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  When,  however,  we  have  crossed  the  Equator 
and  reached  some  distance  north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  elephant-seals  are,  or  were, 
once  more  met  with  between  latitude  25°  and  35°  on  the  coast  of  California.  The 
difference  between  the  Antarctic  and  Calif  ornian  elephant -seals  is  very  slight 


Distribution. 


EARLESS  SEALS.  147 

indeed ;  and  it  appears  that  the  chief  reason  that  the  American  naturalists  have 
for  regarding  them  as  distinct  species  is  their  isolated  habitats.  It  may  be  that 
the  area  between  these  two  habitats  was  once  occupied  by  these  seals,  but  the 
suggestion  that  the  Californian  race  took  origin  from  a  few  individuals  that 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  tropical  zone  appears  the  more  probable  view,  as  it 
seems  difficult  to  believe  that  the  same  species  should  inhabit  both  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  and  the  Equatorial  seas.  In  any  case,  the  Californian  elephant-seal,  whatever 
its  origin,  and  whether  it  be  a  distinct  species  or  only  a  local  race  of  its  Antarctic 
cousin,  is,  from  a  distributional  point  of  view,  of  considerable  interest,  and  its 
extermination,  which,  if  not  actually  accomplished,  must  be  imminent,  cannot  fail 
to  be  a  source  of  regret. 

In  the  southern  seas  the  elephant-seals  have  long  since  been 
practically  exterminated  from  the  Falkland  Islands;  and  at  the 
time  of  the  visit  of  the  Challenger  Moseley  states  that,  while  elephant-seals  had 
completely  disappeared  from  Tristan  da  Cunha,  they  were  still  to  be  met  with 
in  Marian  Island,  were  comparatively  numerous  in  Kerguelen  Land,  and  on 
the  neighbouring  Heard  Island  occurred  in  thousands.  After  mentioning  an 
encounter  with  a  male  on  Kerguelen  Island,  when  the  animal  assumed  a 
threatening  attitude,  and  raised  its  tail  nearly  to  the  level  of  its  head,  as 
depicted  in  Anson's  voyage,  Professor  Moseley  goes  on  to  state  that,  on  the  more 
exposed  side  of  Heard  Island,  "  there  is  an  extensive  beach,  called  Long  Beach. 
This  is  covered  over  with  thousands  of  sea-elephants  in  the  breeding-season,  but  it 
is  only  accessible  by  land,  and  then  only  by  crossing  two  glaciers.  No  boat  can 
live  to  land  on  this  shore,  consequently  men  are  stationed  on  the  beach,  and  live 
there  in  huts ;  and  their  duty  is  constantly  to  drive  the  sea-elephants  from  this 
beach  into  the  sea,  which  they  do  with  whips  made  of  the  hide  of  the  seals 
themselves.  The  beasts  thus  ousted  swim  off,  and  often  '  haul  up,'  as  the  term 
is,  upon  the  accessible  beaches  elsewhere.  In  very  stormy  weather,  when  they  are 
driven  into  the  sea,  they  are  forced  to  betake  themselves  to  the  sheltered  side  of 
the  island.  Two  or  three  old  males,  termed  '  beach  -  masters,'  hold  a  beach  to 
themselves  and  cover  it  with  cows,  but  allow  no  other  males  to  haul  up.  The 
males  fight  furiously,  and  one  man  told  me  that  he  had  seen  an  old  male  take  up 
a  younger  one  in  his  teeth  and  throw  him  over,  lifting  him  in  the  air.  The  males 
show  fight  when  whipped,  and  are  with  great  difficulty  driven  into  the  sea.  They 
are  sometimes  treated  with  horrible  barbarity.  The  females  give  birth  to  their 
young  soon  after  their  arrival.  The  new-born  young  are  almost  black,  unlike  the 
adults,  which  are  of  a  light  slate-brown.  They  are  suckled  by  the  female  for  some 
time,  and  then  left  to  themselves  lying  on  the  beach,  where  they  seem  to  grow  fat 
without  further  feeding.  They  are  always  allowed  by  the  sealers  thus  to  lie,  in 
order  to  make  more  oil.  This  account  was  corroborated  by  all  the  sealers  I  met 
with.  I  do  not  understand  it.  Probably  the  cows  visit  their  offspring  unobserved 
from  time  to  time.  Peron  says  that  both  parent  elephant-seals  stay  with  the 
young  without  feeding  at  all,  until  the  young  are  six  or  seven  weeks  old,  and  that 
then  the  old  ones  conduct  the  young  to  the  water  and  keep  them  carefully  in  their 
company.  The  rapid  increase  in  weight  is  in  accordance  with  Peron's  account. 
Goodridge  gives  a  somewhat  different  account,  namely,  that  after  the  females 


148  CARNIVORES. 

leave  the  young,  the  old  males  and  young  proceed  inland,  as  far  as  two  miles 
sometimes,  and  stop  without  food  for  more  than  a  month,  and  during  this  time 
lose  fat.  The  male  sea-elephants  come  on  shore  on  the  Crozets  for  the  breeding- 
season  at  about  the  middle  of  August,  the  females  a  little  later." 

i 
SEAL-HUNTING. 

Although  incidental  mention  has  been  made  here  and  there  of  the  annual 
catch  of  various  species  of  the  true  seals,  nothing  has  yet  been  said  as  to  the 
various  modes  in  which  these  animals  are  captured.  The  chief  sealing  districts, 
or,  as  they  are  technically  called,  "sealing -grounds,"  in  the  Arctic  and  North 
Atlantic  oceans  are  West  Greenland,  the  Newfoundland  district,  the  Jan-Mayen 
seas,  Novaia  Zemlia  and  the  Kara  Sea,  the  White  Sea,  and  the  Caspian.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  Jan-Mayen  area,  where,  as  in  all  the  other  districts 
except  the  Caspian,  the  Greenland  seal  is  the  species  mainly  hunted.  So  incessant 
and  unremitting  has  been  seal-hunting  in  the  icy  Jan-Mayen  seas  that  the  numbers 
of  these  animals  have  been  very  sensibly  diminished ;  and  as  far  back  as  1871 
attention  was  called  to  the  necessity  of  some  stringent  regulations  being  applied 
to  the  sealing  trade.  This  was  followed  in  1876  by  an  enactment  on  the  part  of 
the  British  Government  establishing  a  close-time  for  seals,  so  far  as  their  own 
subjects  were  concerned ;  and  not  long  after  similar  action  was  taken  by  the  other 
governments  interested. 

The  chief  sealing-trade  in  the  North  Pacific  was  the  capture  of  the  elephant- 
seals  on  the  Californian  coast — a  trade  which  has  of  necessity  come  to  an  end  by 
the  extermination  of  the  object  of  pursuit.  In  the  more  southern  seas  the  trade 
was  likewise  confined  to  the  capture  of  elephant-seals.  From  their  great  numerical 
abundance  and  their  large  size,  the  pursuit  of  these  animals  was  an  extremely 
lucrative  occupation  in  the  early  years  of  this  century.  Now,  however,  as  we  have 
seen,  these  seals  are  exterminated  from  most  of  their  former  haunts,  and  only 
remain  in  any  numbers  on  Kerguelen  and  Heard  Islands,  where  they  would  also 
long  since  have  disappeared  had  it  not  been  for  the  inaccessible  nature  of  the 
beaches  they  frequent.  Consequently,  the  southern  sealing-trade  has  now  shrunk 
to  an  inappreciable  fraction  of  its  former  volume,  although  there  is  a  prospect  of 
its  being  revived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Antarctic  pack-ice. 

Of  the  various  methods  of  capturing:  seals  in  the  northern  seas 
Harpooning. 

notably  the  oldest  is  that  of  harpooning  from  canoes,  or  kayaks,  as 

now  practised  by  the  Eskimo.  The  kayak,  which  is  made  of  skins,  although 
upwards  of  eighteen  feet  in  length,  is  so  light  as  to  be  easily  carried  in  the  hand. 
In  "  sealing  "  the  victim  is  approached  within  some  twenty-five  feet,  when  the  harpoon 
is  hurled  from  a  wooden  "thrower."  The  harpoon,  in  addition  to  its  line,  is 
furnished  with  a  bladder  attached  by  another  cord,  which  marks  the  course  of 
the  seal  while  below  the  water,  and  enables  the  hunter  to  follow  its  track  and 
wound  it  with  his  lance  time  after  time  as  it  comes  to  the  surface  to  breathe, 
until  it  is  finally  despatched.  The  lance,  it  should  be  observed,  is  thrown 
from  the  hand,  and,  after  striking  the  seal,  always  detaches  itself  and  floats  on  the 
surface. 


SEALING,  149 

A  large  number  of  seals  are  also  captured  in  nets,  this  method 
being  chiefly  employed  during  the  spring  and  autumn  visits  of  the 
migratory  species  to  the  shore.  Nets  appear  to  have  been  in  use  longest  in  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  Lake  Baikal,  where  they  are  set  either  from 
the  shore  or  beneath  the  ice.  In  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  such  nets  are  from  60  to 
90  feet  in  length,  and  about  6  feet  in  depth.  Two  of  them  are  generally  set 
together  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rocks  to  which  the  seals  resort,  and  are  always 
placed  to  the  leeward  of  the  mainland  or  some  headland.  When  they  strike 
against  the  nets,  the  seals  thrust  their  heads  through  some  of  the  meshes,  and  by 
twisting  themselves  about  gradually  become  completely  involved.  In  the  Caspian 
Sea  the  nets  are  usually  hung  from  boats  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
shore.  In  Lake  Baikal,  on  the  other  hand,  the  nets  are  let  down  through  the 
breathing-holes  of  the  seals  in  the  ice,  and  the  animals  become  entangled  on 
rising. 

The  seal-box  used  in  parts  of  Scandinavia  is  a  contrivance  with 
a  swinging  plank,  upon  which,  when  the  seal  lands,  it  is  precipitated 
headlong  into  a  deep  pit.  Another  Scandinavian  plan  is  to  surround  a  seal-rock 
with  a  line  armed  with  a  number  of  barbed  hooks.  These  hooks  allow  the  seals  to 
land  with  impunity;  but  when  a  number  of  the  animals  are  on  the  rock,  and 
through  a  sudden  fright  rush  headlong  into  the  water,  some  of  them  are  pretty 
sure  to  be  caught.  A  third  method  employed  in  the  same  country  is  to  fix  a 
harpoon  in  a  tube,  with  a  spring-and-trigger  arrangement,  and  to  bury  the  whole 
contrivance  in  a  hole  bored  in  a  seal-rock  in  such  a  manner  that  when  a  seal 
presses  against  the  trigger  the  weapon  will  be  discharged  into  its  body. 

A  large  number  of  seals  are  also  shot  on  the  shore  with  rifles  ;  and  others  fall 
to  the  harpoon  of  the  Eskimo,  who  either  steals  up  to  them  while  asleep,  or  awaits 
their  rising  at  a  breathing-hole.  When  a  large  number  of  seals  can  be  surprised 
on  shore  at  one  of  their  favourite  landing-places,  clubbing  is  resorted  to  as  the 
most  effectual  and  speedy  means  of  despatch;  and  it  is  said  that  sometimes  as 
many  as  15,000  have  been  killed  in  this  manner  in  one  night, 
capture  on  ice-  The  above  methods  apply  only  to  sealing  on  or  near  the  shore ; 
Floes.  1-^  for  the  capture  of  seals  on  the  ice-floes  at  long  distances  from 
land,  vessels  of  some  kind  have  to  be  specially  equipped.  In  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
these  expeditions  are  or  were  carried  out  in  open  boats,  each  manned  by  eight 
sailors ;  but  in  the  Newfoundland  and  Jan-Mayen  seas  steamers  of  considerable 
size  are  now  employed.  When  the  seals  are  found  on  the  ice,  they  are  killed  in 
the  same  way  as  on  shore,  that  is,  either  by  shooting,  harpooning,  or  clubbing. 

The  most  valuable  product  of  the  sealing  industry  is  the  oil, 
which  is  used  both  for  lighting  and  for  lubricating  machinery. 
Writing  in  1880  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  states  that  the  total  annual  quantity  of  seal-oil 
then  obtained  reached  close  on  90,000  barrels.  Next  in  value  to  the  oil  are  the 
skins,  which  are  manufactured  into  leather  of  various  sorts  ;  a  large  number  being 
used  for  lacquered  leather.  To  the  northern  tribes  seals  are  all  important,  furnish- 
ing not  only  the  greater  part  of  their  food,  but  likewise  most  of  the  materials  from 
which  their  boats  and  sledges  are  made,  as  well  as  their  clothes  and  their  hunting 
implements. 


150  CARNIVORES. 

THE  PRIMITIVE  CARNIVORES. 

No  account  of  the  Carnivores  would  be  complete  without  some  reference, 
however  brief,  to  a  number  of  peculiar  species  occurring  in  the  Miocene  and 
Eocene  formations  of  Europe  and  America,  which  differ  so  remarkably  from  all 
living  terrestrial  representatives  of  the  order,  as  to  render  it  imperative  to  refer 
them  to  a  totally  distinct  group.  These  extinct  primitive,  or,  as  they  are  techni- 
cally called,  Creodont  Carnivores,  differ  from  modern  land  Carnivores  in  the 
absence  of  a  distinct  flesh-tooth  in  either  jaw ;  all  the  molar  teeth  of  each  jaw 
being  constructed  on  the  same  plan,  and  the  whole  of  those  in  the  lower  jaw  being 
frequently  like  the  single  flesh-tooth  of  other  Carnivores.  As  a  rule,  the  crowns 
of  the  upper  molar  teeth  are  triangular  in  form,  and  of  the  type  noticed  on  p.  340 
of  the  first  volume.  And  whereas  in  all  existing  Carnivores  the  two  bones  in  the 
upper  row  of  the  wrist,  technically  known  as  the  scaphoid  and  lunar,  are  com- 
pletely welded  together,  in  nearly  all  the  Creodonts  they  remain  quite  distinct. 
These  and  other  characters  indicate  that  these  primitive  Carnivores  are  a  much 
more  generalised  group  than  the  modern  land  Carnivores,  of  which  they  may  have 
been  the  direct  ancestors.  Moreover,  the  teeth  of  many  of  these  extinct  forms  are 
so  like  those  of  the  carnivorous  Marsupials  (although  agreeing  generally  in  number 
with  the  modern  carnivorous  type,  as  exemplified  by  some  of  the  dogs),  that  there 
is  considerable  probability  that  in  these  animals  we  have  a  direct  connecting  link 
between  the  Marsupials  and  the  existing  land  Carnivores.  The  best  known  repre- 
sentatives of  this  group  in  Europe  have  been  described  under  the  names  of  Hyceno- 
don  and  Pterodon ;  and  while  some  of  the  species  were  no  larger  than  a  fox, 
others  attained  dimensions  nearly  or  fully  equal  to  those  of  a  brown  bear.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  from  some  of  these  primitive  Carnivores — and  more  especially 
the  North- American  forms  known  as  Miacis — the  majority  of  the  existing  land 
Carnivores  are  descended.  It  is  noteworthy  that  an  American  and  European  genus 
known  as  Palceonictis  shows  a  remarkable  gradation  in  the  structure  of  its  teeth 
towards  the  cats,  although  it  is  rather  difficult  to  believe  that  the  cats  are  directly 
derived  from  this  primitive  form. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS,  —  Order  UNGULATA. 
THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 
Family 


IF  we  except  the  bats,  in  which  the  outermost  fingers  of  the  wings  are  clawless, 
and  some  of  the  seals  and  their  allies,  the  whole  of  the  Mammals  described  in 
the  preceding  chapters  are  characterised  by  having  the  digits  of  both  the  fore 
and  hind-limbs  provided  either  with  claws  or  with  thin  nails.  Moreover,  in  the 
greater  number  of  instances,  the  fore-limbs  themselves  are  endowed  to  a  larger 
or  smaller  degree  with  the  power  of  free  movement  in  several  directions  ;  these 
movements  being  displayed  to  the  fullest  degree  among  the  Primates,  where  the 
hand  can  be  rotated  upon  the  fore-arm,  although  they  are  also  well-developed  in 
the  Cat  family.  Then,  again,  the  number  of  digits  in  the  great  majority  of  these 
animals  is  five  on  either  one  or  both  pairs  of  limbs,  and  in  no  instance  is  it  less  than 
four.  Further,  the  crowns  of  their  cheek-teeth  are  never  complicated  by  vertical 
and  lateral  infoldings  of  the  enamel,  so  as  to  produce  when  worn  down  an  elaborate 
pattern. 

The  Ungulate,  or  Hoofed  Mammals,  such  as  cattle,  deer,  camels,  swine,  horses, 
tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and  elephants,  of  which  we  have  now  to  treat,  differ  in  many 
important  respects  from  the  above.  Thus,  while  no  existing  member  of  the  order 
has  the  feet  provided  with  claws,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  toes  are 
enclosed  in  solid  hoofs,  although  in  a  few  instances  they  are  furnished  with  broad 
and  flat  nails.  Then,  again,  the  movements  of  the  fore-limbs  are  mainly  or  entirely 
restricted  to  a  backwards-and-forwards  motion,  and  in  no  case  can  the  fore-foot 
be  rotated  on  the  fore-leg.  Many  extinct  forms  had  five  or  four  functional  and 
well-developed  digits  to  the  limbs,  but  in  all  living  members  of  the  order,  except 
the  elephants,  there  are  never  more  than  four  functional  digits  ;  and  in  a  large 
number  of  instances  these  functional  digits  are  reduced  to  two,  or  more  rarely 
three  in  number.  Some  species,  like  the  giraffe,  have,  indeed,  but  two  digits  to 
each  foot,  while  in  the  horse  and  its  living  allies  only  a  single  digit  remains. 

Feet  of  It  must  not,  however,  be  assumed  from  the  last  sentence  that  the 

Ungulates,  toes  are  gradually  reduced  from  three  to  two,  and  from  two  to  one  ; 
the  fact  really  being  that  the  reduction  takes  place  along  two  different  lines,  in  one 
of  which  the  number  is  diminished  from  four  to  two,  and  in  the  other  from  three 
to  one.  As  it  is  of  primary  importance,  in  order  to  understand  the  relationship  of 
existing  Ungulates  to  one  another,  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  this 
reduction  of  the  digits  takes  place,  the  subject  may  be  dealt  with  in  some  detail 


UNGULATES. 


In  all  the  Ungulates  the  limbs  have  entirely  ceased  to  be  used  as  organs  of 
prehension,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  necessity  why  there  should  be  any 
adherence  to  the  primitive  five-toed  type,  as  development  advances.  The  majority 
of  the  members  of  the  order  being,  however,  unable  to  protect  themselves  against 
foes,  and  being  also,  in  proportion  to  their  height,  heavy-bodied  animals,  the  attain- 
ment of  a  high  degree  of  speed  was  essential  to  their  well-being  and  development, 
if  not  for  their  actual  existence.  For  such  a  kind  of  life  it  will  be  obvious  that 
the  greater  the  length  and  slenderness  of  limb,  the  greater  will  at  first  sight  be  the 
speed.  Now,  in  order  to  produce  a  long  and  slender,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strong 
limb,  from  a  stout  and  short-toed  one,  greater  strength  will  clearly  be  attained  by 
reducing  the  number  of  the  toes,  and  lengthening  and  strengthening  those  which 
remain,  rather  than  by  lengthening  the  whole  of  the  five 
toes,  the  slender  bones  of  which  would  be  liable  to  fracture 
by  the  concussion  of  the  solid  hoofs  against  the  ground. 
Accordingly,  among  the  Ungulates,  the  plan  has  been  to 
gradually  lengthen  and  strengthen  the  bones  of  one  or  more 
of  the  original  five  toes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  dispense 
more  or  less  completely  with  the  others.  In  almost  the 
lowest  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe  and  North  America  there 
occur,  for  instance,  the  remains  of  certain  large  Ungulates, 
known  as  coryphodons,  in  which  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet 
(as  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure)  have  five  com- 
plete toes.  It  will  be  observed  that  both  the  metacarpal 
bones  and  the  toe  bones  by  which  they  are  succeeded  are  very 
short ;  and  these  animals  must  accordingly  have  walked  to  a 
certain  extent  upon  the  soles  of  their  feet  in  the  old-fashioned 
plantigrade  manner.1  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  third 
or  middle  toe  (in)  is  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  symmetrical  in  itself. 
Another  feature  of  this  type  of  foot  is  that  the  component  bones  forming  the  two 

horizontal  rows  of  the  wrist  are  placed  almost  verti- 
cally one  above  another,  the  bone  lettered  I  merely 
touching  the  adjacent  angle  of  the  one  marked  u. 
When  we  ascend  to  the  overlying  Miocene 
Tertiary  deposits  we  meet  with  other  large 
Ungulates  having  a  foot  of  the  type  of  that 
shown  in  our  second  figure,  where  it  will  be 
noticed  that  while  all  trace  of  the  first  toe  (i)  has 
disappeared,  the  metacarpal  bones  of  all  the  others 
have  become  very  much  more  elongated,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  animal  no  longer  walked 

BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  WRIST  AND  FOOT  OF    UpOn  the  soles  of  its  feet,  but  entirely  upon  the 
THE  TITANOTHERE  (4  nat.  size). — After  .         ,,  •>       v    •,•        j         ^^.       'n 

Osborn-  toes,  or  was,  in  other  words,  digitigrade.     It  will 

also  be  observed  that  the  third  toe  has  become 
still  larger  in  proportion  to  the  others.     Moreover,  the  upper  row  of  wrist-bones 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  coryphodon  was  partially  digitigrade  in  its  fore-feet,  but  entirely  plantigrade  in  the 
hinder  ones. 


BONES     OF     THE     LEFT    WRIST 
AND    FORE-FOOT    OF    THE 

CORYPHODON  (£  nat.  size). 

The  letters  indicate  the 
bones  of  the  wrist  (cuneiform, 
lunar  scaphoid,  trapezium, 
trapezoid,  magnum,  unciform), 
and  the  numerals  those  of  the 
metacarpxis. — After  Osborn. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


153 


A  THREE -TOED 
HORSE  -LIKE 
ANIMAL. 


appears  to  have  been  slided  over  those  of  the  lower  row  towards  the  fifth  toe,  so 
that  the  bone  marked  I  largely  overlaps  the  one  lettered  n  ;  and  it  will  be  obvious 
that  this  interlocking  of  the  bones  of  the  wrist  produces  a  joint  much  more  capable 
of  resisting  strain  than  is  that  of  the  coryphodon.  The  hind-foot  of  the  titanothere, 
as  the  extinct  Ungulate  we  are  now  considering  is  called,  exhibits  a  still  further 
advance,  having  lost  the  fifth  as  well  as  the  first  toe,  and  thus  being  three-toed. 
The  living  tapirs  are  in  a  precisely  similar  condition,  being  four- 
toed  in  front  and  three-toed  behind ;  but  the  rhinoceroses  have 
advanced  one  step  still  further,  having  but  three  toes  both  in  front 
and  behind. 

In  the  foot  of  the  titanothere,  while  the  bones  of  the  meta- 
carpus have  become  longer  than  in  the  coryphodon,  the  toe-bones 
still  remain  as  short  as  in  the  latter ;  and  the  same  is  the  case 
with  the  rhinoceroses.  All  these  are,  indeed,  bulky  animals,  fitted 
for  dwelling  in  swampy  localities,  and  not  specially  adapted  for 
speed.  In  another  group,  however,  as  shown  in  our  third  figure,  LEFT  FORE-FOOT  OF 
the  toe-bones  themselves  have  become  elongated,  while  the  meta- 
carpal  bones  are  still  longer  and  more  slender.  In  the  feet  repre- 
sented in  our  third  and  fourth  figures  the  middle  or  third  toe  is 
very  much  larger  than  either  of  the  others;  but  whereas  in  the 
one  the  fifth  toe  still  remains,  in  the  other  it  is  represented  only 
by  a  rudiment  of  the  upper  end  of  its  metacarpal  bone.  This 
type  of  foot  leads  on  to  that  of  the  extinct  three-toed  horse,  or 
hipparion,  of  the  Pliocene  Tertiary,  shown  in  our  fifth  figure,  where 
the  two  side-toes  have  become  still  smaller,  and  the  last  trace  of 
the  fifth  has  disappeared.  Finally,  at  the  very  top  of  the  geological 
series,  we  have  the  horse,  where  the  only  remaining  toe  is  the  third, 
now  very  large;  the  metacarpal  bones  of  the  second  and  fourth 
toes  being  represented  solely  by  the  small  splints  on  either  side  of  BONES  OF  THE  LEFT 
the  large  metacarpal,  now  known  as  the  cannon-bone. 

A  complete  transition  has  thus  been  traced  from  a  five-toed 
Ungulate,  walking  partly  on  the  soles  of  its  feet,  to  one  provided 
with  but  a  single  toe  to  each  foot,  and  walking  entirely  upon  the 
very  tip  of  that  one  toe,  by  which  means  the  full  extent  of  the 
limb  comes  into  play  as  an  aid  to  speed.  Throughout  this  series  it 
is  the  third  or  middle  toe  which  has  undergone  development  at  the 
expense  of  the  others;  and  since  this  toe  is  always  symmetrical 
in  itself,  the  term  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  is  applied  to  the  members 
of  the  group  thus  characterised. 

Odd-Toed  and  The  resources  of  nature  are,  however,  manifold, 

Even-Toed  and  instead  of  this  being  the  only  line  of  evolution  of 
the  Ungulates,  nearly  similar  results  have  been  reached 
by  a  totally  different  series  of  modifications.  Starting  once  more 
from  a  foot  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  represented  in  the  first 
figure  of  this  chapter,  it  will  be  found  that  instead  of  the  third  toe  remaining 
symmetrical  in  itself  and  gradually  increasing  in  size  at  the  expense  of  the  others, 


FORE-FOOT  OF 
A  FOUR -TOED 
HORSE-LIKE 
ANIMAL. 


LEFT  FORE-FOOT  OF 
THE  HIPPARION. 


154 


UNGULATES. 


O 

BONES   OF  FORE- 


the  third  and  fourth  toes  become  symmetrical  to  a  vertical  line  drawn  between 
them.     When  this  takes  place  the  first  toe  disappears,  and  the  second  and  fifth 
become  diminished  in  size ;  an  instance  of  this  stage  of  development  being  presented 
by  the  pig,  where  the  two  large  and  medially  -  symmetrical  toes 
represent  the   third  and   fourth   of   the   typical   series,  while  the 
two  small  lateral  ones  are   the   second  and   fifth.      In  the  pigs 1 
all  the  metacarpal  bones  remain  distinct  and  relatively  short ;  but 
in   the  water  -chevrotain1  of  Africa  the  third   and  fourth  meta- 
carpals  become  much  elongated  and  closely  applied  to  one  another, 
while  the  second  and  fifth  are  reduced  to  mere  splints,  and  their 
toes  so  diminished  as  to  become  practically  functionless.     Finally, 
in  the  deer,  oxen,  and  their  allies,  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpals 
in  the  fore-limb,  and   the   corresponding   metatarsal   bones  in  the 
hind-limb,  have  become  completely  fused  into  a  single  rod-like  bone, 
FOOT  OF  HORSE,    corresponding  in  function  with  the  cannon-bone  of  the  horse,  and 
generally  known   by  the   same  name.      The   dual   origin   of  this 
cannon-bone  is,  however,  proclaimed  by  the  formation   of   its   lower   extremity, 
which  carries  two  pulley-like  surfaces,  with  which  the  bones  of  the  two  functional 
toes  (the  third  and  fourth)  articulate. 

Since  all  the  Ungulates  displaying  this  second  modi- 
fication of  foot-structure  agree  in  having  the  third  and 
fourth  toes  arranged  symmetrically  to  a  line  drawn 
between  them,  they  are  collectively  termed  the  Even- 
Toed  Ungulates. 

It  is  accordingly  evident  that  although  a  few  living 
Ungulates,  like  the  elephant  and  the  hyrax,  retain  a 
generalised  type  of  foot,  the  greater  number  of  the 
living  representatives  of  the  order  are  characterised  by 
their  more  or  less  markedly  specialised  feet. 

As  regards  their  teeth,  the  Ungulates 
are  characterised  by  those  of  the  cheek- 
series  having  broad  crowns,  surmounted  either  by  columns 
or  transverse  ridges,  and  adapted  for  grinding  and 
masticating  vegetable  substances.  In  the  more  specialised 
forms,  like  cattle  and  horses,  these  cheek-teeth  have  their 
columns  or  ridges  of  great  height  and  closely  approxi- 
mated to  one  another,  in  consequence  of  which  the  bases 
of  the  hollows,  or  valleys  by  which  these  columns  or 
ridges  are  separated  from  one  another,  cannot  be  seen 
when  the  tooth  is  unworn ;  while  the  pattern  produced 
on  the  crown  by  the  wearing  down  of  these  columns  or 
ridges  is  complex.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  more 
primitive  types,  such  as  pigs  and  tapirs,  the  crowns  of  the 
BONES  OF  THE  FORE  AND  HIND-  cheek-teeth  have  low  columns,  or  ridges,  so  that  the  bases 

FEET  OF   AN    EXTINCT    DEER.  -  ".     ..         ,,  11 

—After  Osborn.  of  the  intervening  valleys  can  be  distinctly  seen  at  all 

1  Figures  of  the  bones  of  the  feet  of  these  animals  are  given  under  their  respective  headings. 


Teeth. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


155 


A  LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR  TOOTH  OF  THE  NILGAI, 
SEEN  FROM  THE  INNER  AND  OUTER 
SIDES. 


stages  of  wear.  This  will  be  apparent  from  a  comparison  of  the  accompanying 
figures,  the  first  of  which  shows  a  tall-crowned  tooth  viewed  from  the  inner  and 
outer  sides,  while  the  second  shows  a  short-crowned  tooth  seen  directly  from  above. 
In  the  former  the  valleys  between  the  four 
crescent  -  shaped  columns  form  deep  pits, 
penetrating  the  whole  extent  of  the  crown 
of  the  tooth,  while  in  the  latter  they  are  mere 
shallow  channels.  It  will  be  found  that  while 
all  the  earlier  Ungulates  have  short-crowned 
cheek-teeth,  the  greater  number  of  living 
species  have  high-crowned  ones ;  and  it  will 
also  be  observed  later  on  that  the  develop- 
ment of  high-crowned  teeth  has  taken  place 
independently  in  each  of  the  four  great  groups 
into  which  existing  Ungulates  are  divided. 
It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  whereas  in 
Carnivores  the  upper  molar  teeth  are  gener- 
ally of  the  primitive  triangular  type,  in  all 
existing  Ungulates  they  have  assumed  the 

quadrangular  form.  The  food  of  the  Ungulates  consisting  in  most  cases  entirely 
of  vegetable  substances  requiring  much  mastication,  is  the  inducing  cause  for  the 
complex  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  in  the  more  specialised  kinds ;  and  to  the  same 
cause  may  be  attributed  the  circumstance  that  Ungulates  always  retain  the  full 
number  of  molar  teeth,  and,  except  in  the  camels,  at  least  three  out  of  the  typical 
four  premolars.  In  this  respect  they  are  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Carnivores,  in 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  a  reduction 
in  the  number  of  the  molar  teeth,  only  one  living  member  of 
the  order  (the  long-eared  fox)  having  the  typical  three  molar 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  On  the  other  hand,  among  the  more 
specialised  representatives  of  the  order,  there  is  a  decided  tend- 
ency to  the  reduction,  either  in  size  or  number,  of  the  front 
teeth ;  the  tusks  being  very  frequently  small  or  absent,  while 
the  whole  of  the  incisor  teeth,  and  sometimes  the  canines  also, 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  more  rarely  both  incisors  and  canines 
in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  may  be  wanting.  All  the  earlier 
Ungulates,  as  well  as  the  modern  pigs,  have,  however,  well- 
developed  tusks,  as  well  as  the  full  number  of  front  teeth; 
and  it  is  thus  apparent  that  in  this  respect  also  the  result  of  specialisation  has 
been  the  reverse  of  that  in  the  Carnivores,  where  the  tusks  have  obtained 
extreme  development,  and  the  full  typical  number  of  incisor  teeth  is  very 
generally  retained.  In  both  cases  these  distinctions  are  due  to  the  differ- 
ence in  the  nature  of  the  food  and  habits  of  the  two  groups  of  animals.  In 
addition  to  these  characters  of  their  feet  and  teeth,  the  Ungulates  of 
the  present  day  are  characterised  by  the  total  absence  of  collar-bones  or 
clavicles  in  the  adult  condition,  although  traces  of  these  may  occur  in  the  foetal 
state. 


A  RIGHT  UPPER  MOLAR 
TOOTH  OF  THE  EX- 
TINCT MERYCOPO- 
TAMUS,  VIEWED 
FROM  ABOVE. 


iS6  UNGULATES. 

Definition  of  Having  said  thus  much,  it  may  be  well  to  endeavour  to  briefly 

Ungulates,  summarise  the  chief  characteristics  by  which  the  existing  members 
of  the  Ungulate  order  may  be  distinguished  collectively  from  those  of  the  other 
groups  of  Mammals. 

In  the  first  place,  all  Ungulates  are  adapted  for  a  life  on  land ;  while,  with  the 
exception  of  some  species  of  hyrax,  none  of  them  are  arboreal.  Then,  whereas 
some  of  the  more  generalised  forms  are  omnivorous,  all  the  more  specialised  kinds 
are  strictly  vegetable  feeders.  In  all  cases  the  cheek-teeth  have  broad  crowns, 
furnished  with  columns  or  ridges  of  greater  or  less  complexity;  and  there  are 
never  less  than  three  pairs  of  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw.  Collar-bones  are  in- 
variably absent ;  and  the  limbs  are,  as  a  rule,  restricted  entirely  to  a  backward- 
and-forward  motion,  there  being  in  no  case  any  power  of  rotating  the  fore -foot  or 
the  fore-leg.  The  upper  end  of  the  radius,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  fore-limb,  instead 
of  being  rounded,  is  accordingly  elongated  transversely  in  the  typical  Ungulates. 
The  terminal  joints  of  the  toes  are  generally  invested  in  solid  horny  hoofs,  although 
in  some  cases  furnished  with  broad  and  blunt  nails,  but  never  with  claws.  More- 
over, the  number  of  toes  is  but  very  rarely  five,  and  may  be  reduced  to  three,  two,  or 
one ;  while  in  a  large  number  of  instances,  where  four  toes  are  present,  only  a 
single  pair  are  of  any  functional  importance. 

When,  however,  we  have  to  take  fossil  species  into  consideration  many  of 
these  characteristic  features  will  not  hold  good ;  certain  extinct  Mammals,  which  it 
is  very  difficult  to  separate  satisfactorily  from  the  Ungulates,  having  either  collar- 
bones, or  claws,  or  perhaps  both  together.  In  others,  again,  the  upper  molar  teeth, 
instead  of  having  square  crowns,  show  the  triangular  shape  found  in  many  Carni- 
vores. Indeed,  strange  though  it  may  seem,  the  connection  between  the  early 
Carnivores  and  the  early  Ungulates  is  so  close  that  it  is  frequently  a  matter  of 
some  difficulty  to  determine  to  which  group  an  extinct  form  should  be  referred ; 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  Ungulates  are  really  a  side-branch,  descended 
from  the  same  stock  which  gave  rise  to  the  Carnivores.  This  difficulty,  or  rather 
impossibility,  of  defining  groups  of  animals,  when  we  have  to  take  into  con- 
sideration their  extinct  relatives,  is  merely  what  must  of  necessity  be  the  case  if 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  be  the  true  explanation  of  their  mutual  relationship. 

As  a  rule,  existing  Ungulates  are  characterised  by  their  relatively 
large  size ;  and  among  the  order  are  included  the  most  bulky  of  all 
land  mammals.  There  is,  however,  a  great  variation  in  point  of  size  among  the 
order  ;  the  smallest  forms  being  the  pigmy  hog,  the  royal  antelope,  the  chevrotains, 
and  the  hyrax ;  while  the  largest  are  the  elephants,  the  hippopotamus,  the  rhino- 
ceroses, and  the  giraffe. 

A  frequent,  although  by  no  means  general   peculiarity  of  the 
Ungulates  is  the  tendency  to  the  development  of  horns  of  some  kind 
or  other  on  the  head ;  the  nature  of  these  horns,  as  we  shall  show  later  on,  varying 
greatly  in  the  different  groups. 

.     .  The  order  is  well  represented  on  all  the  continents  of  the  globe, 

Distribution.        .  „ 

with  the  exception  of  Australia,  but  at  the  present  day  it  has  a  tar 

larger  number  of  species  in  the  Old  World  than  in  the  New  ;  many  of  those  from 
the  former  area  belonging  to  groups  quite  unknown  in  the  latter.     Although  repre- 


HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS.  157 

sented  in  the  Arctic  regions  only  by  the  reindeer  and  the  musk-ox,  Ungulates  are 
found  alike  in  the  coldest  and  the  hottest  regions  of  the  globe.  The  maximum 
number  of  peculiar  forms,  as  well  as  those  of  greatest  corporeal  bulk,  are,  however, 
inhabitants  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  ;  and  it  is  also  in  the  warmer 
regions  that  the  greatest  number  of  species  occur.  As  regards  the  number  of 
individuals  of  particular  species,  many  Ungulates  far  exceed  any  other  of  the 
larger  mammals  ;  this  being  especially  the  case  with  the  bisons,  that  but  a  few 
years  ago  roamed  in  countless  thousands  over  the  prairies  of  North  America,  and 
with  the  myriad  hosts  of  springboks  in  the  South  African  veldt.  Through  the 
advance  of  civilisation  and  the  incessant  persecution  of  both  the  sportsman  and 
the  trader,  these  wonderful  instances  of  the  profusion  of  animal  life  have,  however, 
been  swept  away  for  ever. 

Not  only  are  the  Ungulates  widely  distributed  in  longitude  and  latitude,  but 
they  are  also  found  at  all  elevations  suitable  for  the  existence  of  animal  life  ;  some 
of  the  wild  sheep  of  the  Himalaya  ranging  to  elevations  of  fully  twenty  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  time  the  order  is  an  ancient  one,  being  represented 
in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  Eocene  division  of  the  Tertiary  period,  although 
the  species  were  mostly  small,  and  in  all  cases  widely  different  from  any  now 
living. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 
Family 


Unfortunately  we  have  no  concise  English  term  to  designate  collectively  the 
animals  commonly  known  as  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes,  and  we  are  hence 
compelled  to  allude  to  them  by  the  periphrasis  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants, 
unless  we  prefer  to  call  them  by  their  scientific  title,  Bovidce.  This  is  the  more  to 
be  regretted,  since  the  term  hollow-horned  Ruminants  will  likewise  include  the 
American  prongbuck,  which  is  the  representative  of  a  family  by  itself. 

Taking,  then,  the  term  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  for  want  of  a  better,  to 
designate  the  animals  mentioned  above,  we  have  in  this  family  our  first  representa- 
tive of  the  Ungulate  order.  But  before  entering  into  the  consideration  of  the 
especial  characteristics  of  this  family,  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  those  distinctive 
of  the  great  group  of  even-toed  Ungulates,  under  which  title  are  included  not  only 
the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  but  likewise  deer,  camels,  swine,  and  many  other 
living  and  extinct  types. 

Even-Toed  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  even-toed  Ungulates  (or 

Ungulates.  Artiodactyles,  as  they  are  technically  termed),  are  distinguished  by 
the  third  and  fourth  toes  being  almost  equally  developed,  and  arranged  symmetri- 
cally on  either  side  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  between  them  ;  this  line  being  con- 
tinued upwards  to  the  wrist  or  ankle,  and  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones 
similarly  arranged  in  respect  to  it.  As  a  consequence  of  this  it  results  that  in  the 
typical  members  of  the  group  the  hoofs  are  of  the  so-called  "  cloven  "  type.  This 
character  is  alone  sufficient  to  distinguish  all  the  members  of  the  group  ;  but  there 
are  a  few  others  which  it  is  advisable  to  mention.  One  of  these  characters  is 
afforded  by  the  cheek-teeth,  in  which  the  molars  are  almost  always  more  complex 


'58 


UNGULATES. 


THE  FIRST  MOLAR  AND  THE  THREE 
PREMOLAR  TEETH  OF  THE  RIGHT 
SIDE  OF  THE  UPPER  JAW  OF  THE 
FOUR-HORNED  ANTELOPE. 


than  the  premolars.  This  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  where  the  first  of 
the  three  upper  molar  teeth  is  shown  on  the  left  side,  and  is  seen  to  consist  of  two 
lobes,  while  the  adjacent  premolar  has  but  a  single  lobe.  Another  feature  connected 

with  the  teeth  is  exhibited  by  the  last  molar  in  the 
lower  jaw,  which  almost  invariably  consists  of  three 
lobes ;  whereas  in  the  living  representative  of  the 
odd-toed  Ungulates  it  has  only  two  lobes.  In  their 
single  -  lobed  upper  premolar  teeth  the  even-toed 
Ungulates  show  a  retention  of  the  primitive  triangular 
type  of  tooth,  which  has  been  lost  in  the  molar  teeth. 
Then  again  the  thigh-bone,  or  femur,  in  all  the 

members  of  the  present  group  is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  any  projecting 
process  on  the  hinder  surface  of  the  shaft. 

There  are  other  less  obvious  distinctive  features  of  the  even-toed  Ungulates, 
but  the  above  are  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose.  It  must  be  added,  however, 
that  both  in  this  group  and  in  the  odd-toed  Ungulates  there  are  never  more  than 
four  toes  to  each  foot ;  and  that  all  the  members  of  both  groups  walk  on  their  toes 
alone. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  consider  somewhat  more  closely  the 
characters  of  the  hollow  -  horned  Ruminants,  but  we  have  still  to 
notice  that  these,  together  with  the  giraffe,  the  prongbuck,  and  the  deer,  form  a 


Ruminants. 


SKELETON   OF  THE  EUROPEAN   BISON. 


group  distinguished  from  all  the  other  even-toed  Ungulates  by  certain  important 
characters.  In  all  the  members  of  this  assemblage  of  four  families  there  are  no 
front  (or  incisor)  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  and  the  upper  tusks  or  canines  are 


HOLL  O  W- HORNED  R  UMINANTS. 


'59 


generally  small  or  absent.     In  the  lower  jaw,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  incisor 
teeth  are  present,  while  the  canine  tooth  on  each  side  is  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  outermost  incisor ;  and  since  all  the  three  pairs  of  incisors  and  the  single  pair 
of  canines  have  nearly  similar  spatulate  crowns,  they  appear  to  form  a  single  series 
of  four  pairs  of  teeth.     This  may  be  easily  verified  by  examining  the  lower  jaw  of 
a  sheep  or  an  ox.     The  six  cheek-teeth  on  either  side  of  both  jaws  are  placed  close 
together ;  those  of  the  lower  jaw  being  separated  by  a  long  space  from  the  four 
pairs  of  spatulate  teeth.     In  the  fore-feet  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpal  bones, 
and  in   the    hind-feet 
the  metatarsal  bones, 
are  respectively  fused 
into    single    "cannon- 
bones,"   as   shown    in 
the  two  figures  given 
on  p.  154;  while  the 
two   lateral    pairs    of 
toes  are  always  small 
and  rudimentary,  and 
may     be     completely 
absent ;  the  toes  them- 
selves  being    encased 
in     complete      hoofs. 
Another  peculiarity  of 
this  group  is  that  the 
stomach  is  divided  into 
four  complete  cavities, 
into  the  first  of  which 
the  food  is  temporarily 
received,    until    it    is 
regurgitated   into  the 
mouth,     when     it     is 
completely  masticated, 
and    afterwards    con- 
veyed    to     the     true 
digesting         stomach. 

This  process  is  known  as  the  function  of  "  chewing-the-cud,"  or  ruminating ;  and 
the  Ungulates  in  which  it  occurs  are  consequently  termed  Ruminants.  The  rumin- 
ating function  is,  however,  developed  in  the  camels  and  chevrotains,  as  well  as  in 
the  assemblage  of  four  families  constituting  the  present  group  ;  but  as  the  camels 
and  chevrotains  differ  in  several  important  respects,  it  is  convenient  to  designate 
the  group  under  consideration  as  the  true  Ruminants,  or  technically,  the  Pecora. 

It  has  yet  to  be  mentioned  that  all  the  ruminating  even- toed  Ungulates  are 
characterised  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  cheek-teeth.  It  will  be  observed 
from  the  figure  of  the  upper  molar  tooth  of  the  nilgai  given  on  p.  155,  and  also 
from  that  of  the  four-horned  antelope  on  p.  158,  that  these  teeth  consist  of  four 
distinct  columns,  of  which  the  innermost  pair  are  crescent-shaped,  with  the  horns 


SKULL  OF  SWAYNE'S  HARTEBEEST,   TO   SHOW  HORNS. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1892.) 


160  UNGULATES. 

of  the  crescents  turned  outwardly.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  molars  are  narrower,  and 
with  a  reverse  structure ;  that  is  to  say,  the  crescents  are  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
tooth,  with  their  horns  turned  inwardly.  Accordingly  the  name  of  crescent-toothed 
(selenodont)  Ungulates  is  applied  to  all  the  ruminating  members  of  the  group. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  true  Ruminants  are  alone  characterised 
by  the  whole  of  the  four  under-mentioned  features,  viz.  no  front  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  a  four-chambered  stomach,  complete  cannon-bones,  and  the  feet  encased 
in  hoofs.  Moreover,  it  is  only  in  the  members  of  this  group  that  horns  are  ever 
met  with ;  these  appendages  being  always  arranged  as  a  symmetrical  pair  (occasion- 
ally two  pairs)  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  skull. 

Hollow-Horned  The  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  or  Bovidcu,  are  distinguished  from 

Ruminants,  their  allies  by  the  presence  of  true  horns ;  that  is  to  say,  of  hollow 
and  unbranched  sheaths  of  horn  growing  upon  bony  protuberances,  or  cores,  arising 
from  the  frontal  bones  of  the  skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  159 ;  neither 
the  horny  sheaths  nor  the  bony  cores  being  shed  at  any  period  of  existence.  In 
all  existing  wild  species  these  horns  are  present  at  least  in  the  male  sex ;  but  in 
many  domesticated  races  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  they  are  absent  in  both  sexes ; 
and  the  same  holds  good  for  certain  extinct  members  of  the  family.  Usually  the 
molar  teeth  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants  are  characterised  by  the  great  relative 
height  of  their  crowns,  as  shown  in  the  figures  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  nilgai 
given  on  p.  155 ;  and  in  all  cases  there  is  no  tusk  or  canine  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw. 
In  some  few  instances  the  small  lateral  toes  may  be  completely  absent,  but  they  are 
generally  represented  merely  by  the  small  spurious  hooflets  alone,  which  may  be 
supported  internally  by  minute  and  irregularly -shaped  nodules  of  bone. 

The  hollow-horned  Ruminants  are  chiefly  Old  World  forms,  although  they  are 
represented  in  North  America  by  the  musk-ox,  the  American  bison,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  goat,  and  the  bighorn  sheep.  They  are  quite  unknown  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  New  World. 

THE  OXEN. 

Genus  Bos. 

The  oxen  include  the  largest  and  most  massively-formed  members  of  the 
hollow-horned  Ruminants,  and  comprise  not  only  the  animals  thus  commonly 
designated,  but  likewise  the  bisons,  yak,  and  buffaloes.  As  a  rule,  they  are  large 
and  heavily -built  animals,  with  very  short  and  thick  necks,  and  the  massive  and 
relatively  short  head  carried  nearly  in  the  line  of  the  back ;  the  males  generally 
being  provided  with  a  large  dewlap,  running  along  the  throat  from  the  chin  to 
between  the  fore-legs.  The  tail  is  always  long,  and  is  generally  thinly  haired 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  length  and  tufted  at  the  extremity,  but  in  the 
yak  it  is  thickly  haired  throughout.  The  muzzle  is  broad,  naked,  and  moist ;  and 
there  are  never  any  "  tear-pits  "  or  glands  below  the  eye,  which  are  so  frequently 
present  in  the  antelopes;  and  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  these  tear-pits 
there  are  no  depressions  in  the  skull  immediately  below  the  eyes  for  their  recep- 
tion. The  horns,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes  and  of  nearly  equal  dimensions 
in  both,  may  be  either  cylindrical  or  more  or  less  markedly  angulated ;  and  are 


OXEN.  161 

usually  situated  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of,  or  actually  upon,  the  summit  of 
the  skull,  whence  they  generally  sweep  in  a  more  or  less  outward  direction,  and  then 
curve  upwards,  and  sometimes  inwards,  at  their  extremities.  They  are  never 
spirally  twisted,  or  ornamented  with  prominent  transverse  knots  or  wrinkles.  If 
the  horn-cores  be  cut  through,  they  will  be  found  to  be  completely  honeycombed 
by  a  number  of  irregular  cavities  of  large  size.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are  very 
tall  and  broad,  and  are  provided  with  an  additional  column  on  the  inner  side,  as 
shown  in  the  figure  of  the  tooth  of  the  nilgai  on  p.  155. 

With  the  exception  of  the  American  bison,  the  whole  of  the 
existing  species  of  oxen  are  confined  to  the  Old  World,  where  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  species  are  continental.  There  is,  however,  one  species,  of 
smaller  size  than  any  of  the  rest,  confined  to  the  island  of  Celebes ;  and  another 
which  may,  however,  have  been  introduced,  in  the  Philippines.  Domesticated  races 
are  spread  over  nearly  all  the  globe.  The  wild  species  inhabit  either  open  grassy 
plains  or  dense  forest,  while  one  of  them  is  confined  to  the  higher  regions  of  the 
Himalaya  and  Tibet.  All  of  them  live  in  herds  of  larger  or  smaller  size,  which  are 
protected  by  the  bulls ;  the  number  of  individuals  in  these  herds  being  in  some 
cases  reckoned  by  thousands,  only  the  old  bulls  becoming  solitary  in  their 
habits. 

All  cattle  can  swim  readily,  and  some  species  will  cross  rivers  of 
considerable  breadth  without  the  slightest  hesitation.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  strength  and  endurance ;  and  as  beasts  of  draught  oxen  are 
superior  to  horses  for  dragging  heavy  vehicles  through  soft  and  yielding  ground. 
The  usual  pace  of  these  animals  is  a  walk,  but  when  excited  they  break  into  a 
heavy  and  awkward  gallop.  Their  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  acute,  but  their 
sight  does  not  appear  to  be  particularly  keen.  Their  food  may  consist  either  of 
leaves  and  the  tender  shoots  of  trees,  grass,  mosses,  or  various  kinds  of  marsh  and 
water-plants ;  and  all  the  species  display  a  marked  partiality  for  salt. 

Usually  but  one  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  but  there  may  be  occasionally  two. 
As  is  the  case  with  other  Ruminants,  the  calf  is  born  in  a  highly-developed  state, 
and  is  soon  able  to  run  by  the  side  of  its  parent. 

In  most  of  their  structural  peculiarities  the  oxen  appear  to  be 
Specialisation. 

among  the  most  highly  specialised  of  all  the  hollow-horned  Rumi- 
nants ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  lateness  of  their  appearance  in  the  geological 
series,  the  group  being  quite  unknown  before  the  Pliocene  period,  and  attaining  its 
maximum  development  in  the  Pleistocene  and  present  epochs.  Probably  the  origin 
of  the  group  may  be  traced  to  Ruminants  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  antelopes  ; 
and  it  is  noteworthy  that  in  some  of  the  extinct  species  horns  were  present  only  in 
the  male  sex. 


THE  AUROCHS  AND  DOMESTIC  OXEN  (Bos  taurus). 

The  aurochs,  or  ancient  wild  ox  of  Europe,  although  now  quite  extinct  as  a 
wild  species,  is  doubtless  still  represented  by  the  half-wild  cattle  of  some  of  the 
British  parks ;  although  the  confined  areas  in  which  they  live  have  caused  them  to 
degenerate  sadly  in  size  from  their  wild  ancestors.  Moreover,  although  there  may 

VOL.  II. — II 


l62 


UNGULATES. 


have  been  a  certain  amount  of   crossing  with  other   species,  the  origin  of  our 
domestic  cattle  is  certainly  to  be  traced  back  to  the  same  wild  ancestor. 

The  aurochs  and  the  half- wild  and  domesticated  cattle  of  Europe  are  charac- 
terised by  their  horns  being  circular  in  section  and  placed  at  the  very  summit  of 
the  skull  immediately  over  the  occiput,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  woodcut. 
Where  they  first  arise  from  the  skull  the  horns  have  their  upper  border  convex ; 
and  the  forehead  of  the  skull  is  flat  or  slightly  concave,  and  much  longer  than 

broad,  so  that  the  sockets 
of  the  eyes  are  separated 
by  a  long  interval  from 
the  bases  of  the  horns. 
The  tail  is  of  great  length. 
The  spines  of  the  verte- 
brae of  the  withers  are  not 
greatly  elongated,  and  thus 
do  not  form  a  distinct  ridge 
in  this  region  of  the  body. 
That  the  wild  aurochs 
was  an  animal  of  huge 
bulk  is  proved  by  the 

nat.  size).— After  Owen.  skulls  and  bones  found  in 

the    turbaries,    fens,    and 

brick-earths  of  England  and  the  continent.  In  the  skull  figured  in  the  woodcut 
the  bony  cores  of  the  horns  have  a  span  of  upwards  of  42  inches  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  when  these  were  covered  with  their  horny  sheaths  the  whole  could  not  have 
fallen  short  of  50  inches.  This  specimen  was  obtained  from  a  turbary — that  is  a 
peat-bog — near  Athol ;  but  some  of  the  skulls  found  in  the  brick-earths  at  Ilford, 
in  Essex,  are  of  considerably  larger  dimensions,  although  from  the  more  forward 
direction  of  their  horns  the  span  between  their  tips  is  somewhat  less. 
Distribution  and  The  aurochs  was  pursued  and  killed  by  the  prehistoric  hunters 
Extinction.  of  Europe,  as  we  know  from  the  circumstance  that  skulls  have  been 
found  with  the  forehead  pierced  by  flint  hatchets.  The  date  from  which  it 
disappeared  from  Britain  is,  however,  uncertain,  although  it  probably  lingered 
longer  in  a  wild  state  in  Scotland  than  in  the  southern  districts  of  England.  On 
the  continent  there  is  evidence  that  in  Julius  Ca?sar's  time  the  aurochs,  or  urus, 
was  abundant  in  the  Hercynian,  or  Black,  Forest  of  Germany.  Old  chronicles  also 
prove  that  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  these  animals  were  found,  although 
rarely,  in  the  province  of  Maine ;  while  there  is  evidence  that  some  of  them  at 
least  were  white  in  colour.  In  the  ninth  century  Charlemagne  hunted  the  aurochs 
in  the  forests  near  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  while  at  the  close  of  the  following  century  we 
find  the  flesh  of  these  animals  alluded  to  in  the  rolls  of  an  abbey  in  Switzerland. 
The  aurochs  was  met  with  during  the  route  taken  through  Germany  by  the  first 
crusade,  in  the  eleventh  century ;  and  that  it  still  lingered  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Worms  during  the  twelfth  century  is  indicated  by  the  mention  of  the  slaughter  of 
four  individuals  in  the  Nibelungen-Lied.  The  accounts  of  conflicts  with  gigantic 
wild  oxen,  so  rife  in  classic  literature,  doubtless  refer  to  the  aurochs ;  and  thus 


SKULL  OF  THE  AUROCHS  (about 


OXEN,  163 

indicate  that  the  range  of  the  animal  extended  as  far  southwards  as  Greece.  Bones 
of  the  aurochs  have  been  obtained  from  England  and  Scotland,  but  are  unknown 
in  Ireland.  On  the  continent  they  occur  in  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Scandinavia, 
Germany,  and  Austria ;  while  it  may  be  taken  as  certain  that  the  species  roamed 
over  Russia,  although  its  exact  eastern  and  northern  limits  are  not  ascertained. 
Southwards  the  aurochs  ranged  as  far  as  Algeria. 

The  mention  of  a  white  aurochs,  which  may,  however,  have  been  a  tamed 
individual,  in  one  of  the  chronicles  referred  to  above,  coupled  with  the  coloration 
of  the  Chillingham  cattle,  renders  it  probable  that  the  colour  of  the  aurochs  was 
white,  more  or  less  mingled  with  dun  and  red ;  this  inference  being  confirmed  by 
the  prevalence  of  these  colours  in  so  many  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  cattle. 

It  is  probable  that  the  aurochs  was  the  direct  ancestor  of  our 
largest  breeds  of  domestic  cattle.  At  a  very  early  period  (although 
later  than  the  epoch  of  the  brick-earths,  when  the  aurochs  first  existed)  the  in- 
habitants of  Europe  had  succeeded  in  domesticating  a  small  variety  of  ox,  known 
as  the  long-fronted  ox  (Bos  longifrons),  from  which  it  is  considered  probable  that 
the  small  Welsh  and  Highland  breeds  of  cattle  are  descended.  If,  however,  we  are 
right  in  our  view  that  the  whole  of  the  cattle  of  Europe  belong  to  one  species,  it  is 
evident  that  the  long-fronted  ox  itself  must  likewise  have  been  originally  derived 
from  the  aurochs. 

Having  said  thus  much  as  to  the  extinct  wild  cattle  of  Europe, 
Park-Cattle. 

we  proceed  to  notice  the  half -wild  races  preserved  in  certain  English 

and  Scottish  parks,  after  which  we  shall  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  chief 
domestic  breeds.  It  may  be  premised  that  while  several  of  the  former  are  probably 
much  closer  to  the  aurochs  than  are  any  of  the  latter,  there  seems  but  little 
doubt  that  in  all  cases  these  half-wild  cattle  are  descended  from  more  or  less 
completely  domesticated  early  breeds,  and  are  not  directly  derived  from  the  wild 
aurochs.  The  British  park-cattle,  when  pure  bred,  are  white  in  colour,  with  the 
exception  of  the  ears  and  muzzle,  and  sometimes  the  front  of  the  legs,  which  may  be 
either  red  or  black  ;  the  horns  being  wThite  with  black  tips.  In  size  these  cattle  are 
small ;  but  their  proportions  are  well-nigh  perfect,  their  heads  being  small,  their 
backs  straight,  and  their  legs  short.  According  to  Mr.  J.  E.  Harting,  herds  of 
these  cattle  were  formerly  kept  at  all  of  the  following  parks,  viz.,  Auchencruive 
(in  Ayrshire),  Barnard  Castle  (Durham),  Bishop  Auckland  (Durham),  Blair  Athol 
(Perthshire),  Burton  Constable  (Yorkshire),  Cadzow  Castle  (Lanarkshire),  Chartley 
Park  (Staffordshire),  Chillingham  Castle  (Northumberland),  Ewelme  Park  (Oxford- 
shire), Gisburne  Park  (Yorkshire),  Hoghton  Tower  (Lancashire),  Holdenby  Park 
(Northamptonshire),  Kilmory  House  (Argyleshire),  Leigh  Court  (Somersetshire), 
Lyme  Park  (Cheshire),  Middleton  Park  (Lancashire),  Naworth  Castle  (Cumber- 
land), Somerford  Park  (Cheshire),  Whalley  Abbey  (Lancashire),  and  Wollaton 
Park  (Nottinghamshire).  Of  these  numerous  herds  the  only  ones  now  remaining 
are  those  at  Cadzow,  Chartley,  Chillingham,  Kilmory,  Lyme,  and  Somerford. 
Chillingham  The  best  known  of  all  is  the  famous  Chillingham  herd.  There  is 

Cattle.  some  doubt  as  to  the  date  of  the  enclosure  of  Chillingham  Park, 
which,  however,  very  probably  took  place  early  in  the  thirteenth  century;  and 
there  is  undoubted  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  herd  rather  more  than  two 


1 64  UNGULATES. 

hundred  years  ago.  The  Chillingham  cattle  are  small,  with  moderately  rough  and 
curly  hair,  and  short  upwardly-directed  horns.  At  the  present  day  the  insides  of 
the  ears  and  the  muzzles  are  red;  but  it  appears  that  in  1692  black  ears  were 
more  numerous  than  red,  and  that  the  present  coloration  has  been  produced  by 
selection.  Mr.  J.  Hindmarsh,  writing  in  the  year  1838,  states  that  the  Chillingham 
cattle  "have  pre-eminently  all  the  characteristics  of  wild  animals,  with  some 
peculiarities  which  are  very  curious  and  amusing.  They  hide  their  young,  feed  in 
the  night,  basking  or  sleeping  during  the  day ;  they  are  fierce  when  pressed,  but 
generally  speaking  very  timorous,  moving  off  on  the  appearance  of  anyone,  even 
at  a  great  distance."  The  following  statement  of  the  numbers  of  the  Chillingham 
herd  at  different  periods  is  compiled  by  Mr.  Harting  from  numerous  accounts  which 
have  from  time  to  time  appeared.  "  In  1869,  according  to  the  steward's  account, 
the  herd  consisted  of  only  14  breeding  animals,  bulls,  and  cows,  and  calves  of  both 
sexes,  and  12  steers;  in  all  28.  In  1838,  according  to  Mr.  Hindmarsh,  there  were 
about  80,  comprising  25  bulls,  40  cows,  and  15  steers  of  various  ages.  In  May 
1861,  Mr.  Darwin  was  informed  by  the  agent  that  they  numbered  about  50.  This 
was  about  the  number  we  saw  when  visiting  the  park  in  May  1863.  In  August 
1873  the  herd  consisted  of  64  head,  17  bulls  of  all  ages  from  calves  upwards,  19 
steers,  and  28  cows,  heifers,  and  female  calves.  In  October  1874,  according  to  Lord 
Tankerville  (the  owner),  the  herd  numbered  71.  In  March  1875  the  number  had 
again  decreased,  amounting  to  62  only,  viz.,  14  bulls  and  bull  calves,  31  cows,  and 
cow-calves,  and  17  steers.  In  July  1877  there  were  still  fewer — 51  only — consist- 
ing of  8  bulls,  27  cows  and  heifers,  and  16  steers.  Lord  Tankerville  says  they 
increase  slowly,  several  dying  each  year  by  accidents  or  by  overrunning  their 
calves  when  disturbed ;  and  the  cows  breed  slowly,  owing  to  having  frequently  the 
calves  still  sucking  in  the  second  year." 

The  Cadzow  cattle,  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  of  which 
Cadzow  Cattle.  .  ?     e  m,-n-      \, 

a  group  is  represented  in  our  illustration,  differ  from  the  Chillingham 

breed  in  having  the  ears  and  muzzles  black,  while  there  is  also  a  greater  or  smaller 
amount  of  black  on  the  front  of  the  fore-legs.  Their  heads  are  also  more  rounded, 
and  their  limbs  stouter ;  and  very  generally  the  cows  are  devoid  of  horns.  This 
herd  is  a  very  ancient  one,  and  in  1874  numbered  forty-five  head,  which  in  1877 
had  increased  to  fifty-six. 

Very  different  in  appearance  to  either  of  the  above  are  the 
Chartley  cattle,  the  property  of  Earl  Ferrers.  It  is  known  that  these 
cattle  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  wild  cattle  which  roamed  at  large  in  the 
forest  of  Need  wood  at  the  date  of  the  enclosure  of  Chartley  Park  in  1248.  In  this 
breed  the  ears  are  black,  and  the  horns  are  longer  and  directed  much  more  out- 
wardly than  in  the  Chillingham  breed,  resembling  in  these  respects  much  more 
closely  those  of  our  domestic  "long  horns."  In  1877  this  herd  comprised  only 
twenty  individuals. 

The  Kilmory  breed  is  derived  from  the  one  which  formerly  existed 
Other  Herds. 

at   Blair  Athol.     The  Lyme  Park  breed  is  interesting  as  being  of 

larger  size  than  any  of  the  others.  The  hair  is  remarkable  for  its  length  and 
curliness,  more  especially  on  the  shoulders ;  the  ears  are  generally  red,  although 
occasionally  black  or  bluish  black ;  and  Mr.  Harting  describes  the  horns  as  inter- 


OXEN. 


167 


mediate  between  those  of  the  Chillingham  and  Chartley  breeds.  In  1875  this  herd 
was  reduced  to  four  individuals,  but  had  increased  in  1877  to  six,  although  one  of 
the  four  cows  was  parti-coloured. 

Of  the  breed  at  Somerford  Park,  situated  in  the  heart  of  what  was  formerly 
Maxwell  Forest,  Mr.  Harting  writes  that  "  an  ancient  herd  of  white  cattle,  resembling 
those  at  Chartley,  but  polled,  still  exists  here ;  and  these  animals  are  considered  to 
be  the  best  surviving  representatives  of  the  hornless  and  tame  variety  of  the 
original  wild  white  breed.  The  colour  is  pure  white ;  the  ears,  rims  of  the  eyes, 
muzzle,  and  hoofs  being  quite  black.  Like  all  other  herds  of  the  forest  breed  they 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  produce  small  black  spots  on  the  neck,  sides,  and  legs." 


^g^rS^^^^^i^^-^^Er 


DURHAM  SHORTHORN  (^  nat.  size). 

It  may  be  added  that  all  these  various  herds  of  white  cattle  are  doubtless 
derived  from  the  half-wild  cattle  which,  as  we  learn  from  the  writings  of  Fitz- 
Stephen,  dating  from  about  the  year  1174,  were  common  in  the  forests  around 
London,  and  probably  therefore  in  other  parts  of  England.  When  the  various 
parks  were  enclosed  a  certain  number  of  these  cattle  were  driven  in,  and  the  herds 
thus  obtained  have  been  preserved  with  more  or  less  care  by  their  subsequent 
owners. 

Our  notice  of  the  domestic  breeds  of  European  cattle  will  be  brief,  and  chiefly 
confined  to  those  met  with  in  the  British  Islands. 

First  of  all  wre  have  the  small  Shetland  cattle,  inhabiting  the 
islands  from  which  they  take  their  name,  but  also  extending  to  the 
Orkneys  and  Iceland.     These  cattle,  although  of  small  size,  are  esteemed  on  account 


Shetland  Cattle.  . 


!68  UNGULATES. 

of  their  milk -yielding  qualities,  and  the  readiness  with  which  they  fatten.  The}* 
have  short  horns,  and  are  generally  parti-coloured,  with  lighter  shades  of  colour 
than  the  Highland  breeds. 

The  well-known   Highland   cattle,  of  which  there  are  several 
Highland  Breed.  .        &  . 

strains,  are  characterised  by  their  small  size,  the  presence  or  horns, 

directed  more  or  less  upwardly,  in  both  sexes,  their  short  and  sturdy  limbs,  and 
their  rough  and  generally  uniformly-coloured  coats,  which  are  greatly  developed  in 
the  region  of  the  neck.  Generally  the  muzzle  is  black ;  but  the  colour  of  the  hair 
may  be  either  black  or  brown,  or  a  mixture  of  these  two,  and  sometimes  of  mouse- 
dun.  These  cattle  are  remarkable  for  their  hardy  habits,  and  vary  in  size  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  pasture  of  their  native  districts.  Although  far  from  good 
milkers,  when  brought  down  to  the  rich  pastures  of  England  they  fatten  readily. 
The  West  Highland  breed  is  the  finest,  that  of  the  Central  Highlands  the 
smallest,  and  that  of  the  eastern  coasts  near  the  Lowlands  the  largest. 

The  Welsh  cattle  are  best  known  by  the  Pembroke  breed,  and 
Welsh  Breed 

are  generally  of  rather  larger  size  than  the  Highland  races,  with 

yellow  or  orange -coloured  unctuous  skins ;  the  hair  being  generally  black.  They 
are  quite  as  hardy  as  the  Highland  cattle,  and  will  thrive  on  very  scanty  nutri- 
ment, while  they  have  the  advantage  of  being  much  better  milkers. 

The   Kerry  breed  is  a  well-known  strain  of  hardy  mountain 

cattle,  agreeing  in  the  colour  of  their  skins  with  the  Pembroke  breed. 
The  hair  is  generally  black  with  a  white  streak  down"  the  back,  and  sometimes 
another  along  the  belly ;  but  it  may  be  pure  black  or  brown,  black  and  white,  or 
black  and  brown.  The  horns  are  long,  tapering,  and  directed  upwards.  These 
cattle  are  valued  for  the  good  milking  qualities  of  the  cows,  even  when  nourished 
upon  inferior  pasture. 

The  polled  Angus  breed,  produced  on   the  Devonian  rocks  of 

Forfar  and  Kincardine,  are  larger  than  the  Highland  cattle,  from 
which  they  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  horns  in  both  sexes.  They 
are  mostly  black  with  white  markings,  but  may  be  brindled  black  and  brown ;  the 
skin  being  dark-coloured.  This  breed  has  in  all  probability  been  derived  from  the 
Highland  cattle,  and  has  attained  its  superior  size  and  excellent  milk-yielding 
qualities  from  having  been  reared  on  the  richer  pastures  of  the  Lowlands.  The 
polled  Aberdeenshire  breed  is  another  strain  of  hornless  cattle  of  mixed  origin, 
bred  in  the  lower  districts  of  the  county  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

The  Galloway  breed  is  also  a   hornless   one,   and  is  of  great 
Galloways. 

antiquity,  having  been   in   existence    at   least   since   the   sixteenth 

century.  They  inhabit  a  district  underlain  by  Silurian  and  Cambrian  rocks  in 
the  south-west  of  Scotland ;  and  are  essentially  a  mountain  breed,  being  inferior  in 
size  to  the  polled  Angus,  although  superior  to  the  Highland  breed.  The  skin  is 
dark-coloured,  and  the  hair  generally  black  ;  while  the  great  depth  of  the  body  will 
always  suffice  to  distinguish  this  breed  from  all  other  polled  strains.  Mr.  D.  Low 
states  that  "these  cattle  are  hardy,  exceedingly  docile,  sufficiently  good  feeders, 
when  carried  to  suitable  pastures,  and  weigh  well  in  proportion  to  their  bulk." 

J  „  ^  „  The  polled  Suffolk  is  a  less  important  hornless  breed  from  the 

Polled  Suffolk. 

eastern  counties  of  England,  which  was  originally  of  a  mouse-dun,  or 


OXEN. 


169 


some  nearly  similar  shade  of  colour,  and  is  of  small  size,  and  somewhat  defective 
form.  There  is  also  a  polled  Irish  breed,  which  includes  animals  of  large  size,  but 
frequently  more  or  less  crossed  with  other  races. 

Aiderneys  and  The  three  nearly-allied  strains  from  the  Channel  Islands,  respect- 

jerseys,  ively  termed  Alderney,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey,  are  now  so  well  known 
in  England,  and  are  so  easily  distinguished  from  all  others,  that  they  require 
but  scant  notice.  They  are  characterised  by  the  bulls  being  considerably  larger 
than  the  cows,  by  their  small  size,  their  short,  thin,  and  often  crumpled  in-turning 
horns,  and  their  delicate  and  (from  the  butcher's  point  of  view)  somewhat  "  ragged  " 
build.  The  head  is  delicately  formed,  with  very  prominent  eyes,  and  a  narrow 


THE    FEIBURG  BULL 


muzzle,  but  may  be  either  very  short  or  somewhat  elongated  ;  the  bones  of  the 
pelvis  are  very  prominent  ;  and  the  limbs  are  slender  and  deer-like.  The  colour  of 
the  short  and  glossy  hair  is  generally  some  shade  of  rufous  or  fawn,  mingled  with 
white  ;  but  it  may  be  black,  mixed  with  white  or  dun,  and  is  more  rarely  cream  ; 
the  skin  being  thin  and  orange-coloured.  Although  of  delicate  constitution,  the 
Channel  Island  breeds  are  esteemed  for  their  elegant  appearance,  and  the  richness 
and  yellow  colour  of  their  cream  and  butter. 

The  Ayrshire  breed,  whose  proper  home  is  the  county  of  Ayr, 
although  it  is  now  widely  spread  over  Scotland  and  some  parts  of 
Ireland,  is  another  race  bred  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy.  They  are 
of  medium  size,  with  short  horns  curving  inwards  in  the  Alderney  manner  ;  and 
the  fore.-quarters  are  light,  the  loins  broad  and  deep,  the  neck  and  head  small,  and 


AyrsMre. 


i7o  UNGULATES. 

the  limbs  slender.     The  colour  of  the  skin  is  yellowish  orange,  and  the  prevailing 
tint  of  the  hair  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  mixed  with  white. 

The  rich  red  soil  of  Devonshire  is  tenanted  by  a  breed  of  cattle 

readily  distinguished  by  the  deep  red  colour  of  their  hair.  They 
have  orange-yellow  skins  and  fine  tapering  horns.  Mr.  Low  describes  them  as 
"of  a  light  and  graceful  form,  agile,  and  suited  for  active  labour.  They  fatten 
with  sufficient  facility  in  good  pastures,  and  in  a  temperate  climate;  but 
they  are  inferior  in  hardiness  and  the  power  of  subsisting  on  scanty  herb- 
age to  the  mountain  cattle  of  Scotland  and  Wales."  The  cows  are  relatively 
small,  and  their  yield  of  milk  not  great,  although  excellent  in  quality  and  rich 
in  cream. 

Omitting  mention  of  the  Sussex  and  Glamorganshire  breeds,  as 

being  of  minor  importance,  we  pass  on  to  the  well-known  Herefords, 
easily  recognised  by  their  large  size,  white  faces,  and  dark  red  or  reddish  brown 
colour,  marked  more  or  less  with  white  on  the  back  and  under-parts.  Mr.  Low 
considers  this  breed  remotely  related  to  the  Devon ;  and  it  exhibits  the  same 
inferiority  in  the  size  of  the  cows,  and  a  similar  deficiency  in  the  yield  of  milk. 
The  breed  is,  however,  an  excellent  one  for  fattening,  and  is  hence  in  much  favour 
in  the  West  of  England. 

The   longhorned   breed,    which   is   likewise   from  the  West   of 

England  and  is  also  largely  reared  in  Ireland,  is  one  which  has  of 
late  years  steadily  declined  in  favour  in  this  country.  The  original  breed  of  long- 
horns  was  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  size ;  but  the  prevailing  colour  of 
the  hair  was  either  black  or  brown,  with  a  white  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  more  or  less  white  on  the  body.  The  hair  was  abundant  and  the  skin 
thick  and  dark.  The  long  horns  generally  curved  downwards  at  the  tips ;  but  in 
southern  and  eastern  England  they  often  turned  up.  Ultimately  great  improve- 
ments were  effected  in  the  breed,  and  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  paved  the  way 
for  the  gradual  development  of  the  shorthorns,  by  which  the  longhorns  have  been 
so  largely  supplanted. 

The  shorthorn  breed  was  originally  an  East  Anglian   race  of 

cattle,  but  was  modified  into  its  present  perfection  in  Durham,  whence 
it  is  often  known  by  the  name  of  Durham  shorthorn.  The  illustration  on  p.  167 
represents  an  ox  of  the  best  strain  of  this  breed.  In  these  animals  the  height  of 
the  body  is  comparatively  low,  but  there  is  great  depth,  and  the  chest,  back,  and 
loins  are  remarkable  for  their  width.  The  skin  is  light-coloured,  and  the  hair 
either  reddish  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  or  the  well-known  straw- 
berry colour.  The  muzzle  should  be  flesh-coloured;  and  the  horns  are  short, 
curving  inwards,  light  in  colour,  and  frequently  somewhat  compressed.  The  skin 
is  soft  and  yielding,  and  the  general  form  of  the  body  square  and  massive,  with 
upright  shoulders  and  roomy  hind-quarters.  The  great  advantages  of  the  short- 
horns are  that  they  are  hardy  and  good-tempered  animals,  of  large  size  and 
eminently  distinguished  by  the  rapidity  with  which  they  reach  maturity  of  flesh 
and  muscle.  Although  inferior  in  their  yield  of  milk  to  the  Suffolk  and  Ayrshire 
breeds,  shorthorns  are  now  more  widely  spread  over  England,  both  as  dairy  and 
fatting  cattle,  than  any  other  kind. 


OXEN. 


171 


Continental 
Breeds. 


On  the  continent  there  are  likewise  numerous  breeds  of  cattle, 
but  only  a  few  of  these  can  be  even  mentioned.  One  of  the  most 
esteemed  is  the  Friburg  breed,  of  which  a  bull  is  represented  in  the  illustration 
on  p.  169.  This  breed  seems  to  be  allied  to  the  English  shorthorns,  but  has  a 
longer  body  and  neck.  The  horns  are  short  but  sharp,  and  the  colour  is  a  mixture 
of  black  or  reddish  brown  with  white.  These  cattle  are  largely  bred  in  Switzer- 
land, and  are  considered  to  be  the  parent  stock  from  which  several  other  breeds 
have  originated.  The  Dutch  breed,  as  represented  by  the  cow  figured  in  the 
accompanying  woodcut,  was  originally  a  native  of  the  lowlands  of  Holland,  but 
has  now  spread  over  a  large  part  of  Germany.  Fitzinger  regards  the  Dutch  cattle 


DUTCH  cow  (-fa  nat.  size). 

as  the  direct  descendants  of  the  aurochs,  and  they  seem  to  approximate  to  the 
Ayrshire  breed.  They  are  of  large  size,  with  long  necks  and  pointed  muzzles,  and 
moderate-sized  horns,  directed  forwards  and  inwards.  The  usual  colour  is  black 
upon  a  white  or  greyish  white  ground,  but  the  dark  markings  may  be  brown  or 
reddish. 

Very  different  from  all  others  are  the  large  Hungarian  cattle,  characterised  by 
their  uniform  pale  fawn  colour,  their  enormous,  slender,  outspreading  horns,  and 
their  free  light  step.  The  horns  may  measure  as  much  as  5  feet  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  are  black  at  the  extremities,  but  greyish  throughout  the  rest  of  their  length. 
This  breed  ranges  through  Hungary  into  Turkey  and  Western  Asia.  The  Podolian 
cattle  constitute  another  well-marked  breed  characterised  by  the  great  relative 
height  of  the  fore-quarters. 


1 72  UNGULATES. 

In  Northern  India  many  of  the  breeds  of  domestic  cattle  appear 
Indian  Cattle.  ^ 

to  be  a  cross  between  the  ordinary  European  cattle  and  the  humped 

Indian  cattle,  showing  the  general  shape  of  the  former  but  the  white  rings  on  the 
fetlocks  characteristic  of  the  latter.  In  Africa  there  are  several  kinds  of  humpless 
cattle,  among  which  the  Namaqualand  breed  most  nearly  resembles  ordinary 
European  cattle.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Damara  breed  is  distinguished  by  the 
large  size  of  the  bones,  the  small  feet,  slender  legs,  the  long  tuft  of  bushy  hair  at 
the  end  of  the  tail,  and  the  extraordinary  length  of  the  horns.  The  horns  are, 
however,  even  still  larger  in  the  cattle  of  Bechuanaland,  Mr.  Darwin  mentioning 
a  skull  in  which  the  span  of  the  horns  is  8  feet  8  inches  in  a  straight  line, 
while  the  measurement  from  tip  to  tip  along  the  curve  is  upwards  of  13  feet 
5  inches. 

America  and  In  certain  parts  of  America,  the  Falkland  Islands,  Australia,  New 

Australia.  Zealand,  and  other  countries,  the  cattle  introduced  from  Europe  have 
run  wild,  and  form  vast  herds.  Those  found  in  Texas  and  on  the  Argentine 
pampas  have  become  of  a  nearly  uniform  dark  brownish  red  colour ;  while  in  the 
Ladrone  or  Mariana  Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  all  the  wild  cattle  are  white 
with  black  ears.  When  Lord  Anson  visited  the  Ladrones  in  the  year  1742,  the 
number  of  these  cattle  was  estimated  at  upwards  of  ten  thousand.  In  the  Falkland 
Islands  it  is  stated  by  Admiral  Sullivan  that  those  in  the  southern  districts  are 
white,  with  the  feet,  ears,  or  the  entire  head  black ;  but  in  other  parts  they  were 
either  brown  or  mouse-coloured.  The  wild  cattle  of  New  Zealand,  according  to 
Herr  von  Lendenfeld,  are  white  spotted  with  brown.  In  Australia  the  herds  are  of 
great  extent,  and  are  difficult  to  approach  within  shooting  distance,  on  account  of 
the  wariness  of  the  animals.  In  Argentina  the  cattle  are  very  wild,  but  take  little 
notice  of  a  mounted  man.  If,  however,  as  is  seldom  the  case  in  a  country  where 
everybody  rides,  they  are  approached  by  a  person  on  foot,  they  gallop  around  him 
in  circles,  with  threatening  gestures,  looking  every  moment  as  if  about  to  make 
a  charge,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  ever  do  so.  In  company  with 
two  ladies,  the  writer  has  often  wandered  among  such  herds,  without  any  harm, 
except  some  alarm  on  the  part  of  one  of  his  companions.  In  Colombia  wild 
cattle  are  found  not  only  on  the  plains,  but  likewise  high  up  in  the  Cordilleras, 
and  herds  of  considerable  size  have  been  met  with  in  the  highlands  of  Central 
Asia.  Here  may  be  mentioned  the  curious  monstrous  cattle  found  in  Argentina 
and  known  as  niatas  or  natas.  This  breed,  which  has  existed  for  more  than  a 
century,  bears  the  same  relation  to  other  races  as  is  presented  by  pug-dogs  to 
ordinary  dogs.  According  to  Mr.  Darwin,  "  the  forehead  is  very  short  and  broad, 
with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull,  together  with  the  whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar 
teeth,  curved  upwards.  The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  and  has  a  cor- 
responding upward  curvature.  The  upper  lip  is  much  drawn  back,  the  nostrils  are 
seated  high  up  and  are  widely  open,  the  eyes  project  outwards,  and  the  horns  are 
large.  The  neck  is  short,  and  in  walking  the  head  is  carried  low.  The  hind-legs 
appear  to  be  longer,  compared  with  the  front-legs,  than  is  usual.  The  exposed 
incisor  teeth,  the  short  head  and  upturned  nostrils,  give  these  cattle  the  most 
ludicrous,  self-confident  air  of  defiance."  Niatas  appear  to  be  very  rare ;  but  the 
writer  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  a  pair  of  them  kept  in  the  grounds  of  the 


OXEN.  173 

museum  at  La  Plata  in  1893.  These  were  black  and  white  in  colour ;  and  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  breed  were  much  more  strongly  displayed  in  the  bull 
than  in  the  cow. 


HIND  VIEW  OP  SKULL   OF  GALLA   OX,    WITH   THE   HORN-SHEATHS 

REMOVED  (&  nat.  size).    After  Riitimeyer. 

HUMPED  CATTLE  (Bos  indicus). 

The  common  domesticated  cattle  of  India  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
Europe,  not  only  by  the  presence  of  the  hump  on  the  withers,  but  likewise  by  other 
structural  features,  as  well  as  by  their  general  coloration,  their  voice,  and  their 
habits.  Hence,  although  they  are  only  known  in  the  domestic  state,  there  can  be 
no  hesitation  in  regarding  these  humped  cattle  as  constituting  a  perfectly  distinct 
species.  In  Europe  these  animals  are  generally  called  zebu,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  any  such  name  is  known  in  India. 

In  addition  to  the  enormous  hump  on  the  withers,  the  Indian  humped  cattle 
are  characterised  by  a  certain  degree  of  convexity  of  the  forehead,  by  the  upper 
border  of  the  short  horns  being  uniformly  concave  (as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the 
skull  of  the  African  variety),  by  their  large  drooping  ears,  and  also  by  the  enormous 
dewlap  which  hangs  in  folds  along  the  whole  length  of  the  neck.  In  size  and  colour 
these  cattle  are  subject  to  a  considerable  amount  of  variation,  but  they  are  very 
generally  characterised  by  a  distinct  white  ring  round  the  fetlocks.  While  the 
largest  individuals  stand  as  high  as  a  buffalo,  the  smallest  are  but  little  taller  than 
a  calf  of  a  month  old.  The  most  common  colour  is  a  light  ashy  grey,  which  may 
shade  off  into  cream-colour,  or  even  milk-white ;  but  various  tints  of  red  or  brown 
are  often  met  with,  and  occasionally  black  individuals  are  seen.  In  disposition 
these  cattle  are  always  gentle,  and  the  larger  varieties  are  employed  in  India  for 
drawing  native  carriages.  The  voice  of  the  humped  cattle  is  more  of  a  grunt  than 
a  low ;  and  these  animals  differ  from  European  cattle  in  habits,  insomuch  as  they 
but  seldom  seek  the  shade,  and  never  stand  knee-deep  in  water.  It  need  hardly 
be  mentioned  that  a  certain  number  of  privileged  bulls  are  specially  protected  by 


174 


UNGULATES. 


the  Hindus,  and  are  allowed  to  perambulate  the  bazaars  of  the  Indian  towns  at 
will.  In  certain  parts  of  India  humped  cattle  have  run  wild ;  those  found  on  the 
sea-coast  near  Nellore,  in  the  Carnatic,  have  been  in  this  state  for  a  long  period,  and 
Jerdon  describes  them  as  being  extremely  shy  and  wild,  their  size  being  large  and 
their  horns  long. 


Galla,  Cattle. 


INDIAN  HUMPED  BULL   (^  nat.    Size). 

Humped  cattle  are  also  found  in  China,  Africa,  and  Madagascar  ; 
and  Blyth  was  of  opinion  that  the  group  might  have  had  an  African 
origin.  In  Central  Africa  the  humped  cattle  are  represented  by  the  Galla  ox 
or  sunga,  characterised  by  the  enormous  size  and  thickness  of  the  horns,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  of  the  back  of  the  skull  on  p.  173.  In  this  breed  the  forehead  of 
the  skull  lacks  the  convexity  characteristic  of  the  Indian  humped  cattle  ;  and 
as  the  curvature  of  the  horns  is  somewhat  similar,  Professor  Rutimeyer  believes 
that  the  Galla  ox  is  most  nearly  related  to  the  Asiatic  banting  mentioned 
later  on. 

^n  concluding  our  notice  of  the  typical  oxen  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  several  species  occur  fossil  in  India.  Among  these  is  the 
magnificent  Narbada  ox  (B.  namadicus),  of  the  gravels  of  the  valley  of  the 
Narbada,  which  was  fully  equal  in  size  to  the  aurochs,  and  in  the  typical  form 
had  horns  with  a  cylindrical  section.  It  is,  however,  noteworthy  that  in  one  race 
of  this  species  the  horns  were  somewhat  flattened,  and  thus  approximate  to  those 
of  the  living  wild  cattle  of  India.  In  the  somewhat  older  deposits  of  the  Siwalik 


t  s     • 


OXEN. 


175 


Hills  there  occurs  the  gigantic  sharp-fronted  ox  (B.  acutifrons),  distinguished  by 
the  sharp  ridge  running  down  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  the  enormous  length 
of  the  horns,  which  swept  upwards  and  outwards  in  a  bold  curve,  and  were  probably 
but  little  short  of  10  feet  in  span. 


GALLA  BULL  (A  nat.  size). 


THE  GAUR  (Bos  gaurus). 

With  the  magnificent  animal  known  as  the  gaur,  but  generally  misnamed  by 
Indian  sportsmen  the  bison,  we  come  to  the  first  of  three  species  from  South-Eastern 
Asia,  nearly  allied  to  one  another,  and  broadly  distinguished  from  those  already 
noticed.  These  animals,  which  include  tnv>;iiandsomest  existing  representatives  of 
the  genus,  are  collectively  characterised  by  the  following  features.  The  horns 
are  flattened  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  from  front  to  back,  more  especially 
at  their  bases,  where  they  present  an  elliptical  cross-section  ;  this  character  being 
more  strongly  marked  in  the  bulls  than  in  the  cows.  The  tail  is  shorter  than  in 
the  typical  oxen,  and  reaches  but  little  if  at  all  below  the  hocks.  A  third  feature 
is  presented  by  the  distinct  ridge  running  from  the  shoulders  to  the  middle  of  the 


i76 


UNGULATES. 


back,  where  it  ends  in  an  abrupt  drop,  which  may  be  as  much  as  5  inches  in 
height.  This  ridge  is  caused  by  the  great  height  of  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae  of 
the  fore-part  of  the  trunk  as  compared  with  those  of  the  loins ;  but  it  is  a  character 
much  less  developed  in  the  banting  than  in  either  of  the  other  two  species.  The 
three  species  have  also  a  characteristic  coloration,  the  adult  males  being  dark 
brown  or  nearly  black,  the  females  and  young  males  being  either  paler  or 
reddish  brown,  while  in  both  sexes  the  legs  from  above  the  knees  and  hocks  to 


BULL  GAUR  (A  nat.  size). 

the  hoofs  are  white  or  whitish.  The  hair  is  short,  fine,  and  glossy,  and  the  hoofs 
are  narrow  and  pointed. 

The  gaur  is  a  strong  and  massively-built  species,  easily  recognised  by  the  high 
convex  ridge  on  the  forehead  between  the  horns,  which  bends  forwards,  and  thus 
causes  a  deep  hollow  in  the  profile  of  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  The  ridge  on 
the  back  is  very  strongly  marked,  and  there  is  no  distinct  dewlap  on  the  throat 
and  chest.  The  flattening  of  the  horns  at  the  base  is  very  decided,  and  the  horns 
are  regularly  curved  throughout  their  length,  and  are  bent  inwards  and  slightly 
backwards  at  their  tips.  The  ears  are  very  large,  the  tail  only  just  reaches  the 
hocks,  and  in  old  bulls  the  hair  becomes  very  thin  on  the  back. 

In  colour  the  adult  male  gaur  is  dark  brown,  approaching  black  in  very  old 


OXEN.  177 

individuals ;  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  from  above  the  eyes  to  the  nape  of  the 
neck,  is,  however,  ashy-grey,  or  occasionally  dirty-white,  the  muzzle  is  pale- 
coloured,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  legs  pure  white.  The  cows  and  young  bulls 
are  paler,  and  in  some  instances  have  a  rufous  tinge,  which,  according  to 
Mr.  Blanford,  is  most  marked  in  individuals  inhabiting  dry  and  open  districts. 
The  colour  of  the  horns  is  some  shade  of  pale  green  or  yellow  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  their  length,  but  the  tips  are  black. 

The  gaur  appears  to  be  the  tallest  of  all  the  oxen,  old  bulls  sometimes  reaching 
as  much  as  6  feet  (18  hands)  at  the .  shoulder,  or  even,  it  is  said,  exceeding  these 
dimensions  by  an  inch  or  more.  The  more  usual  height  is,  however,  from  5 
feet  8  inches  to  5  feet  10  inches ;  while  the  cows  do  not  exceed  5  feet.  Mr.  Blan- 
ford gives  the  average  size  of  the  horns  of  bull  gaur  as  from  20  to  24  inches  along 
the  outer  curve ;  but  specimens  have  been  recorded  with  a  length  of  39  inches  and 
a  basal  girth  of  19  inches.  This  girth  has,  however,  been  exceeded  by  horns  of 
which  the  length  was  less,  a  pair  from  the  Malay  Peninsula  having  a  circumference 
of  22  inches,  with  a  length  of  32  inches.  The  horns  of  the  cows  are  smaller, 
measuring  in  large  examples  from  23  to  24  inches  above  the  curve,  with  a  girth  of 
about  13  inches. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  gaur  is  extensive,  comprising  all 

Distribution.      ,  fo.,  6  .  f         ,.          £       ~  _,  ,f      .   £        „ 

the  larger  rorest  regions  or  India  trom  Cape  Comorm  to  the  toot  or 

the  North-Eastern  Himalaya,  but  excluding  Ceylon.  To  the  north-west  its  limits 
in  India  are  marked,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  by  the  valley  of  the  Narbada 
River;  while  in  the  grass-jungles  of  the  Ganges  Valley  the  gaur  is  met  with 
only  along  the  skirts  of  the  Himalaya.  Eastwards  the  range  of  the  gaur 
extends  from  Nipal  through  the  hilly  districts  on  the  south  of  Assam  into  Burma, 
and  thence  as  far  south  as  the  Malay  Peninsula,  where  it  is  known  to  the  natives 
as  the  sladong.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  gaur  occurs  in  Siam,  but  this 
requires  confirmation. 

The  gaur  prefers  hilly  districts  to  the  plains,  and  in  India  is 
more  generally  found  at  elevations  of  from  two  thousand  to  five 
thousand  feet  than  in  the  low  country.  While  aged  bulls  are  generally  or  invari- 
ably solitary  in  their  habits,  gaur,  as  a  rule,  collect  together  in  small  herds  of  about 
a  dozen  individuals,  although  the  number  may  be  increased  to  twenty  or  thirty, 
and  one  instance  is  recorded  where  the  number  in  a  herd  was  estimated  at  not  less 
than  one  hundred  head.  Such  an  unusual  gathering  was,  however,  probably  but 
temporary,  and  due  to  the  scarcity  of  pasture.  Each  herd  is  governed  by  an  old 
bull ;  the  other  members  of  that  sex  present  being  always  younger  animals.  The 
best  account  of  the  habits  of  the  gaur  is  by  G.  P.  Sanderson,  from  whose  work 
the  following  extracts  are  taken,  with  the  substitution  of  the  word  gaur  for  bison. 
The  gaur  living  in  herds  "  are  shy  and  retiring  in  their  habits,  and  retreat  at 
once  if  intruded  upon  by  man.  They  avoid  the  vicinity  of  his  dwellings,  and 
never  visit  patches  of  cultivation  in  the  jungle.  The  gaur  is  thus  an  animal 
which  would  soon  become  extinct  before  the  advance  of  civilisation  were  the  latter 
rapid,  or  were  the  jungles  in  which  he  roams  limited  in  extent ;  but  his  exemption 
from  serious  diminution,  except  in  isolated  positions,  is  secured  by  the  existence  of 
the  continuous  jungles  of  the  Western  Ghats  and  other  forest  ranges.  Gaur,  though 

VOL.  II. 12 


i78  UNGULATES. 

found  in  the  low- country  jungles,  are  very  partial  to  high  and  well- wooded  tracts, 
and  their  activity  in  hilly  ground  is  astonishing.  A  herd  scrambles  up  a  steep 
hillside  almost  with  the  facility  of  a  troop  of  deer,  or  thunders  down  a  slope  into 
the  thicker  cover  of  a  valley,  when  alarmed,  at  a  rapid  trot  or  free  gallop." 

The  food  of  the  gaur,  according  to  the  same  writer,  consists  mainly  of  grass, 
but  also  comprises  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of  bamboo,  as  well  as  the  bark  of 
certain  trees.  Gaur  "  feed  till  about  nine  in  the  morning,  or  later  in  cloudy  and 
rainy  weather ;  they  then  rest,  lying  down  in  bamboo-cover  or  light  forest  till  the 
afternoon,  when  they  rise  to  graze  and  drink ;  they  also  invariably  lie  down  for 
some  hours  during  the  night.  Although  certainly  quick  in  detecting  an  intruder, 
gaur  can  scarcely  be  considered  naturally  wary  animals,  as  they  seldom  encounter 
alarms  in  their  native  haunts.  Unsophisticated  herds  will  frequently  allow  several 
shots  to  be  fired  at  them  before  making  oif,  and  even  then  probably  will  not  go 
far.  But  if  subjected  to  frequent  disturbance  they  quickly  become  as  shy  as  deer, 
and  if  alarmed  by  the  approach  of  man  they  retreat  without  loss  of  time."  Except 
when  wounded,  and  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  unable  to  escape,  Sanderson  states 
that  he  has  never  known  gaur  belonging  to  a  herd  attack  human  beings.  Gaur 
are  very  similar  in  their  general  habits  to  elephants,  and  herds  of  both  may  at 
times  be  found  feeding  in  proximity.  "  Both  seek  the  deep  and  ever- verdant 
valleys,  watered  by  perennial  streams,  during  the  hot  months,  or  from  January 
to  May,  where  they  are  safe  from  the  jungle-fires  which  sweep  the  drier  localities. 
With  the  early  rains  of  April  and  May  a  plentiful  crop  of  succulent  young  grass 
springs  from  beneath  the  black  ashes,  and  the  gaur  and  elephants  then  roam  forth 
to  feed  and  enjoy  their  emancipation  from  the  thraldom  of  the  season  of  scarcity. 
About  September  the  grass  in  the  hill-ranges  has  become  so  coarse,  and  the  annoy- 
ance from  insects  during  continued  rain  so  great,  that  the  herds  move  into  more 
open  country,  and  especially  into  forest  tracts  at  the  foot  of  hill-ranges  where 
suitable  cover  exists."  In  such  localities  the  grass  is  not  more  than  a  yard  high 
at  the  most,  and  insects  are  comparatively  few.  In  contradistinction  to  elephants, 
gaur  never  forsake  the  forest  districts  for  the  open  plains;  but  when  in  the 
lowland  districts  are  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  numerous  salt-licks. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  foregoing  description  applies  solely  to  the 
gaur  of  Southern  India,  and  that  in  the  more  northern  portions  of  their  range, 
where  the  seasons  are  different,  there  is  a  corresponding  alteration  in  their  habits. 
When  in  the  lowlands,  gaur  are  apt  to  catch  various  diseases  prevalent  among 
domestic  cattle,  and  sometimes  the  herds  are  decimated  from  this  cause.  In 
Peninsular  India  the  calves  are  generally  born  during  August  and  September, 
although  a  few  are  produced  from  April  to  June. 

The  cries  of  the  gaur  are  three  in  number.  The  first  is  a  loud  reverberating 
bellow,  used  as  a  call ;  the  second  a  low  mooing  cry,  uttered  when  in  alarm,  or  when 
the  curiosity  of  the  animals  is  excited ;  while  the  third  is  a  kind  of  whistling  snort, 
heard  when  the  frightened  creatures  dash  off  into  thicker  cover.  In  India  proper 
the  gaur  has  never  been  domesticated ;  and  it  is  but  recently  that  a  living  example 
— a  young  one — has  been  exhibited  alive  in  England.  The  hill-tribes  of  the 
north-eastern  portion  of  India  have,  however,  succeeded  in  taming  these  animals. 

Solitary  gaur  are  always  very  old  bulls,  which  have  been  driven  from  the 


OXEN.  179 

herds  by  their  younger  rivals  after  deadly  combats,  the  marks  of  which  are  to  be 
seen  on  their  scored  and  seamed  flanks,  as  well  as  in  their  slit  and  frayed  ears  and 
their  battered  horns.  Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  these  solitary  bulls  always  have 
the  finest  heads  and  horns,  and  offer  the  most  noble  object  of  pursuit  to  the  sports- 
man. The  morose  and  savage  disposition  commonly  attributed  to  these  outcasts  is 
regarded  by  the  same  writer  as  not  altogether  authenticated.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  men  are  sometimes  killed  by  a  sudden  rush  from  one  of  these  solitary  bulls, 
but  that  this  is  generally  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  the  animal  has  been 
suddenly  surprised,  and  thereupon  starts  up  and  rushes  forwards  without  consider- 
ing what  may  be  in  its  path. 

Gaur-shooting,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground,  is  invariably 
undertaken  on  foot,  and,  next  to  elephant-shooting,  is  considered  to 
be  the  finest  sport  with  the  rifle  in  India.  Good  trackers  are  essential  to  its 
success ;  but  these  are  fortunately  to  be  found  among  the  non- Aryan  hill-tribes 
of  Southern  India,  who  are  unsurpassed  in  the  keenness  and  accuracy  with 
which  they  follow  a  trail.  The  emergence  of  an  old  solitary  bull-gaur  on  an 
open  glade,  among  the  tall  bamboo  forests  of  the  hills  of  Southern  India,  is  described 
as  being  one  of  the  finest  sights  with  which  the  toils  of  the  sportsman  can  be 
rewarded.  When  killed,  the  gaur  affords  excellent  meat,  the  great  delicacy  being 
the  marrow-bones  roasted  on  the  camp  fire. 

THE  GAYAL  (Bos  frontalis). 

Well  known  for  many  years  as  existing  in  a  semi-domesticated  condition 
in  the  hilly  districts  of  North-Eastern  India,  it  is  but  recently  that  the  gayal 
has  been  determined  to  be  a  truly  wild  species,  although  we  have  yet  no  definite 
information  of  its  habits  or  the  limits  of  its  range  in  this  condition. 

The  gayal,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  termed  the  mithan,  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
gaur,  from  which,  however,  it  differs  in  several  important  particulars.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  a  somewhat  smaller  animal,  with  proportionately  shorter  limbs,  a  minor 
development  of  the  ridge  on  the  back,  and  a  larger  dewlap  on  the  throat  of  the 
bulls.  The  head  is  also  shorter  and  broader,  with  a  perfectly  flat  forehead  and  a 
straight  line  between  the  bases  of  the  horns.  The  horns,  which  are  very  thick  and 
massive,  are  less  flattened  and  much  less  curved  than  in  the  gaur,  extending  almost 
•directly  outwards  from  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  curving  somewhat  upwards  at  the 
tips,  but  without  any  inward  inclination.  Their  extremities  are  thus  much  farther 
Apart  than  in  the  gaur.  The  colour  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  latter,  the 
head  and  body  being  blackish-brown  in  both  sexes,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the 
limbs  white  or  yellowish.  The  horns  are  of  uniform  blackish  tint  from  base  to 
tip.  Some  domesticated  gayals  are  parti-coloured,  while  others  are  completely 
white. 

The  gayal  stands  much  lower  at  the  withers  than  the  gaur.  In  the  skull  of 
an  old  wild  bull  measured  by  Mr.  Blanford  the  horns  reached  14  inches  both  in 
length  and  basal  girth;  but  these  dimensions  are  exceeded  by  those  of  many 
domesticated  specimens.  The  cow  gayal,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  is  a  much 
.smaller  animal  than  the  bull,  and  has  scarcely  any  dewlap  on  the  throat. 


i8o 


UNGULATES. 


Distribution. 


It  has  been  ascertained  by  Mr.  Blanford  that  the  gayal  occurs  in 
a  wild  condition  in  Tenasserim ;  but  in  a  more  or  less  domesticated 
condition  large  herds  of  these  animals  are  kept  by  the  Kuki  tribes  on  the  hill- 
districts  of  Tipperah.  It  is,  moreover,  certain  that  some  of  the  domesticated  cattle 
kept  by  the  hill-tribes  on  both  sides  of  the  Assam  Valley  in  the  districts  of 
Manipur,  Cachar,  Chittagong,  and  the  Lushai  Hills,  are  gayal,  although  others  are 


cow  GAYALS  (-fa  nat.  size). 


gaur.  From  indications  afforded  by  certain  skulls  it  is  not  improbable  that  these 
tame  gayal  and  gaur  occasionally  interbreed.  Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  the  tame 
herds  of  gayal  "  are  kept  for  food,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  for  their  milk, 
though  this  is  doubtful,  as  most  of  the  Indo-Chinese  tribes  who  keep  mithans  never 
drink  milk.  The  animals  appear  to  be  never  employed  in  agricultural  labour,  nor 
as  beasts  of  burden.  They  roam  and  feed  unattended  through  the  forest  during 
the  day.  and  return  to  their  owner's  village  at  night." 


OXEN.  181 

Like  the  gaur,  the  gayal  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  hill- 
forests,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  will  traverse  rocky  country  is 
little  short  of  marvellous  for  an  animal  of  such  bulky  proportions. 

Gayal  have  been  exhibited  in  England  alive,  but  none  of  them  were 
fully-grown  bulls,  and  consequently  failed  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the 
magnificent  proportions  attained  by  that  sex.  Adult  bulls  have,  however,  been 
shown  from  time  to  time  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  and  were  most 
splendid  animals,  with  glossy  coats  of  the  deepest  shade  of  brown.  Gayal  will 
breed  with  the  humped  cattle  of  India,  and  the  product  of  such  a  union  born 
in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens  was  again  crossed  with  a  bull  American  bison. 
A  pure-bred  gayal  calf  produced  in  the  same  menagerie  was  of  a  light  brownish 
red  colour,  with  the  throat,  chest,  and  the  inner  sides  of  the  legs  white. 

THE  BANTING  (Bos  sondaicus). 

The  banting,  or  Javan  ox,  differs  very  considerably  from  both  the  preceding 
species,  and  serves  to  connect  them  with  the  typical  oxen.  The  most  distinctive 
feature  of  this  ox  is  the  large  white  patch  on  the  hind-quarters,  which  extends 
upwards  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  although  not  surrounding  it.  Another  peculiarity 
of  the  banting  is  that  the  cow  has  the  head,  body,  and  upper  portions  of  the  limbs 
of  the  same  reddish  brown,  almost  chestnut  colour  as  the  calves.  The  general 
build  of  the  animal  is  slighter  than  that  of  the  gaur,  the  ridge  on  the  back  is  much 
less  developed,  and  the  legs  are  proportionately  longer.  The  head  is  also  more 
elongated  and  pointed ;  while  the  horns,  which  are  cylindrical  in  the  young,  are 
relatively  smaller.  In  the  adult  bull  they  are  flattened  at  the  base,  and  are  much 
curved,  the  direction  being  at  first  outwards  and  upwards,  while  towards  the  tips 
they  incline  inwards  and  somewhat  backwards.  The  tail  descends  below  the  hocks ; 
and  the  dewlap  is  of  moderate  size.  The  old  bulls  are  black,  with  the  exception  of 
the  white  patch  on  the  buttocks  and  the  legs,  from  the  knees  and  hocks  downwards. 
The  young  calves,  like  those  of  the  gayal,  have  the  whole  length  of  the  outer 
surface  of  the  limbs  chestnut ;  and  they  are  also  distinguished  by  a  dark  streak 
down  the  back.  A  full-grown  bull  banting  from  Java  measured  5  feet  9|  inches 
at  the  withers ;  but  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  the  largest  example  recorded  from 
Burma  was  only  5  feet  4  inches  in  height. 

.      .  The  banting  is  exclusively  confined  to  the  regions  lying  to  the 

eastwards  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  occurring  throughout  Burma,  and 
probably  extending  as  far  north  as  the  hills  to  the  eastwards  of  Chittagong,  while 
it  also  inhabits  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Java,  Bali,  Borneo,  and 
probably  Sumatra.  That  it  also  occurs  in  Siam  is  almost  certain,  but  its  exact  range 
in  the  Indo-Chinese  countries  has  still  to  be  determined.  Large  herds  of  domestic- 
ated banting  are  kept  by  the  Malays  in  Java,  and  also  in  the  small  island  of  Bali, 
lying  to  the  south-east.  The  herds  in  Bali  are  replenished  by  importation  from 
Java.  The  Malays  speak  of  a  wild  ox  under  the  name  of  the  sapio,  which 
may  prove  to  be  a  variety  of  the  banting  with  ferruginous  red  instead  of  white 
on  the  legs. 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  the  original  colour  of  the  wild  ox  or  aurochs 


i8a 


UNGULATES. 


of  Europe  was  probably  white  mixed  with  reddish  brown ;  and  the  fact  that  the 
calves  of  all  the  three  species  of  the  present  group  are  reddish  brown  points  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  was  the  ancestral  coloration.  Now  the  fact  that  the  female 
banting  permanently  retains  this  ancestral  coloration,  which  is  transient  in  the 
gaur  and  gayal,  indicates  that  the  present  species  is  a  less  specialised  form  than 
either  of  the  other  two;  the  dark  colour  being  acquired  only  in  the  male  sex. 


THE  BANTING  (-fa  nat.  size). 


This  is  confirmed  by  the  structure  of  the  banting,  which  departs  less  widely  from 
that  of  the  typical  oxen  than  is  the  case  with  the  other  two  species  of  this  group. 

Although  the  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  banting  are  not  very 
full,  yet  it  appears  that  in  these  respects  this  animal  is  very  similar 
to  the  gaur.  Mr.  Blanford  suggests,  however,  that  from  its  relatively  longer  legs 
the  banting  is  less  addicted  to  climbing  among  rocky  hills  than  are  either  of  the 
other  members  of  the  group,  and  that  it  is  accordingly  more  restricted  to  the  plains 
of  tall  grass.  The  domesticated  race  breeds  freely  with  the  Indian  humped  cattle. 


Habits. 


OXEN.  185 

It  is  stated  by  Blyth  that  in  old  bulls  the  skin  between  the  bases  of  the  horns 
becomes  enormously  thickened,  and  assumes  a  horny  and  rugged  condition ;  this 
development  beginning  to  take  place  before  the  coat  has  commenced  to  change  from 
the  light  to  the  dark  colour. 

The  extinct  Etruscan  ox  (B.  etruscus)  from  the  Pliocene  of  the  European 
continent,  appears  to  have  been  allied  to  the  banting,  but  with  the  horns  placed 
low  down  on  the  skull  near  the  eyes. 

THE  YAK  (Bos  grunniens). 

The  yak  is  one  of  the  numerous  mammals  peculiar  to  the  elevated  plateau  of 
Tibet,  and  differs  markedly  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  ox  tribe,  although  to 
a  certain  extent  it  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  preceding  group  and  the 
bisons.  The  most  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the  yak,  so  far  as  external  features  are 
concerned,  is  the  mass  of  long  hair  with  which  the  flanks,  limbs,  and  tail  are 
clothed,  and  which  makes  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal  so  very  different 
from  that  of  other  oxen.  On  the  head  and  upper-parts  of  the  body  the  hair  is 
short  and  nearly  smooth,  and  the  long  hair  only  commences  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  sides  where  it  forms  a  fringe  of  great  depth,  extending  forwards  across  the 
shoulders  and  backwards  on  to  the  thighs.  On  the  tail  the  long  hair  is  developed 
on  the  lower  half,  where  it  expands  into  an  enormous  tuft  which  does  not 
generally  reach  below  the  hocks.  There  is  also  a  tuft  of  long  hair  on  the  breast. 
The  colour  of  the  hair  is  a  uniform  dark  blackish  brown,  sometimes  tending  to  a 
rusty  tint  on  the  flanks  and  back,  and  with  a  grey  grizzle  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  and  neck  in  very  old  individuals.  Around  the  muzzle  there  is  a  little 
white.  We  frequently  find  the  yak  represented  as  a  brown  and  white,  or  even  a 
pure  white  animal,  but  all  such  specimens  are  domesticated,  and  mostly  hybrid 
individuals. 

In  build  the  yak  is  massively  formed,  with  short  and  stout  legs.  The 
shoulders  are  high,  but  there  is  not  the  distinct  ridge  on  the  back  characteristic  of 
the  gaur,  and  the  whole  back  is  nearly  straight  throughout,  without  any  falling 
away  at  the  hips.  Both  the  ears  and  the  muzzle  are  small ;  and  the  dewlap  is 
totally  wanting.  The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a  nearly  flat  forehead,  and  the 
eyes  are  approximated  to  the  horns.  The  horns,  which  are  very  large  in  the  bull, 
are  smooth,  and  nearly  or  quite  cylindrical,  with  the  first  curvature  of  their  upper 
border  concave,  as  in  the  gaur  and  banting.  They  curve  at  first  upwards  and  out- 
wards, then  sweep  boldly  forwards,  after  which  they  incline  upwards  and  inwards, 
and  in  some  cases  slightly  backwards.  The  hoofs  are  relatively  large  and  rounded. 
In  height,  it  is  stated  that  old  bulls  occasionally  stand  nearly  6  feet  at  the 
shoulder;  but  5  feet  6  inches  may  be  taken  as  the  average.  The  weight  of 
bulls  is  said  to  be  about  1200  Ibs.  Average-sized  horns  vary  in  length  from 
25  to  30  inches  measured  along  the  curve ;  but  a  pair  has  been  recorded 
measuring  40  inches  in  length,  with  a  basal  girth  of  nearly  19  inches.  The  horns 
of  the  cows  are  always  smaller  and  thinner  than  those  of  bulls. 

Such  are  the  leading  external  characteristics  of  the  yak ;  but  there  are  also 
certain  features  connected  with  the  skeleton  which  are  worthy  of  notice.  In  the 


i86 


UNGULATES. 


first  place,  there  are  fourteen  pairs  of  ribs,  whereas,  in  all  the  oxen  hitherto  noticed, 
the  number  is  but  thirteen ;  and  in  this  respect  the  yak  resembles  the  bisons.  In 
the  skull,  the  region  between  the  eyes  and  the  occiput  is  relatively  shorter  and 
wider  than  in  the  typical  oxen,  and  the  horns  are  set  on  somewhat  below  the  plane 
of  the  extreme  summit.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  front  view  of  a  yak's  skull 
exhibits  a  small  prominence  between  the  horns  formed  by  a  boss  of  bone  at  the  top 
of  the  occiput ;  the  crest  or  summit  of  the  occiput  itself  being  invisible  from  the 
front,  and  the  shape  of  the  whole  occiput  forming  an  inverted  V.  The  difference 
in  the  shape  of  the  occiput  from  that  obtaining  in  the  true  oxen  may  be  seen  by 
comparing  the  accompanying  figure  with  that  of  the  skull  of  the  Galla  ox  given  on 


FRONT  AND  BACK  VIEWS  OF  THE  SKULL   OF  DOMESTICATED   YAK. — After  Kiitimeyer. 

p.  173.  In  regard  to  the  position  of  the  horns  and  some  other  features  of  the  skull, 
the  yak  approximates  to  the  bisons. 

Yak,  as  we  have  said,  inhabit  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  probably 
Distribution. 

extending  northwards  as  far  as  the  Kuen-Luen  range,  while  eastwards 

they  range  into  the  Chinese  province  of  Kansu,  and  westwards  enter  the 
eastern  portions  of  Ladak,  especially  the  regions  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Chang-Chenmo  valley  and  the  great  Pangkong  lake.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
country  comprised  within  this  extensive  area  is  desolate  and  dreary  in  the  extreme, 
but  yak  confine  themselves  to  the  wildest  and  most  inaccessible  portions  of  these 
regions,  and  are  found  only  at  great  elevations,  ranging  in  summer  from  about 
fourteen  thousand  to  upwards  of  twenty  thousand  feet,  and  perhaps  even  more, 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  are  at  all  times  extremely  impatient  of  heat,  and 
delight  in  cold. 

Habits.  Writing  of  the  yak,  General  Kinloch  observes  that,  "  although 

so  large  a  beast,  it  thrives  upon  the  coarsest  pasturage,  and  its  usual 

food  consists  of  a  rough  wiry  grass,  which  grows  in  all  the  higher  valleys  of  Tibet, 


OXEN.  187 

up  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  twenty  thousand  feet.  On  the  banks  of  the  streams 
in  many  places  a  more  luxuriant  grass  is  met  with,  and  it  is  particularly  plentiful 
in  the  valleys  of  Chang-Chenmo  and  Kyobrung,  forming  the  attraction  which 
entices  the  yak  from  the  still  wilder  and  more  barren  country  further  north.  Yak 
seem  to  wander  about  a  good  deal.  In  summer  the  cows  are  generally  to  be  found 
in  herds  varying  in  numbers  from  ten  to  one  hundred ;  while  the  old  bulls  are  for 
the  most  part  solitary  or  in  small  parties  of  three  or  four.  They  feed  at  night  and 
early  in  the  morning,  and  usually  betake  themselves  to  some  steep  and  barren  hill- 
side during  the  day,  lying  sometimes  for  hours  in  the  same  spot.  Old  bulls  in 
particular  seem  to  rejoice  in  choosing  a  commanding  situation  for  their  resting- 
place,  and  their  tracks  may  be  found  on  the  tops  of  the  steepest  hills,  far  above 
the  highest  traces  of  vegetation.  The  yak  is  not  apparently  a  very  sharp-sighted 
beast,  but  its  sense  of  smell  is  extremely  keen,  and  this  is  the  chief  danger 
to  guard  against  in  stalking  it.  In  the  high  valleys  of  Tibet,  where  so  many 
glens  intersect  one  another,  and  where  the  temperature  is  continually  changing, 
the  wind  is  equally  variable.  It  will  sometimes  shift  to  every  point  of  the 
compass  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  and  the  best-planned  stalk  may  be  utterly 
spoiled." 

The  yak  found  in  the  Chang-Chenmo  valley  are  chiefly  or  entirely  stragglers 
from  Chinese  territory,  and,  owing  to  incessant  pursuit,  very  few  are  to  be  met  with 
at  the  present  day  in  these  regions.  Native  travellers  report,  however,  that  on  the 
upper  Indus,  to  the  eastward  of  Ladak,  yak  are  to  be  found  in  vast  numbers,  and 
that  there  they  do  not  exhibit  the  extreme  wariness  characterising  those  which 
wander  into  Ladak.  In  Northern  Tibet  yak  have  been  also  met  with  in  great 
numbers  by  the  Russian  explorer,  Prejewalski.  Here  the  old  bulls  were  found 
alone,  and  the  cows  and  younger  males  generally  in  small  herds  ;  although,  where 
the  pasture  was  good,  the  herds  were  sometimes  very  large.  These  herds  wandered 
more  or  less  regularly  over  wide  tracts  of  country,  and,  according  to  native  reports, 
were  found  in  summer  in  grassy  plains,  where  they  were  quite  unknown  in  winter. 
As  in  Southern  Tibet,  they  were  especially  partial  to  the  tracts  bordering  the 
streams,  where  grass  was  more  abundant  than  elsewhere.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
solitary  bulls  were  reported  to  inhabit  the  same  districts  throughout  the  year. 
Where  the  herds  were  largest,  their  numbers  are  said  to  be  reckoned  by  hundreds, 
and  even  thousands.  When  alarmed  or  expecting  danger,  the  cows  and  older  bulls 
place  themselves  in  the  van  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  herds,  with  the  calves  in  the 
centre ;  but  on  the  near  approach  of  a  hunter,  the  whole  herd  will  take  to  flight 
at  a  gallop,  with  their  heads  down  and  their  tails  in  the  air.  A  wounded  yak, 
whether  cow  or  bull,  will,  according  to  General  Kinloch,  not  unfrequently 
charge. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  yak  is  its  grunting  voice,  from  which  it 
Domestication.  *  ' 

derives  its  Latin  title.     Domestic  yak  are  kept  by  the  inhabitants  of 

the  higher  regions  of  Tibet  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  ;  and 
are  absolutely  essential  for  crossing  many  parts  of  that  desolate  region.  Some  of 
the  pure-bred  animals  kept  by  the  Tartar  tribes,  living  on  the  Rupsu  plateau,  to 
the  south  of  the  Indus  in  Ladak,  are  magnificent  beasts  of  large  size  and  uniformly 
dark  colour.  When  they  have  not  been  used  for  a  considerable  period  they  are 


1 88  UNGULATES. 

very  wild,  and  apt  to  break  loose  and  throw  their  loads ;  but  after  a  few  days' 
march  they  sober  down.  In  other  parts  the  yak  are  smaller,  and  vary  greatly  in 
colour,  being  sometimes  entirely  white,  while  the  tail  is  very  generally  of  that  hue. 
There  are  also  many  crosses  between  the  yak  and  ordinary  cattle,  some  of  the 
breeds  being  without  horns.  These  half-breeds  have  the  advantage  of  being  able 
to  withstand  much  higher  temperatures  than  the  pure  yak ;  and  they  may  be  met 
with  carrying  burdens  in  the  hot  valley  of  the  Indus,  between  the  town  of  Leh 
and  Kashmir. 

Although  yak  are  admirable  beasts  of  burden  on  account  of  their  endurance 
and  strength,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  will  traverse  glaciers  and  swim  icy 
torrents,  they  have  the  great  disadvantage  that  they  will  not  eat  corn.  This 
frequently  necessitates  the  pushing  on  of  the  party  by  forced  marches  to  prevent 
their  beasts  from  perishing  of  hunger.  The  following  description  of  a  march  with 
yak,  for  the  truthfulness  of  which  the  present  writer  can  vouch  from  his  own 
personal  experience,  is  from  the  pen  of  General  Macintyre.  "  For  more  than  six 
weary  hours,"  writes  the  general,  "  did  we  toil  up  against  the  almost  blinding  snow 
and  piercing  wind  that  chilled  us  to  the  very  marrow,  although  the  distance  to  the 
summit  was  only  six  or  seven  miles.  It  was  truly  wonderful  to  see  the  way  in 
which  the  yaks  struggled  through  the  deep  snow,  and  scrambled  over  places  which 
were  often  difficult  and  sometimes  dangerous  to  traverse.  Nothing  could  have 
exceeded  the  powers  of  endurance  evinced  by  these  animals,  which  were  game  to 
the  backbone,  and  as  sure-footed  as  goats.  One  of  them,  notwithstanding,  lost 
its  footing  on  a  steep  slope  of  nfod,  and  went  rolling  and  sliding  down  until  it  was 
fortunately  stopped  by  a  friendly  rock  ;  otherwise  it  must  have  disappeared  for 
ever  under  the  glacier.  On  regaining  its  feet  the  creature  merely  shook  itself,  and 
on  being  disentangled  from  its  load  soon  clambered  up  again." 

All  who  have  visited  a  Tibetan  monastery,  or  lamasery,  must  have  been  struck 
with  the  number  of  yak-tails  suspended  as  streamers  from  tall  poles  fixed  in  the 
ground  before  the  entrance.  The  more  general  use  of  these  appendages  throughout 
the  East  is,  however,  in  the  form  of  chowris,  or  fly-whisks.  For  this  purpose  pure 
white  tails  are  preferred ;  and  they  are  frequently  mounted  with  the  twisted  horn 
of  a  black-buck  as  a  handle.  In  China  yak-tails  dyed  red  are  affixed  to  the  roofs 
of  the  summer  residences  as  pendants. 

THE  EUROPEAN  BISON  (Bos  bonassus). 

The  European  bison,  wisent,  or  zubr  is  one  of  two  species  representing  a 
distinct  and  peculiar  group  of  the  genus  Bos.  These  animals  resemble  the  yak  in 
their  cylindrical  horns  and  the  relative  shortness  of  the  forehead  of  the  skull,  and 
also  in  the  large  number  of  their  ribs,  of  which  there  may  be  fourteen  or  fifteen 
pairs.  They  differ,  however,  in  having  the  horns  placed  more  below  the  plane 
of  the  occipital  region  of  the  skull,  so  that  in  a  front  view  the  crest  of  the  occiput 
itself  is  seen  at  the  summit  of  the  skull.  A  further  distinctive  feature  is  to  be 
found  in  the  extreme  convexity  of  the  forehead  of  the  skull ;  while  the  sockets  of 
the  eyes  are  very  prominent,  and  assume  a  tubular  form.  Moreover,  the  pre- 
m axillary  bones,  forming  the  extremity  of  the  skull,  are  separated  from  the  very 


OXEN.  189 

short  nasal  bones  by  a  much  longer  interval  than  in  the  yak  and  the  gaur ;  and  are 
thus  very  widely  different  from  those  of  the  typical  oxen,  which  are  prolonged  up- 
wards to  join  the  elongated  nasals. 

Bison  are  further  characterised  by  the  great  excess  in  the  height  of  the 
withers  over  the  hind-quarters,  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the  spines  of  the 
vertebrae  in  the  fore-part  of  the  trunk,  as  displayed  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on 
p.  158.  This  produces  a  distinct  hump  on  the  shoulders,  which  passes,  however, 
gradually  into  the  line  of  the  back  without  the  sudden  descent  characterising  the 
gaur.  The  great  development  of  the  fore-quarters  appears  to  be  intensified  by  the 
mass  of  dark  brown  hair  with  which  the  back  of  the  head,  neck,  shoulders,  and 
chest  are  covered,  and  which  extends  far  down  on  the  fore-limbs.  The  long  hair  is 
likewise  continued  as  a  kind  of  crest  along  the  middle  of  the  back  nearly  to  the 
root  of  the  tail ;  the  tail  itself  being  tufted  at  the  end,  and  reaching  some  distance 
below  the  hocks.  The  remainder  of  the  body  is  covered  with  short  curly  hair  of  a 
somewhat  lighter  tint  than  that  clothing  the  fore-quarters.  In  summer  the  long 
hair  over  all  the  body  is  shed  in  large  patches,  thus  showing  the  nearly  bare  skin 
clothed  with  short  mouse-coloured  hair,  as  exhibited  in  our  coloured  illustration. 
Both  the  European  and  the  American  bison  are  very  closely  allied,  and  we  shall 
reserve  our  notice  of  their  distinctive  differences  till  we  come  to  the  second  of  the 
two  species.  Owing  to  a  confusion  of  terms,  the  name  aurochs,  which  properly 
belongs  to  the  extinct  wild  ox  of  Europe,  has  been  very  generally  applied  to  the 
European  or  true  bison,  but  it  may  be  hoped  that  this  misapplication  will  soon  be 
a  thing  of  the  past. 

The  European  bison  is  a  forest-dwelling  animal,  having   been 
Distribution.  r  »  '    .          f.  ,     . 

always  absent  trom  the  open  plains  of  Southern  Russia,  which  in 

many  respects  resemble  the  habitat  of  its  North  American  cousin.  Formerly  this 
species,  as  attested  both  by  historical  documents  and  by  its  semi-fossilised  remains, 
was  abundant  over  a  large  area  of  Europe,  but  it  is  now  restricted  to  the  forests  of 
Bialowitza  in  Lithuania,  to  the  Caucasus,  and,  it  is  said,  to  portions  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia.  Fossil  remains  of  the  bison  are  met  with  in  the  caverns  and  superficial 
deposits  of  England,  France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Italy ;  the  earliest  deposits 
in  which  they  occur  being  the  brick  -  earths  of  the  Thames  valley,  where  they 
are  associated  with  those  of  the  mammoth,  and  in  the  still  older  "  forest-bed " 
of  the  Norfolk  coast.  The  fossil  race  was,  indeed,  of  larger  dimensions,  and 
had  longer  and  rather  straighter  horns  than  its  existing  representative  ;  but 
these  differences  cannot  well  be  regarded  as  of  specific  importance.  From 
Britain  the  bison  disappeared  at  a  much  earlier  date  than  the  aurochs,  none  of 
its  remains  occurring  in  the  fens  and  turbaries,  where  those  of  the  latter  are  so- 
common.  Northwards  the  range  of  the  bison  formerly  extended  into  Siberia ; 
while  its  remains  have  also  been  obtained  from  the  frozen  soil  of  Eschcholtz 
Bay  in  Alaska. 

The  bison  now  living  in  Lithuania  are  specially  protected  by  the 

Russian  Government  and  are  under  the  charge  of  a  staff  of  keepers,  but 

those  of  the  Caucasus  are  thoroughly  wild.    Although  living  at  a  greater  altitude, 

and  thus  exposed  to  a  more  intense  cold,  the  bison  of  the  Caucasus  are  less  thickly 

haired  than  are  those  of  Lithuania.    Bison  were  abundant  in  the  Black  Forest  in  the 


1 9o  UNGULATES. 

time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  as  late  as  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  were  sufficiently 
numerous  in  parts  of  Switzerland  and  Germany  to  be  used  as  food.  In  a  recent 
summary  of  the  history  of  the  species,  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas  states  that  "  up  to  1500  the 
European  bison  seems  to  have  been  common  in  Poland,  where  it  was  looked  upon 
as  royal  game,  and  hunted  in  right  royal  manner  by  the  king  and  nobility,  as  many 
as  two  thousand  or  three  thousand  beaters  being  employed  to  drive  the  game.  In 
1534  the  animal  was  still  so  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  Girgau,  Transylvania, 
that  peasants  passing  through  the  woods  were  occasionally  trampled  to  death  by 
startled  bison,  and  hunts  were  undertaken  by  the  nobles  in  order  to  reduce  the 
number  of  the  animals.  In  spite  of  this  local  abundance,  it  is  probable  that  about 
this  time  the  bison  was  in  a  great  measure  restricted  to  Lithuania ;  and  although 
so  late  as  1555  one  was  killed  in  Prussia,  it  is  almost  certain  that  this  was  merely 
a  straggler  from  the  main  herd.  In  1752  a  grand  hunt  was  organised  by  the 
Polish  king,  Augustus  III.,  and  in  one  day  60  bison  were  killed.  .  .  .  For  some 
time  after  the  above  event  little  seems  to  have  been  recorded  concerning  the  zubr, 
so  that  Desmarest,  writing  in  1822,  says  that  if  any  remain  in  Lithuania  they  must 
be  very  few  in  number.  There  were,  however,  over  500  bison  in  Lithuania  at 
that  time,  for  in  1820  there  were  that  number,  this  being  a  considerable  increase 
since  1815,  when  there  were  estimated  to  be  only  300.  About  this  time  active 
measures  must  have  been  taken  for  the  protection  of  the  Lithuanian  herd,  for  in 
1830  it  comprised  over  700  individuals.  In  1831  a  local  revolt  occurred,  the 
game  laws  were  set  at  naught,  and  the  number  of  bison  reduced  to  637.  Order 
having  been  restored,  the  bison  began  to  recuperate,  and  according  to  the  official 
enumeration  at  the  end  of  each  decade,  there  were  in  1840,  780 ;  in  1850,  1390 ; 
and  in  1860,  1700.  Political  troubles  were,  however,  the  bane  of  the  bison,  and 
just  as  the  prosperity  of  the  Lithuanian  herd  seemed  assured,  the  Polish  uprising 
of  1863  took  place.  Many  bands  of  insurgents  sought  refuge  in  the  forests ;  the 
bison  were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  were  so  rapidly  killed  off  that  the 
next  official  count  showed  only  847.  For  a  short  time  after  peace  was  restored  the 
herd  increased  to  a  slight  extent,  but  later  on  it  began  to  decrease,  the  enumeration 
of  1880  showing  but  600,  a  number  that  has  since  been  lessened,  the  herd  being 
still  on  the  wane."  The  herd  is  divided  into  about  a  dozen  distinct  bands, 
inhabiting  different  regions  of  the  forest.  In  the  Caucasus  the  bison  is  protected 
by  the  rugged  nature  of  the  country,  as  well  as  by  special  laws.  Recently  an 
English  sportsman — Mr.  Littledale — has  been  bison  -  shooting  in  the  Caucasus, 
and  a  male  and  female  which  fell  to  his  rifle  are  now  exhibited  in  the  British 
Museum. 

The  European  bison,  so  far  as  can  now  be  ascertained,  appears  to  have  always 
associated  in  small  bands.  In  Lithuania  these  bands  comprise  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  individuals  during  the  summer,  but  in  winter  two  or  more  of  them 
unite  to  form  a  herd  of  from  thirty  to  forty  head.  The  very  old  bulls  are  solitary. 
In  spring  and  summer  the  bison  seek  the  thickest  and  deepest  portions  of  the 
forest,  but  during  winter  frequent  drier  and  more  elevated  cover.  Whereas  the 
nutriment  of  the  American  species  consists  wholly  of  grass,  the  European  bison 
feeds  largely  upon  the  leaves,  twigs,  and  bark  of  trees.  Although  active  during 
both  day  and  night,  bison  feed  chiefly  during  the  morning  and  evening.  Large 


OXEN.  191 

trees  are  stripped  of  their  foliage  and  bark  as  high  up  as  the  animals  can  reach, 
while  smaller  ones  are  broken  down  or  uprooted. 

In  spite  of  their  size  and  bulk,  bison  are  active  animals,  and  can  both  trot  and 
gallop  with  considerable  speed.  In  galloping  the  head  is  carried  close  to  the 
ground  and  the  tail  high  in  the  air.  Generally  they  are  shy  and  retiring  in 
disposition,  more  especially  when  young ;  but  in  the  Lithuanian  forest  an  old  bull 
has  been  known  to  take  possession  of  a  road  and  challenge  all  comers.  During  the 
breeding-season,  which  takes  place  in  August  or  the  early  part  of  September,  the 
bison  are  in  the  best  condition.  At  such  seasons  the  bulls  engage  in  terrific 
conflicts,  which  occasionally  end  fatally,  for  the  leadership  of  the  herd.  These 
combats  are  at  first  entered  upon  somewhat  playfully,  but  soon  take  place  in 
earnest,  when  scenes  like  the  one  depicted  in  our  coloured  illustration  may  be 
witnessed.  The  old  solitary  bulls  then  return  to  the  herds,  and  after  having  either 
driven  away  or  killed  their  younger  rivals,  once  more  resume  the  leadership.  Not 
only  are  the  younger  bulls  sometimes  killed  in  these  conflicts,  but  the  same  fate 
occasionally  overtakes  the  cows.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  breeding-season  the  old 
bulls  revert  to  their  solitary  life.  The  calves  are  born  in  May  or  the  early  part  of 
June,  and  are  dropped  in  the  most  secluded  parts  of  the  forest.  The  cows  apparently 
do  not  calve  more  frequently  than  once  in  three  years,  so  that  the  rate  of  increase 
is  necessarily  slow.  In  defending  their  offspring  against  the  attacks  of  bears  and 
wolves,  the  females  display  great  courage,  and  seldom  allow  them  to  be  carried  off 
except  at  the  sacrifice  of  their  own  lives.  Occasionally  when  full-grown  bulls  get 
half -buried  in  deep  snow  they  are  pulled  down  by  wolves. 

THE  AMERICAN  BISON  (Bos  americanus). 

As  the  gaur  in  India  has  usurped  the  name  of  bison,  while  the  European  bison 
has  been  frequently  called  the  aurochs,  so  the  American  bison  in  its  native  country 
is  almost  invariably  misnamed  the  buffalo. 

The  American  bison,  which  is  now,  unfortunately,  practically  exterminated, 
differs  from  its  European  cousin  not  only  in  certain  structural  features,  but  likewise 
in  habits,  being  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  the  open  plains,  where  it  formerly 
congregated  in  vast  herds,  comprising  thousands  of  individuals,  and  living  entirely 
on  grass.  According  to  Mr.  Hornaday,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  full  account 
of  the  species,  the  American  bison  differs  from  the  European  kind  in  the  following 
features.  Firstly,  the  mass  of  hair  on  the  head,  neck,  and  fore-quarters  is  much 
longer  and  more  luxuriant,  and  thus  gives  the  animal  the  appearance  of  possessing 
greater  size  than  is  really  the  case.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  American  species  is 
lower,  and  has  a  smaller  pelvis  and  less  powerful  hind-quarters  than  its  European 
cousin,  although  its  body  is,  on  the  whole,  more  massively  built.  Moreover,  the 
horns  are  shorter  and  more  curved,  while  the  front  of  the  head  is  more  convex, 
and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  less  tubular.  The  tail  is  shorter  and  less  bushy.  An 
unusually  fine  bull  American  bison  measured  5  feet  8  inches  at  the  withers,  but 
the  average  is  considerably  below  this. 

Mr.  Hornaday  regards  this  species  as  the  finest  and  most  striking  in  appearance 
of  all  the  oxen,  and  remarks  that  "  the  magnificent  dark-brown  frontlet  and  beard, 


192 


UNGULATES. 


the  shaggy  coat  of  hair  upon  the  neck,  hump,  and  shoulders,  terminating  at  the 
knees  in  a  thick  mass  of  luxuriant  black  locks,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dense  coat  of 
finer  fur  on  the  body  and  hind-quarters,  give  to  our  species  not  only  an  apparent 
height  equal  to  that  of  the  gaur,  but  a  grandeur  and  nobility  of  presence  which  are 
beyond  all  comparison  among  ruminants."  Good  horns  measure  from  16  to  17 


Distribution. 


AMERICAN  BISON  (A  nat.  size). 

inches,  but  a  pair  with  a  length  of  20£  inches  and  a  girth  of  15  inches  have  been 
recorded. 

The  range  of  the  American  bison  originally  extended  over  about 
one-third  of  North  America.  "  Starting  almost  at  tide-water  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,"  writes  Mr.  Hornaday,  "  it  extended  westward  through  a  vast  tract 
of  dense  forest,  across  the  Alleghany  Mountain  system  to  the  prairies  along  the 
Mississippi,  and  southward  to  the  delta  of  that  great  system.  Although  the  great 
plain  country  of  the.  West  was  the  natural  home  of  the  species,  where  it  nourished 
most  abundantly,  it  also  wandered  south  across  Texas  to  the  burning  plains  of 


OXEN.  193 

North-Eastern  Mexico,  westward  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  into  New  Mexico, 
Utah,  and  Idaho,  and  northward  across  a  vast  treeless  waste  to  the  bleak  and 
inhospitable  shores  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake  itself."  Its  maximum  development 
was  probably  reached  about  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  when  the  greater  part  of 
North  America  was  practically  an  unknown  country  so  far  as  Europeans  are 
concerned.  And  Mr.  Hornaday  is  of  opinion  that,  if  left  to  itself,  the  bison  would 
have  crossed  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  coast-ranges  to  reach  the  Pacific  slopes ;  while 
it  would  ultimately  have  developed  into  several  distinct  races  according  to  the 
climate  of  the  different  regions  it  inhabited.  An  example  of  the  formation  of 
such  a  race  is  afforded,  indeed,  by  the  variety  known  in  the  States  as  the  mountain, 
or  wood,  buffalo.  The  gradual  opening  up  of  the  interior  of  North  America, 
with  the  advance  of  civilisation,  soon,  however,  put  an  effectual  stop  to  further 
increase  of  the  species,  and  eventually  led  to  its  practical  extermination. 
Numbers  and  In  regard  to  its  former  numerical  abundance,  Mr.  Hornaday  1 

Extermination.  okserves  that  "  of  all  the  quadrupeds  that  have  ever  lived  upon  the 
earth,  probably  no  other  species  has  ever  marshalled  such  innumerable  hosts  as 
those  of  the  American  bison.  It  would  have  been  as  easy  to  count  or  to  estimate 
the  number  of  leaves  in  a  forest  as  to  calculate  the  number  of  bison  living  at  any 
given  time  during  the  history  of  the  species  previous  to  1870.  Even  in  South 
Central  Africa,  which  has  been  exceedingly  prolific  in  great  herds  of  game,  it  is 
probable  that  all  its  quadrupeds  taken  together  on  an  equal  area  would  never  have 
more  than  equalled  the  total  number  of  buffalo  in  this  country  forty  years  ago." 
As  an  instance  of  these  enormous  numbers,  it  appears  that,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  year  1871,  Col.  Dodge,  when  passing  through  the  great  herd  on  the  Arkansas, 
and  reckoning  that  there  were  some  fifteen  or  twenty  individuals  to  the  acre,  states 
from  his  own  observation  that  it  was  not  less  than  twenty-five  miles  wide  and  fifty 
miles  deep.  This,  however,  was  the  last  of  the  great  herds ;  and  Mr.  Hornaday 
estimates  that  the  number  of  individuals  comprising  it  could  not  be  reckoned  at 
less  than  four  millions.  Many  writers  at  and  about  the  date  mentioned  speak  of 
the  plains  being  absolutely  black  with  bison  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach ;  and  Mr. 
W.  Blackmore  tells  of  passing  through  a  herd  for  a  distance  of  upwards  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  right  on  end,  in  travelling  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  Rail- 
road. Frequently,  indeed,  trains  on  that  line  were  derailed  in  attempting  to  pass 
through  herds  of  bison,  until  the  drivers  learned  it  was  advisable  to  bring  their 
engines  to  a  standstill  when  they  found  the  line  blocked  in  this  manner. 

Col.  Dodge,  writing  of  his  experiences  on  the  Arkansas  alluded  to  above, 
observes  that  "  the  whole  country  appeared  one  great  mass  of  bison,  moving  slowly 
to  the  northward ;  and  it  was  only  when  actually  among  them  that  it  could  be 
ascertained  that  the  apparently  solid  mass  was  an  agglomeration  of  numerous  small 
herds,  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  animals,  separated  from  the  surrounding  herds 
by  greater  or  less  space,  but  still  separated.  The  bison  on  the  hills,  seeing  an 
unusual  object  in  their  rear,  started  at  full  speed  directly  towards  me,  stamped- 
ing and  bringing  with  them  the  numberless  herds  through  which  they  passed, 
and  pouring  down  upon  all  the  herds,  no  longer  separated,  but  one  immense 
compact  mass  of  plunging  animals." 

1  When  quoting  from  Mr.  Hornaday  and  other  writers  we  have  substituted  the  word  bison  for  buffalo. 
VOL.  II. — 13 


194 


UNGULATES. 


Many  similar  accounts  attesting  the  vast  swarms  of  bison  which  formerly 
roamed  the  prairies  might  be  quoted,  but  the  foregoing  are  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 
Evidence  of  the  numbers  of  these  animals  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  huge  stacks  of 
skulls  piled  up  at  many  of  the  railway  stations  in  the  States  awaiting  transport. 

The  main  cause  which  led  to  the  extirpation  of  the  bison  was  the  advance  of 
railways.  With  the  progress  of  civilisation  the  bison  was,  indeed,  foredoomed  to 


-__!,_— ,!y '/ 
HEAD   OF  AMERICAN   BISON. 


disappear ;  but  its  end  was  hastened  by  the  reckless  way  in  which  the  unfortunate 
animals  were  shot  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  or  tongues ;  by  the  want  of  protective 
legislation  on  the  part  of  the  Government ;  by  the  preference  for  the  flesh  and 
skin  of  cows,  by  the  marvellous  stupidity  and  indifference  to  man  of  the  animals 
themselves,  and  by  the  perfection  of  modern  firearms. 

It  appears  that  although  the  bison  had  for  more  than  a  century  been  subject 
to  a  merciless  persecution,  both  by  Indians  and  Whites,  yet  up  to  the  year  1830, 
beyond  a  certain  restriction  in  its  area  of  distribution,  this  desultory  warfare  had 
not  made  any  very  serious  inroads  on  the  numbers  of  the  animals ;  and  that  as  late 


OXEN.  195 

as  1870  there  were  certainly  several  million  head  still  living.  During  the  period 
from  1730  to  1830  the  desultory  warfare  had,  however,  completely  driven  away 
the  bison  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  also  from  the  districts 
to  the  westward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  they  were  never  very  numerous. 
With  the  year  1830,  Mr.  Hornaday  considers,  began  the  era  of  the  systematic 
slaughter  of  the  bison  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  and  hides ;  and  the  ever-increasing 
demand  for  "  buffalo-robes,"  as  the  dressed  skins  are  termed,  soon  began  to  tell  on 
its  numbers.  Up  to  the  year  1869  the  bison  occupied  one  large  and  continuous 
aiva ;  but  the  completion  in  that  year  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  cut  this  area 
in  twain,  and  at  the  same  time  divided  the  great  herd  into  a  northern  and  southern 
moiety.  The  headquarters  of  the  southern  herd  were  somewhere  about  the  situation 
where  Garden  City,  Kansas,  now  stands.  Although  the  area  occupied  by  this  herd 
was  greatly  inferior  in  size  to  that  of  the  northern  herd,  yet  the  number  of  bison  on 
it  was  vastly  greater,  being  estimated  in  1871  as  at  least  three,  and  probably  nearly 
four,  millions.  That  year  saw  the  completion  of  the  Kansas  branch  of  the  Union 
Pacific,  and  the  great  slaughter  which  thereupon  commenced  attained  its  height  in 
1873.  At  the  latter  date  the  destruction  of  these  animals  was  so  wasteful  and  so 
wanton  that  it  is  believed  every  hide  which  came  into  the  market  represented  four 
individuals  killed.  The  destruction  was  of  course  greatest  along  the  lines  of 
railways,  and  on  one  of  the  three  railways  penetrating  the  southern  bison-country, 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  skins,  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  pounds  of 
meat,  and  fully  two  and  a  quarter  millions  of  pounds  of  bones,  were  carried  during 
the  year  in  question.  At  this  time  the  whole  country  was  poisoned  with  the 
effluvia  from  the  decaying  carcases ;  and  it  was  a  common  practice  to  drive  away 
the  animals  when  they  came  to  drink  till  they  became  so  maddened  with  thirst 
that  they  would  come  within  easy  shooting  distance.  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  it 
is  probably  a  safe  estimate  to  say  that  not  "  fewer  than  fifty  thousand  bison  have 
been  killed  for  their  tongues  alone,  and  the  most  of  these  are  undoubtedly  charge- 
able against  white  men,  who  ought  to  have  known  better."  Over  three  and  a  half 
million  individuals  are  estimated  to  have  been  slaughtered  in  the  southern  herd 
between  1872  and  1874.  In  the  latter  year  the  hunters  became  alarmed  at  the 
great  diminution  in  the  number  of  the  bison,  and  by  the  end  of  1875  the  great 
southern  herd  had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  body.  The  main  body  of  the  survivors, 
some  ten  thousand  strong,  fled  into  the  wilder  parts  of  Texas,  where  they  had 
been  gradually  shot  down,  till  a  few  years  ago  some  two  or  three  score  remained 
as  the  sole  survivors  of  the  three  or  four  millions  of  the  great  southern  herd ;  and 
in  the  year  1880  bison-shooting  was  finally  abandoned,  as  being  no  longer  a  profit- 
able trade. 

With  regard  to  the  northern  herd,  of  which  the  number  in  1870  was  approxi- 
mately estimated  at  a  million  and  a  half,  distributed  over  a  very  wide  tract  of 
country,  it  appears  that  the  portion  living  in  British  North  America  was  the  first 
to  be  exterminated.  Before  the  year  1880  the  numbers  of  the  herd  had  been 
greatly  reduced  in  Dakota  and  Wyoming  by  the  Sioux  Indians ;  but  the  commence- 
ment of  the  final  destruction  was  heralded  by  the  opening  in  that  year  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  which  traversed  the  heart  of  the  bison -country.  The 
IK -i-d  was,  indeed,  hemmed  in  on  three  sides  by  Sioux  armed  with  breech-loading 


196  UNGULATES. 

rifles;  and  the  price  of  robes  having  risen  greatly  in  1881,  a  rush  from  all  sides 
was  made  on  the  devoted  herd,  and  in  the  hunting-season,  commencing  in  October 
1882  and  terminating  in  the  following  February,  the  annihilation  of  the  great 
northern  herd  was  practically  completed ;  only  some  straggling  bands,  numbering 
a  few  thousands,  surviving.  This  event  appears  to  have  come  like  a  thunder-clap 
on  the  hunters,  who  actually  fitted  out  expeditions  in  the  autumn  of  1884,  only  to 
find  that  their  quarry  had  disappeared  for  ever.  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  to  the 
south  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  a  band  of  about  three  hundred  settled 
permanently  in  and  around  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  but  in  a  very  short 
time  every  animal  outside  of  the  protected  limits  of  the  park  was  killed;  and 
whenever  any  of  the  park  buffaloes  strayed  beyond  the  boundary,  they  too  were 
promptly  killed  for  their  heads  and  hides.  Those  remaining  in  the  Yellowstone 
are  now  protected  by  Government,  and  there  are  a  few  scattered  bands  still  linger- 
ing in  the  more  remote  and  inaccessible  portions  of  the  country,  but  otherwise  the 
American  bison  has  ceased  to  exist  as  a  wild  animal. 

Turning  to  the  development  and  habits  of  the  species,  it  appears 
that  the  breeding-season  is  from  the  beginning  of  July  to  the  end  of 
September,  and  that  the  calves  are  generally  born  from  April  to  June,  although 
occasionally  as  late  as  August.  The  cow  does  not  breed  till  three  years  old,  and 
sometimes  produces  two  calves  at  a  birth.  For  the  first  two  months  of  its  existence 
the  calf  has  the  pelage  of  a  brownish  yellow  colour ;  and  even  at  that  period  has 
indications  of  the  long  hair  covering  the  fore-quarters  of  the  adult.  Young  calves 
can  be  tamed  with  facility.  In  yearling  bison  the  horns  are  in  the  form  of  a 
straight  conical  spike,  of  from  4  to  6  inches  in  length ;  and  these  spike-like  horns, 
with  a  curve  at  the  base  in  older  individuals,  continue  till  the  end  of  the  fourth 
year,  during  which  period  the  young  males  are  termed  "  spike-bulls."  In  these 
young  bulls  the  horns  are  jet-black ;  but  from  scaling  of  the  exterior,  and  the 
accumulation  of  dirt,  they  tend  to  grey  in  the  adult.  With  advancing  age  the 
outer  layers  of  the  horn  begin  to  break  off  near  the  summit,  until  the  whole  horn 
becomes  short,  thick,  and  blunted,  "  with  only  the  tip  of  what  was  once  a  neat  and 
shapely  horn  showing  at  the  end.  The  bull  is  then  known  as  a  '  stub-horn/  and 
his  horns  increase  in  roughness  and  unsightliness  as  he  grows  older." 

Towards  the  end  of  winter  the  coat  of  the  bison  assumes  a  faded  and  bleached 
appearance  from  the  effects  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  elements ;  and  towards  the 
end  of  February,  or  somewhat  later,  the  coat  begins  to  change,  but  the  whole 
process  occupies  more  than  half  the  year.  The  shedding  is  accomplished  both  by 
the  new  hair  growing  into  and  forcing  off  the  old,  and  also  by  the  latter  falling  oft 
and  leaving  the  skin  bare  in  great  patches,  as  shown  in  our  coloured  illustration  of 
the  European  species.  During  the  shedding  process  the  animal  presents  an  un- 
sightly appearance,  but  by  the  end  of  June  the  whole  of  the  old  hair  has  fallen  off 
and  the  body  is  bare,  although  the  new  dark  hair  is  well  grown  on  the  head. 
During  the  summer  the  naked  skin  is  scorched  by  the  sun  and  bitten  by  flies,  and 
the  animal  consequently  protects  itself  by  wallowing,  and  thus  coating  itself  with 
a  plaster  of  dried  mud.  By  the  beginning  of  October  the  new  coat  of  hair  has, 
however,  attained  a  considerable  length,  and  between  the  20th  of  November  and 
the  20th  of  December  the  bison  is  in  the  full  glory  of  his  apparel ;  and  the  contrast 


OXEN.  197 

presented  by  his  condition  at  this  time  to  that  during  the  summer  must  be  seen  to 
be  fully  appreciated.  The  height  attained  by  the  bull  bison  has  been  already 
mentioned.  In  regard  to  weight,  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  an  adult  bull  shot  by  his 
party  scaled  1727  Ibs.,  but  as  the  animal  was  by  no  means  fat  it  is  probable  that 
this  weight  is  in  some  cases  exceeded. 

It  was  during  the  breeding-season  that  the  small  bands  which  had  been 
previously  distributed  over  a  wide  area  of  country  collected  in  the  huge  herds 
above  alluded  to ;  and  at  such  seasons  the  bulls  were  occupied  either  in  chasing 
the  cows  or  in  combats  among  themselves.  The  concerted  roaring  of  the 
bulls  at  these  times  is  described  as  resembling  thunder,  and  audible  at  distances 
of  from  one  to  three  miles,  or  even,  exceptionally,  at  five  miles.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  breeding-season  the  herd  again  broke  up  into  small  bands.  In  these 
periodical  journeys  across  the  country  in  search  of  water  regular  tracks  were 
formed  by  the  bison,  and  as  the  water  was  approached  several  tracks  united, 
with  the  result  that  in  some  places  tracks  of  about  twelve  inches  in  width,  and 
from  six  to  seven  in  depth,  may  be  seen  following  the  level  of  the  valleys ;  the  bison 
in  these  journeys  having  always  marched  in  single  file.  These  old  bison-tracks  still 
remain  as  a  memento  of  a  vanished  race,  and  are  now  used  by  the  domestic  cattle 
which  have  supplanted  the  monarchs  of  the  prairie.  After  reaching  the  watering- 
place,  the  herd,  instead  of  returning  to  its  original  feeding-ground,  would  wander 
right  and  left  in  search  of  fresh  pastures.  When  undisturbed  in  good  pasture, 
bison  were  always  in  the  habit  of  lying  down  for  a  few  hours  during  the  middle 
of  the  day ;  and  they  were  at  certain  seasons  fond  of  rolling  either  in  dust  or  mud. 
In  districts  where  salt  lakes  occurred,  the  bison  would  resort  to  them  in  great 
numbers.  All  the  great  herds  were  in  the  habit  of  moving  southwards  for  a 
distance  of  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred  miles  with  the  approach  of  winter ; 
and  during  such  journeys  it  frequently  happened  that  numbers  were  lost  in  crossing 
quicksands,  alkali-bogs,  muddy  fords,  or  on  treacherous  ice.  It  is  stated  that  in 
18G7  upwards  of  two  thousand  bison  out  of  a  herd  of  four  thousand  were  lost 
in  a  quicksand;  and  that  an  entire  herd  of  about  one  hundred  head  perished 
when  crossing  the  ice  on  a  lake  in  Minnesota. 

Bison  would  boldly  face  the  cutting  blizzards  of  the  north-west,  instead  of 
turning  tail  to  them  after  the  manner  of  domestic  cattle ;  although  they  would  at 
the  same  time  seek  such  shelter  as  might  be  obtainable  by  retiring  to  the  ravines 
and  valleys.  In  heavy  falls  of  snow,  which  lay  long  on  the  ground,  the  bison  were 
often  compelled  to  fast  for  days,  or  even  weeks,  together ;  but  they  suffered  most 
when  the  surface  of  the  snow  was  covered  with  a  thin  crust  of  ice  after  a  slight 
thaw,  as  their  ponderous  weight  would  drive  their  feet  deep  into  the  snow,  and 
leave  them  at  the  mercy  of  the  Indians,  by  whom  they  were  slain  by  hundreds 
when  thus  helpless. 

Space  does  not  admit  of  anything  more  than  bare  mention  of  a 
Hunting.  J 

few  of  the  modes  in  which  the  bison  was  hunted.     The  method  of 

stalking,  or  "  still-hunting,"  where  the  hunter  creeps  up  to  a  herd  and  shoots  one 
after  another  of  its  members,  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  deadly,  owing  to  the 
crass  stupidity  of  the  animals  themselves.  The  plan  adopted  was  first  to  shoot  the 
leader,  when  the  remainder  of  the  herd  would  come  and  stupidly  smell  round  the 


198  UNGULATES. 

body,  till  another  animal  assumed  the  post  of  leader,  and  was  shot  down  when  it 
was  about  to  make  a  move ;  the  same  process  being  repeated  almost  without  end. 
Riding  down,  surrounding,  impounding,  or  hunting  in  snow-shoes  were,  however, 
other  equally  effective  methods  of  destruction. 

In  captivity  the  American  bison  breeds  freely,  not  only  with  its 
own  kind,  but  also  with  other  species  of  cattle.  In  the  United  States 
a  herd  has  been  established  by  crossing  bull  bison  with  domestic  cows ;  the  cow 
bison  not  producing  a  hybrid  offspring.  This  hybrid  race  is  perfectly  fertile,  either 
with  itself  or  when  again  crossed  with  domestic  cattle ;  and  it  is  considered  that  a 
strain  of  bison-blood  will  lead  to  the  cattle  in  the  North-Western  States  being 
better  enabled  to  withstand  the  blizzards  of  those  districts. 

Subfossil  remains  of  the  American  bison  are  found  in  various 
£xtmct  Bison. 

parts  of  North  America,  while  in  Texas  there  occur  those  of  the 

extinct  broad-fronted  bison  (B.  latifrons),  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  and  its 
stouter  and  less  backwardly-inclined  horns. 

THE  CAPE  BUFFALO  (Bos  ca/er). 

The  Cape  buffalo  is  our  first  representative  of  a  group  of  oxen  distinguished 
by  several  well-marked  characters.  They  are  all  heavily-built  animals,  with  thick 
and  strong  limbs,  moderately  long  tails,  tufted  at  the  end,  short  necks,  very  broad 
muzzles,  and  large  ears.  The  hair  covering  the  body  is  always  thin,  and  in  old 
age  leaves  the  skin  almost  entirely  naked.  The  horns,  which  are  generally  large 
and  massive,  are  more  or  less  distinctly  flattened  and  angulated,  at  least  at  the 
base,  where  their  cross-section  is  triangular.  They  are  placed  on  the  skull  a 
considerable  distance  below  the  plane  of  the  occiput;  and  their  upper  border  is 
concave,  with  the  tips  curved  inwards,  the  curvature  being  generally  at  first 
outwards  and  backwards,  and  then  outwards  and  upwards.  In  the  skull  the 
forehead  is  more  or  less  markedly  concave,  and  the  premaxillary  bones  reach 
upwards  to  join  the  nasals,  as  in  the  typical  oxen.  The  number  of  ribs  is  thirteen 
pairs. 

The  Cape,  or  black  African  buffalo  is  the  largest  and  fiercest  member  of  the 
group  found  in  the  continent,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  This  species  is 
characterised  by  its  blackish  colour,  and  the  great  massiveness  of  the  relatively 
short  horns,  which  are  much  flattened  at  the  base,  where  they  are  expanded,  so  as 
to  form  in  old  bulls  a  kind  of  helmet-like  mass,  covering  the  whole  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  head,  and  with  only  a  narrow  line  between  them.  From  this  expanded 
base  the  curvature  of  the  horns  is  at  first  outwards,  downwards,  and  backwards, 
and  then  forwards,  upwards,  and  inwards ;  their  smooth  extremities  being  nearly 
cylindrical.  The  skull  is  characterised  by  its  shortness,  and  also  by  the  deep 
concavity  of  the  profile  below  the  horns ;  the  nasal  bones  being  extremely  short, 
and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  not  particularly  prominent.  The  head  has  a  very  large 
and  expanded  muzzle,  and  a  characteristic  hollow  below  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye. 
The  enormous  flapping  ears  are  thickly  fringed  on  their  lower  border  with  hair ; 
their  upper  border  being  sharply  truncated  before  the  descent  to  the  pointed 
extremity.  With  the  exception  of  the  ears  and  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  hair  is  very 


OXEN. 


199 


sparse,  and  it  is  only  on  the  head  and  limbs  that  old  bulls  can  properly  be  said  to 
be  haired  at  all.  In  the  cows  and  young  bulls  the  hair  is,  however,  thicker ;  and 
its  colour  in  these  is  dark  brown,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  reddish  tinge.  A 
well-grown  bull  buffalo  will  stand  between  4  feet  7  inches  and  4  feet  8  inches  at 
the  shoulder.  The  horns  vary  in  shape  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  regard  to 
their  size,  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  largest  pair  he  obtained  had  an  extreme  span, 


CAPE  BUFFALO  (^  nat.  size). 


from  bend  to  bend,  in  a  straight  line,  of  3  feet  8  inches,  with  a  depth  on  the 
forehead  of  15  inches  ;  the  total  length  of  each  horn  along  the  curve  being  3  feet. 
In  another  example  the  same  three  dimensions  were  respectively  3  feet  6  inches, 
17  inches,  and  2  feet  11  inches. 

The  typical  Cape  buffalo  is  usually  found  in  reedy  swamps  from 
the  Cape  as  far  north  as  the  Equator  ;  but  some  individuals  distin- 
guished, according  to  the  Hon.  W.  H.  Drummond,  by  their  blacker  hair  and  more 
spreading  horns  inhabit  forests.  From  the  Equator  northwards  to  Abyssinia  the 


200  UNGULATES. 

species  is  represented  by  a  variety  of  lighter  build,  and  with  horns  less  thickened 
on  the  forehead,  and  separated  in  the  middle  line  by  a  considerable  interval.  This 
variety  was  formerly  regarded  as  indicating  a  distinct  species,  under  the  names  of 
B.  cequinoctialis  and  B.  centralis ;  but  intermediate  gradations  connect  it  so  closely 
with  the  ordinary  Cape  form  that  this  view  has  been  abandoned. 

In  regions  where  their  numbers  have  not  been  thinned  by  the  sportsman's 
rifle,  the  Cape  buffalo,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  is  usually  found  in  herds  of  from 
fifty  to  two  hundred,  or  even  three  hundred,  individuals.  Old  bulls  are  frequently 
met  with  alone,  although  they  more  usually  associate  in  parties  of  two,  three,  or 
four,  while  occasionally  from  eight  to  ten  may  be  seen  together.  These  small 
parties  of  bulls  are  said  to  be  much  less  wary,  and,  consequently,  much  more"  easy 
to  approach  than  large  herds  of  cows;  and  solitary  bulls  are  not  regarded  by 
Mr.  Selous  as  more  dangerous  than  other  members  of  the  species.  The  same 
writer  observes  that  for  animals  of  such  heavy  build  and  bulk  these  buffaloes  are 
remarkably  swift ;  and  it  requires  a  good  horse  to  keep  ahead  of  a  charging  buffalo 
even  in  the  open ;  while  in  cover,  unless  very  fleet,  the  horse  stands  a  good  chance 
of  being  overtaken.  Cape  buffaloes  are  commonly  represented  in  pictures  as 
charging  with  their  heads  lowered  to  the  ground  and  their  tails  raised  high  in  the 
air.  This,  however,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  is  wholly  incorrect,  since,  when 
charging,  they  "  invariably  hold  their  noses  straight  out,  and  lay  their  horns  back 
over  their  shoulder.?.  They  lower  their  heads  just  as  they  strike." 

Mr.  Drummond  writes  of  the  habits  of  this  species  as  follows : — "  About 
sunrise  they  drink  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  last  during  the  long,  hot  day, 
and  then  make  their  way  to  wherever  they  may  have  determined  to  sleep.  This 
in  summer  is  generally  on  the  highest  and  most  breezy  spot  to  be  found,  under 
the  shelter  of  two  or  three  trees ;  in  winter,  in  the  thick  jungle.  They  do  not  live 
farther  from  water  than  possible,  as  the  moment  the  sun  goes  down,  often  before, 
they  go  straight  to  refresh  themselves  with  a  bath  and  drink  before  feeding,  which 
they  continue  to  do  till  soon  after  midnight,  making '  the  most  horrible  maze  of 
track  imaginable.  They  then  rest  and  chew  the  cud  for  some  time,  getting  up  and 
continuing  grazing  until  it  is  time  to  revisit  the  river  or  hole,  and  so  onward  to 
their  lair." 

The  Cape  buffalo  breeds  during  the  African  summer,  the  young  being  born 
from  January  to  March,  and  there  being  apparently  never  more  than  one  at  a 
birth.  The  calf  is  hidden  in  long  grass ;  and  for  about  ten  days  after  its  birth 
the  cow  separates  from  the  herd,  and  remains  within  a  short  distance  of  her 
offspring,  which  she  visits  at  intervals.  In  regard  to  the  age  to  which  the  animal 
lives,  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  old,  solitary  bulls  have  been  known  as  such  for 
twelve  years,  and  he  considers  it  probable  that  the  full  age  may  be  about  thirty 
years. 

The  buffalo  has  but  two  enemies — the  lion  and  man;  and  the  combined 
assaults  of  these  two  have  in  some  districts  so  reduced  its  numbers  that,  according 
to  Mr.  Drummond,  writing  as  far  back  as  1875,  where  there  were  formerly  herds 
of  from  ten  to  one  hundred  in  number,  not  ten  head  are  to  be  found.  A  combat 
between  three  lions  and  a  bull  buffalo  has  been  mentioned  in  our  notice  of  the 
lion.  The  bulls  frequently  engage  in  fights  between  themselves ;  and  Mr. 


OXEN. 


201 


Drummond  gives  the  following  account  of  one  such  combat  which  he  had  the 
good  fortune  to  witness : — <:  On  looking  through  the  edge  of  the  last  thicket  which 
concealed  them  I  saw  two  buft'alo  bulls  standing  facing  each  other  with  lowered 
heads,  and,  as  I  sat  down  to  watch,  they  rushed  together  with  all  their  force, 
producing  the  loud  crash  I  had  before  heard.  Once  their  horns  were  interlocked, 
they  kept  them  so,  their  straining  quarters  telling  that  each  was  doing  his  best  to 
force  the  other  backwards.  Several  long  white  marks  on  their  necks  showed 


SHORT-HORNED  BUFFALO,    SIERRA   LEONE   VARIETY   (fa  Uat.  SIZt) 


where  they  had  received  scratches,  and  blood  dripping  down  the  withers  of  the 
one  next  me  proved  that  he  had  received  a  more  severe  wound.  It  was  a 
magnificent  sight  to  see  the  enormous  animals,  every  muscle  at  its  fullest  tension, 
striving  for  the  mastery.  Soon  one,  a  very  large  and  old  bull,  began  to  yield  a 
little,  going  backwards  step  by  step,  but  at  last,  as  if  determined  to  conquer  or  die, 
it  dropped  on  its  knees.  The  other,  disengaging  his  horns  for  a  second,  so  as  to 
gain  an  impetus,  again  rushed  at  him,  but  did  not  strike  him  on  the  forehead,  but 
on  the  neck,  under  the  hump,  and  I  could  see  that  with  a  twist  of  his  horns  he 
inflicted  a  severe  wound."  Instead,  however,  of  following  up  his  advantage,  this 


202  UNGULATES. 

bull  recoiled  and  hesitated,  and  was  eventually  charged  by  his  adversary  full  in  the 
shoulder,  after  which  he  declined  to  continue  the  contest. 

The  Cape  buffalo  has  been  described  as  the  most  dangerous  of  all  South 
African  animals,  but  both  Mr.  Drummond  and  Mr.  Selous  deny  that  this  is  really 
the  case.  It  is  true  that  more  fatal  accidents  occur  in  buffalo-shooting  than  in 
any  other  sport,  but  this  is  discounted  by  the  circumstance  that  more  of  these 
animals  are  killed  than  any  other  large  game.  Although  there  are  exceptions, 
buffalo  do  not  generally  charge  unless  wounded;  but  cows  with  calves,  or 
individuals  wounded  by  lions  are  more  irritable,  and  more  prone  to  charge  than 
ordinary.  At  the  same  time,  the  pursuit  is  far  from  being  unaccompanied  by 
danger ;  and  Sir  J.  Willoughby  states  that  of  all  the  animals  met  with  by  him  in 
Eastern  Africa  "  the  buffalo  is  probably  the  most  cunning  and  dangerous  to  attack ; 
they  become  very  savage  when  wounded,  and  usually  take  to  the  thick  bush, 
where  they  lie  in  wait  for  their  foe.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in 
following  them  up,  as,  on  account  of  the  denseness  of  the  bush,  it  is  next  to 
impossible  for  the  hunter  to  avoid  the  sudden  charge  that  is  almost  sure  to  ensue 
if  the  buffalo  sights  him  first.  A  cow  can  be  killed  by  a  bullet  anywhere  on  the 
forehead  or  behind  the  ear;  but  a  bull  is  practically  invulnerable  in  the  head, 
although  it  may  be  dropped  by  a  lucky  shot  striking  above  the  eyes  in  the  narrow 
line  of  division  between  the  horns." 

THE  SHORT-HORNED  BUFFALO  (Bos  pumilus). 

The  short-horned,  or  red  buffalo,  of  which  one  variety  is  represented  in  the 
figure  on  p.  201,  and  a  second  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  is  a  smaller  animal 
than  the  Cape  species,  from  which  it  is  further  distinguished  by  its  smaller  and 
much  less  massive  horns,  as  well  as  by  its  more  abundant  and  lighter-coloured  hair. 
This  buffalo  is  a  West  African  species,  and  is  known  to  the  natives  as  the  niari, 
and  to  the  Europeans  of  the  west  coast  as  the  bush-cow.  It  is  found  in  most  of 
the  tropical  regions  where  the  Cape  buffalo  is  unknown,  and  is  essentially  a  forest- 
dwelling  animal.  The  height  of  the  animal  is,  as  a  rule,  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Cape  buffalo.  The  colour  of  the  hair  is  generally  some  shade  of  yellow  or  red,  but 
more  rarely  brown,  although  some  individuals  are  much  darker  and  nearly  black. 
The  specimen  figured  in  the  illustration  on  p.  201,  which  came  from  Sierra  Leone, 
and  was  exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Antwerp,  in  1875,  was  light  yellow 
above  but  reddish  on  the  under-parts,  with  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  two  areas.  It  will  be  observed  from  the  figure  that  the  horns  are  but  little 
flattened,  and  are  separated  from  one  another  by  a  wide  interval  on  the  forehead, 
and  have  a  simple  curvature ;  these  features  being  apparently  distinctive  of  all  the 
specimens  from  the  north-western  portion  of  the  creature's  range.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  we  pass  southwards  into  the  Congo  district,  we  find  that  these  buffaloes, 
as  shown  in  our  second  illustration,  have  the  horns  much  more  flattened  and 
expanded  at  their  bases,  where  they  are  closely  approximated  in  the  middle  line. 
Their  tips  are  also  curved  sharply  upwards  and  inwards,  terminating  in  a  point. 
This  variety,  which  is  also  of  rather  larger  size  than  the  other,  was  described  as 
B.  centralis,  and  approximates  to  the  northern  variety  of  the  Cape  buffalo. 


OXEN. 


203 


Indeed  with  some  of  the  specimens  from  Central  Equatorial  Africa  it  is  difficult  to 
find  constant  characters  by  which  they  can  be  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from 
the  typical  niari,  with  widely-separated  and  slightly-flattened  horns,  and  on  the 
other  from  the  northern  variety  of  the  Cape  buffalo.  Hence  it  is  probable  that 
the  present  species  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a  geographical  race  of  the 
latter,  reduced  in  size  and  otherwise  modified  by  the  difference  in  its  habitat.  We 
have  indications  of  the  commencement  of  such  a  modification  in  the  case  of  the 
"  wood-bison "  of  North  America,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  such  modifications 


SHORT-HORNED  BUFFALO,   CONGO   VARIETY  (^\  liat.  size). 


should  not  have  been  carried  still  further  in  the  present  instance.  Horns  of  the 
typical  short-horned  buffalo  range  from  11  to  21  inches  in  length,  with  a  basal 
girth  of  from  10  to  13  inches.  The  short-horned  buffalo  is  found  both  in  the  plains 
and  in  the  mountains  of  Western  Africa,  and  appears  to  be  far  from  uncommon.  It 
possesses  a  speed  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  larger  antelopes  ;  and  when  in  thick 
cover  is  very  difficult  to  drive  out,  except  with  the  aid  of  dogs.  Otherwise  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  anything  specially  noteworthy  in  its  habits. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  both  in  Algeria  and  at  the  Cape 
Extinct  Forms.  e  r 

there  are  found  in  the  superficial  deposits  skulls  of  buffaloes  allied  to 


204 


UNGULATES. 


the  Cape  species,  but  with  far  longer  horns,  which  did  not,  however,  meet  in  a 
helmet-like  mass  on  the  forehead.     In  an  Algerian  specimen  the  length  of  the  bony 
horn-cores  measured  along  the  curve  is  fully  11  feet,  while  in  one  from  the  Cap 
the  length  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  14  feet.     When  covered  with  their  horn 
sheaths,  the  horns  would  of  course  be  still  longer. 

THE  INDIAN  BUFFALO  (Bos  bubalus). 

The  Indian  buffalo,  or  arna,  as  the  male  is  called  in  India,  is  a  very  different 
animal  in  appearance  from  either  of  the  African  species.     It  is  characterised  by  the 


THE   INDIAN   BUFFALO,  FERAL   RACE   (j$  liat.  size). 

much  greater  proportionate  length  of  the  head,  of  which  the  profile  is  nearly 
straight  and  the  centre  of  the  forehead  markedly  convex.  In  the  skull  the  sockets 
oi'  the  eyes  are  very  prominent,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  of  much  greater  length 
than  in  the  African  species.  The  ears  are  also  much  smaller  and  less  open, 
with  only  a  very  slight  fringe  of  hair  on  their  edges.  Still  more  distinctive 
are  the  horns,  which  are  very  long,  much  flattened,  and  angulated  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  their  length,  with  strongly-marked  transverse  wrinkles,  and  a 


OXEN.  205 

distinctly  triangular  section.  They  taper  gradually  from  root  to  tip,  and  generally 
curve  regularly  upwards,  outwards,  and  a  little  backwards  from  the  line  of  the  face 
in  nearly  a  single  plane ;  the  tips  bending  inwards  and  slightly  forwards.  This  is 
the  type  represented  in  our  illustration ;  but  in  a  variety,  which  is  mainly  or 
entirely  from  Assam,  the  horns  are  directed  straight  outwards  for  the  greater  part 
of  their  length,  and  then  suddenly  curve  upwards.  In  the  cow  the  horns  are 
considerably  longer  and  thinner,  with  a  much  less  marked  angulation  in  front,  than 
in  the  bulls ;  and  it  is  in  this  sex,  so  far  as  our  experience  goes,  that  the  horns  with 
the  straightest  direction  outwards  are  met  with.  The  body  becomes  almost  bare 
in  old  animals,  and  the  general  colour  is  ashy-black,  although  the  legs  may  be 
whitish,  or  even,  in  domestic  races,  quite  white  below  the  knees  and  hocks.  There 
is,  however,  a  dun-coloured  variety  of  this  species,  described  by  Mr.  Blanford  from 
upper  Assam,  in  which  the  forehead  is  more  convex  than  ordinary,  and  the  nasal 
bones  of  the  skull  are  much  shorter. 

According  to  General  Kinloch,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  bull  of  this  species  ever 
exceeds  5  feet  4  inches  (16  hands)  at  the  withers;  and  in  one  specimen,  of  which 
he  gives  the  dimensions,  the  height  was  5  feet,  the  length  from  the  nose  to  the  root 
of  the  tail  9  feet  7  inches,  that  of  the  tail  3  feet  11  inches,  and  the  girth  8  feet 
3  inches.  In  the  same  specimen  the  length  of  the  horns,  measured  from  tip  to  tip 
along  the  greater  curve,  was  8  feet  3  inches.  A  skull  in  the  British  Museum  has 
horns  measuring  12  feet  2  inches  from  tip  to  tip  along  the  curve ;  wrhile  a  detached 
horn  in  the  same  collection  has  a  length  of  6  feet  6£  inches,  which  indicates  a 
span  of  about  14  feet  from  tip  to  tip  in  the  pair. 

In  a  truly  wrild  state  the  Indian  buffalo  is  only  known  definitely 
in  the  country  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  the  herds  which  are 
found  in  a  wild  state  in  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  adjacent  islands, 
being  not  improbably  descended  from  animals  escaped  from  captivity.  Our 
illustration  is  taken  from  an  individual  of  one  of  these  feral  races  in  Java,  where 
they  are  known  by  the  name  of  karbu. 

In  India  wild  buffaloes  are  found  on  the  plains  of  the  Bramaputra  and  Ganges, 
from  the  eastern  end  of  Assam  to  Tirhut ;  they  also  occur  in  the  "  terai "  land  at 
the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  as  far  as  Rohilcund,  as  well  as  on  the  plains  near  the 
coast  in  Midnapur  and  Orissa,  and  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  as  well  as  in  the  north  of  Ceylon.  Domesticated  buffaloes  are  found 
not  only  over  the  whole  of  India  and  Burma,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Malayan 
region,  but  have  likewise  been  introduced  into  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,,  and  Italy. 

The  haunts  of  the  wild  Indian  buffalo  are  the  tall  efrass-iunsrles 

Habits.  .  s  J 

found  in  many  parts  of  the  plains  of  India,  and  generally  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  swamps ;  but  it  may  be  also  found  more  rarely  in  the  open  plains 
of  short  grass,  or  among  low  jungle,  and  occasionally  even  in  forest.  Those  who 
have  never  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  an  Indian  grass-jungle  can  have  but 
little  conception  of  its  height  and  density,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  it  from 
the  following  statement  of  General  Kinloch,  who  writes  that  in  such  cover  "  fre- 
quently, although  a  herd  of  buffaloes  may  be  roused  within  a  score  of  yards,  the 
waving  of  the  grass,  and  perhaps  the  glint  of  a  polished  horn-tip,  is  the  only 
ocular  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  animals ;  the  probably  nearly  noiseless  rush 


206  UNGULATES. 

might  be  caused  by  other  animals ;  and  where  the  horns  have  not  been  seen  it  is 
only  by  the  strong,  sweet  bovine  scent — similar  to,  but  much  more  powerful  than, 
that  of  cows — that  one  can  be  absolutely  certain  of  what  is  in  front  of  one."  In 
such  jungles,  needless  to  say,  shooting  (or  indeed  advancing  at  all)  on  foot  is  out 
of  the  question,  and  the  only  method  of  procedure  is  by  beating  with  a  line  of 
elephants. 

In  their  wild  state  these  buffaloes  are  always  found  in  herds,  which  may 
comprise  fifty  or  more  individuals.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  "  they  feed  chiefly  on 
grass,  in  the  evening,  at  night,  and  in  the  morning ;  and  lie  down,  generally  in 
high  grass,  not  unf  requently  in  a  marsh,  during  the  day ;  they  are  by  no  means 
shy,  nor  do  they  appear  to  shun  the  neighbourhood  of  man,  and  they  commit  great 
havoc  amongst  growing  crops.  Sometimes  a  herd  or  a  solitary  bull  will  take 
possession  of  a  field  and  keep  off  the  men  who  own  it.  In  fact  buffaloes  are  by 
far  the  boldest  and  most  savage  of  the  Indian  Bovidce,  and  a  bull  not  unfrequently 
attacks  without  provocation,  though  (probably  on  the  principle  that  a  council  of 
war  never  fights)  a  herd,  although  all  will  gallop  to  within  a  short  distance  of  an 
intruder  and  make  most  formidable  demonstrations,  never,  I  believe,  attacks  any- 
one who  does  not  run  away  from  them.  A  wounded  animal  of  either  sex  often 
charges,  and  has  occasionally  been  known  to  knock  an  elephant  down.  Buffaloes 
retain  their  courage  in  captivity,  and  a  herd  will  attack  a  tiger  or  other  dangerous 
animal  without  hesitation,  and,  although  gentle  with  those  they  know  and  greatly 
attached  to  them,  they  are  inclined  to  be  hostile  to  strange  men  and  strange 
animals.  Whether  wild  or  tame  they  delight  in  water,  and  often  during  the  heat 
of  the  day  lie  down  in  shallow  places  with  only  parts  of  their  heads  above  the 
surface."  The  same  author  remarks  that  few  animals  have  changed  less  in 
captivity  than  tame  buffaloes,  which  never  interbreed  with  the  humped  Indian 
cattle.  The  calves  are  born  in  summer,  and  there  are  not  unfrequently  two  at 
a  birth.  In  walking,  the  Indian  buffalo  always  carries  its  head  low  down. 
Fossil  Indian  Remains  of  the  Indian  buffalo  occur  fossil  in  the  gravels  of  the 

Buffaloes.  Narbada  valley,  and  likewise  in  parts  of  the  Punjab.  The  broad- 
horned  buffalo  (B.  platyceros)  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India,  was,  how- 
ever, a  perfectly  distinct  extinct  species,  characterised  by  the  broad  triangular  horns 
being  placed  closer  together  on  the  forehead,  and  directed  rather  forwards  than 
backwards,  so  that  the  forehead  is  nearly  flat ;  they  are  also  placed  more  below 
the  plane  of  the  occiput.  Other  extinct  Siwalik  buffaloes  (B.  occipitalis  and 
B.  acuticornis)  were  of  smaller  size,  and  their  skulls  like  those  of  the  tamarao 
and  anoa;  the  horns  rising  upwards  in  the  plane  of  the  face,  with  but  slight 
divergence  or  curvature,  and  their  cross-section  either  triangular  or  pear-shaped. 

The  tamarao  of  the  Philippines  (B.  mindorensis]  is  a  sturdily- 
The  Tamarao. 

built  dwarf  buffalo,  connecting  the  preceding  with  the  following 
species.  It  stands  about  3^  feet  in  height,  and  has  coarse  thick  blackish  brown  hair. 
The  horns,  although  massive,  are  comparatively  short,  and  rise  upwards  in  the  plane 
of  the  face  with  a  lyrate  curvature ;  they  are  distinctly  triangular,  with  the  largest 
face  in  front,  and  are  somewhat  roughened.  In  its  massive  hoi-ns,  thick  legs,  and 
uniform  coloration,  this  species  comes  nearer  to  the  Indian  buffalo  than  to  the 
.anoa. 


OXEN. 


207 


The  Anoa. 


The  anoa  of  Celebes  (B.  depressicornis)  is  the  smallest  and  most 
slenderly  built  of  the  oxen,  and,  although  allied  to  the  buffaloes, 
comes  nearest  in  structure  to  the  antelopes.  In  size  it  is  inferior  to  a  Highland 
cow,  its  height  being  about  3  feet  3  inches,  with  the  hind-quarters  rather  higher  than 
the  withers.  The  horns  are  ringed  and  triangular  at  the  base,  of  considerable 
length,  sharply  pointed,  and  rising  upwards  in  the  plane  of  the  face,  with  but  a 
small  divergence  and  curvature.  They  are  situated  far  below  the  plane  of  the 
occiput,  and  consequently  rise  near  the  eyes ;  in  old  males  they  may  be  as  much  as 


THE  ANOA  (^  uat.  size). 


24  inches  in  length,  but  in  cows  they  are  always  small.  The  hinder  part  of  the 
skull  is  more  like  that  of  an  antelope  than  a  buffalo,  having  no  distinct  crest  on 
the  occiput.  The  ears  are  small,  haired  at  the  base,  but  naked  at  the  tips,  with  a 
bunch  of  white  hairs  internally ;  and  the  skull  narrows  towards  the  muzzle.  The 
tail  about  reaches  to  the  hocks.  The  general  colour  of  the  hair  is  dark  brown, 
lighter  below,  but  there  are  two  small  spots  of  white  on  the  sides  of  the  head  below 
the  eyes,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  legs,  and  often  the  back,  have  also  white 
markings.  In  the  young  animal  the  hair  is  of  considerable  length  and  thickness, 
but  it  tends  to  become  thin  with  age,  and  in  very  old  individuals  the  skin  is  nearly 
bare.  In  young  animals  the  hair  is  reddish  yellow.  The  largest  known  horns 
have  a  length  of  nsarly  12|  inches.  The  anoa  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  a 


208  UNGULATES. 

young  Indian  buffalo,  and  it  agrees  with  the  members  of  that  group  in  its  triangular 
horns,  in  the  short  and  sparse  hair  of  the  adult,  in  the  large  and  naked  muzzle, 
and  the  barrel-like  form  of  its  body.  It  likewise  resembles  those  animals  in  its 
bovine  smell,  its  fondness  for  water  and  shade,  and  its  habit  of  drinking  by  long 
draughts  instead  of  by  short  gulps.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anoa  approximates  to 
the  antelopes  in  its  slender  build,  the  structure  of  the  hinder  part  of  its  skull,  the 
upright  direction  and  straightness  of  its  horns,  the  spots  on  the  head,  body,  and 
limbs,  and  its  small  size.  In  connection  with  the  aforesaid  fossil  species  from  the 
Siwalik  Hills,  the  anoa  clearly  indicates  a  close  connection  between  the  antelopes 
and  the  buffaloes ;  and  from  these  primitive  antelope-like  buffaloes  the  other  more 
specialised  groups  of  oxen  may  have  been  developed. 

THE  MusK-Ox. 

Genus  Ovibos. 

In  the  desolate  regions  of  the  far  north  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  where 
even  in  summer  the  surface  of  the  ground  scarcely  thaws,  is  found  the  curious 
musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus),  which  although  presenting  a  certain  superficial 
resemblance  to  the  oxen,  is  in  reality  far  more  nearly  allied  to  the  sheep.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  peculiar  musky  flavour  with  which  the  flesh  is  tainted, 
and  it  forms  the  single  living  representative  of  a  distinct  genus. 

The  musk-ox  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  American  bison,  but  from  its 
long  coat  of  hair  looks  larger  than  it  really  is.  In  appearance  the  animal  has  been 
compared  to  a  large  hairy  ram  ;  and  it  resembles  the  sheep  in  the  marked  convexity 
of  the  profile  of  the  face  and  the  hairy  muzzle.  The  head  is  broad,  with  the  small 
and  pointed  ears  almost  concealed  by  the  hair ;  the  latter  being  long  and  thick,  and 
generally  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  although  paler  in  the  spring.  Though  matted 
and  curling  on  the  back,  the  hair  on  the  throat  and  flanks  is  straight  and  reaches 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  legs ;  it  also  entirely  hides  the  very  short  tail.  Beneath 
the  hair  is  a  coat  of  fine  soft  wool,  of  a  light  brown  colour.  The  most  striking 
peculiarity  of  the  animal  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  its  horns.  In  the  bulls  the  horns 
have  very  wide  and  flattened  bases,  covering  a  large  portion  of  the  forehead,  and 
meeting  one  another  in  the  middle  line ;  at  first  they  curve  sharply  downwards, 
becoming  at  the  same  time  gradually  narrower  and  less  expanded,  and  then  curving 
sharply  upwards  and  forwards,  terminating  in  front  of  the  eyes.  The  bases  of  the 
horns  are  very  rough,  and  of  a  yellowish- white  colour,  but  they  gradually  become 
less  rough,  and  at  the  same  time  darker,  till  at  the  tips,  where  their  section  is 
cylindrical,  they  are  smooth  and  black.  In  the  young  rams  and  the  cows  the  horns 
are  much  smaller,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  a  considerable  interval  in  the 
middle  line.  The  limbs  are  short  and  massive ;  and  the  feet  are  peculiar  in  that 
while  the  outer  hoof  of  each  is  rounded  the  inner  one  is  pointed ;  there  is  a  con- 
siderable growth  of  hair  between  the  hoofs,  which  aids  the  animal  in  obtaining  a 
sure  foothold  on  the  ice.  The  molar  teeth  of  the  musk-ox  are  like  those  of  the 
sheep,  and  thus  quite  different  from  those  of  the  oxen.  Average-sized  horns  are 
about  24  or  25  inches  in  length,  but  they  may  reach  27£  inches. 


MUSK-OX. 


209 


Distribution. 


The  range  of  the  musk-ox  in  Arctic  America  is  limited  to  the 
southward  by  the  60th  degree  of  latitude,  but  extends  northwards  to 
the  83rd  degree  in  Grinnell  Land.  It  abounds  on  both  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
Greenland,  and  in  Arctic  America  its  range  is  bounded  to  the  eastward  by  the 
Mackenzie  River,  flowing  from  the  Great  Slave  lake  in  about  longitude  67°  30', 
while  westwards  it  extends  nearly  to  the  Pacific.  In  former  years  the  range  of 
the  animal  reached  considerably  farther  south,  it  having  been  found,  in  the  year 
1770,  near  Fort  Churchill,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson  Bay,  in  latitude  58°  44'. 


THE  MUSK-OX  (^  nat.  size). 

In  prehistoric  or  Pleistocene  time  the  musk-ox  also  ranged  to  the  north-west  into 
Alaska,  its  fossilised  remains  having  been  found  in  the  frozen  soil  of  Kotzebue 
Sound  in  Behring  Strait,  and  also  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Porcupine  River  in 
Canada.  At  a  still  earlier  period — probably  when  the  whole  of  North  America 
was  far  colder  than  at  present — the  musk-ox  ranged  as  far  south  as  Kansas  and 
Kentucky,  where  its  remains  have  been  found  between  the  35th  and  40th 
parallels  of  latitude.  The  remains  from  these  localities  have,  however,  been  regarded 
as  indicating  an  extinct  species.  Passing  eastwards  from  Alaska  across  Behring 
Strait  into  Asia,  musk-ox  bones  are  found  in  the  frozen  soil  of  Siberia,  as  far  east- 
wards as  the  Obi  River.  The  animal  doubtless  once  ranged  right  across  Russia, 
since  there  is  evidence  of  its  former  existence  in  Germany  as  far  south  as  Wtirtem- 
VOL.  ii. — 14 


2IO 


UNGULATES. 


berg.  Thence  it  extended  into  France,  but  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps  seem  to  have 
marked  the  southern  limits  of  its  range.  In  England  remains  of  the  musk-ox 
have  been  found  in  superficial  deposits,  and  its  skulls  have  been  dredged  from  the 
Dogger  Bank.  Although  the  alteration  in  climatic  conditions  affords  a  sufficient 
reason  for  the  northward  retreat  of  the  musk-ox,  we  are  at  present  quite  in  the 


HEAD  OF  BULL  MUSK-OX. 


dark  why  it  has  disappeared  from  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  while  the  reindeer  still 
has  a  circumpolar  distribution. 

The  regions  inhabited  by  the  musk-ox  are  of  the  most  barren 
Habits.  » 

and  inhospitable  nature.     It  has  been  considered  that  the  animal 

migrated  southwards  during  the  coldest  part  of  the  year,  but  this  is  denied  by  Mr. 
H.  Biederbeck,  who  is  one  of  the  few  explorers  who  have  seen  it  in  its  wild  state. 
It  was  met  with  by  his  party  in  Grinnell  Land  in  March,  when  the  snow  is  deepest 


MUSK-OX. 


211 


and  the  temperature  lowest,  and  it  inhabits  that  country  and  North  Greenland 
throughout  the  year.  "  The  musk-oxen  travel  in  herds,  and  it  is  but  an  exception 
when  one  of  them  is  found  alone.  This  herding  gives  them  a  better  chance  to 
defend  themselves  against  their  one  enemy,  the  Arctic  wolf,  and  also  gives  them 
through  close  contact,  additional  warmth  and  protection  against  cold  and  winds. " 

Occasionally,  we  are  also  informed  by  Mr.  Biederbeck,  the  Eskimo 
undertake  an  expedition  into  the  interior  for  the  purpose  of  hunting 
the  musk-ox  for  the  sake  of  its  warm  pelage,  which  is  used  either  for  their  own 
bedding,  or  as  an  article  of  barter.  The  animals  are  hunted  by  means  of  dogs,  each 
hunter  taking  two  or  three  of  these  animals  with  their  sledge-traces  attached,  and 
thus  allowing  himself  to  be  pulled  along  till  within  a  short  distance  of  the  quarry. 


Hunting. 


The  difficulty  is  then  to  slip  the  dogs  at  the  right  moment  without  allowing  their 
traces  to  drag  behind  them,  and  thus  be  liable  to  be  trodden  on  by  the  bayed  musk- 
oxen  ;  but  clever  hunters  obviate  this  by  tying  the  traces  in  a  bundle  on  the  backs 
of  the  dogs  just  before  they  are  slipped.  When  bayed  and  surrounded,  the  members 
of  the  herd  are  shot  down  by  the  score,  the  great  object  being  to  kill  each  animal 
outright,  as  otherwise  there  is  great  danger  of  its  struggles  inducing  a  stampede 
among  the  herd,  which  would  involve  another  hunt.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
herd,  even  after  having  made  a  bolt,  will  return  to  the  spot  where  their  comrades 
have  fallen.  When  scenting  danger,  the  musk-oxen,  says  Mr.  Biederbeck,  "  always 
retreat  to  some  elevation  near  by,  and  upon  the  approach  of  the  enemy  they  form 
in  a  perfect  line,  their  heads  toward  their  foe ;  or,  if  attacked  at  more  than  one 
point,  they  form  a  circle,  their  glaring,  blood-shot  eyes  restlessly  watching  the 


212 


UNGULATES. 


attack ;  and  I  think  it  would  go  hard  with  the  man  or  beast  who,  under  such 
circumstances,  might  come  within  reach  of  their  broad  horns  or  hard  hoofs." 

In  spite  of  its  coarse  grain,  the  meat  of  the  musk-ox  is  described  as  being  juicy 
and  tender,  that  of  the  young  animals  being  especially  so,  but  in  order  to  obviate 
the  musky  flavour  it  is  essential  that  the  carcase  should  be  dressed  as  soon  as  killed. 


SHEEP. 
Genus  Ovis. 

Although  nearly  allied  to  the  musk-ox,  the  sheep  form  a  group  distinguished 
by  several  important  characters  from  the  oxen,  but  passing  almost  imperceptibly 


SKELETON   OF   MOUFLON. 


into  the  goats.  They  are  of  smaller  size  than  the  majority  of  the  oxen,  and 
although  comparatively  short-necked,  carry  their  heads  higher  above  the  level  of 
the  back.  Both  males  and  females  are  furnished  with  horns  ;  but  whereas  those  of 
the  former  are  large,  and  frequently  extremely  massive  at  the  base,  those  of  the 
latter  are  small  and  narrow.  In  the  males  the  horns  are  generally  more  or  less 


SHEEP. 


213 


triangular  in  section,  and  marked  by  parallel  transverse  wrinkles,  while  their  colour 
is  greenish  or  brownish ;  they  are  directed  outwardly  from  the  sides  of  the  head, 
their  upper  border  being  at  first  always  convex,  and  the  curvature  generally 
taking  the  form  of  an  open  spiral,  with  the  tips  turned  outwards.  The  face  has 
generally,  but  not  always,  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  and  there  is  a  corresponding 
depression  in  the  skull  for  its  reception ;  and  the  muzzle  differs 
from  that  of  the  oxen  in  being  pointed  and  covered  with  short 
hair.  Another  distinctive  feature  of  the  group  is  the  presence  of 
a  small  gland  in  each  foot  between  the  hoofs;  and  the  females 
have  but  two  teats  in  place  of  the  four  of  the  oxen.  The  males 
of  all  sheep  are  devoid  of  any  strong  odour ;  neither  have  they 
any  beard  on  the  chin.  As  a  rule,  in  wild  species,  the  tail  is 
very  short ;  but  in  one  case  it  reaches  just  below  the  hocks.  The 
ears  are  of  moderate  length ;  and  the  hair,  in  wild  species,  is  short 
and  stiff,  although  it  may  be  elongated  on  the  throat  and  fore- 
quarters.  The  upper  molar  teeth  differ  from  those  of  the  oxen 
in  having  narrow  crowns  without  any  additional  column  on  the 
inner  side.  The  feet  have  only  the  upper  ends  of  the  lateral 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  remaining. 

As  regards  the  characters  of  their  molar  teeth,  the  sheep  BONES  OP  THE  LEFT 
resemble  the  gazelles,  and  it  is  accordingly  not  improbable  that         FORE-FOOT  OF  THE 
they  may  trace  their  descent  to  extinct  antelopes  more  or  less        Dawkins. 
nearly  allied  to  that  group.      Oxen,  on  the  other  hand,  having 
molar  teeth  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  sable  antelope  and  oryx,  may  be  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  ancestors  of  that  group. 

Sheep  are  represented  at  the  present  day  by  eleven  wild  species, 
which  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  Asia  northwards  of  the 
outer  range  of  the  Himalaya ;  although  one  species  occurs  in  the  Punjab  and  Sind, 
a  second  in  Northern  Africa,  and  a  third  in  North  America.  They  associate 
either  in  parties  of  two  or  three  individuals,  or  in  flocks  of  considerable  size  ;  and 
are  essentially  mountain  animals.  Very  generally,  however,  sheep  inhabit  the  more 
open  mountain  districts,  rather  than  the  craggy  and  steeply-scarped  regions  selected 
by  the  goats. 

Most  of  the  species  are  very  nearly  related  to  one  another,  and  in  several 
instances  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  certain  forms  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
distinct  species  or  merely  as  local  races.  Geologically,  the  sheep  are  even  a  more 
modern  group  than  the  oxen,  none  of  them  being  definitely  known  to  occur  before 
the  epoch  of  the  so-called  forest-bed  of  the  Norfolk  coast,  which  belongs  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  Pliocene  or  the  lower  part  of  the  Pleistocene  period. 

THE  AMERICAN  AND  KAMSCHATKAN  WILD  SHEEP  (Ovis  canadensis 

and  0.  nivicola). 

The  American  wild  sheep  or  "  bighorn  "  (0.  canadensis)  and  the  Kamschatkan 
wild  sheep  (0.  nivicola)  are  two  very  closely-allied  species,  differing  in  several 
important  respects  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus.  The  most  distinctive 


Distribution. 


2I4  UNGULATES. 

characteristic  of  these  species  is  to  be  found  in  their  horns,  which,  while  very  large 
and  massive,  are  distinguished  by  the  slight  development  of  the  wrinkles  on  their 
anterior  surface,  and  the  great  prominence  of  the  outer  anterior  angle,  and  the 
rounding-off  of  the  inner  one.  In  the  skull  the  depression  for  the  gland  below  the 
eye  is  extremely  shallow  ;  and  both  in  this  respect  and  in  the  smoothness  of  their 
horns,  these  species  show  an  approximation  to  the  goats. 

American  The  American  wild  sheep  is  a  large  animal,  with  the  summer 

wild  Sheep.  coat  of  a  light  brown  colour,  often  showing  a  reddish  tinge,  while  in 
winter  it  is  bluish  grey  on  the  upper-parts.  The  under-parts,  as  well  as  portions 
of  the  legs,  are  white ;  and  there  is  a  large  and  conspicuous  white  patch  on  the 
rump,  which  extends  upwards  on  either  side  of  the  tail.  The  back  has  a  more  or 
less  distinct  dark  stripe,  reaching  to  the  tail;  the  latter  being  very  short,  and 


SKULL  OF  KAMSCHATKAN  WILD  SHEEP.    (From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  Marchesa.)1 

black  in  colour.  The  end  of  the  muzzle  is  light-coloured.  Beneath  the  hair  there 
is  a  shining  white  under-wool.  Very  old  males  may  become  very  light  coloured 
throughout.  The  rams  attain  a  height  of  about  3|  feet  at  the  withers ;  and  their 
average  weight  is  about  350  Ibs.,  or  rather  less.  The  ewes  stand  about  3  feet  in 
height,  and  weigh  about  a  third  less  than  the  rams.  The  length  of  horns  in  good 
specimens,  measured  along  the  curve,  varies  from  33  to  36,  or  even  40  and  41 
inches ;  the  broken  tips  frequently  rendering  them  shorter  than  they  would  be,  if 
perfect.  A  horn  measuring  33  inches  in  length  had  a  basal  girth  of  16  inches ; 
while  in  one  belonging  to  Mr.  Otho  Shaw,  of  which  the  length  is  40  inches,  the 
basal  girth  is  only  15|  inches. 

According  to  Mr.  G.  O.  Shields,  the  geographical  range  of  the 

American  wild  sheep  extends  from  Mexico  to  Alaska,  and  from  the 

eastern  flanks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast ;  although  there  are 

some  mountain  ranges  within  this  area  upon  which  it  has  never  been  observed. 

Along  the  valleys  of  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers  it  extends,  however,  some 

1  We  are  indebted  to  Dr.   Guillemard  and  Mr.  Murray  for  this  figiire,  and  also  for  the  one  of  the  head  of  the 
same  species. 


SHEEP. 


215 


Varieties. 


four  hundred  miles  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  inhabiting  the  so- 
called  "  Bad  Lands  "  of  these  districts. 

According  to  the  observations  of  Col.  J.  Biddulph  there  are  two 
distinct  varieties  of  this  sheep,  the  one  inhabiting  the  northern,  and 
the  other  the  southern  portion  of  its  distributional  area.  The  southern  variety  is 
characterised  by  its  large  skull  and  very  massive  horns ;  the  tips  of  the  latter  being 
generally  broken  and  directed  forwards.  The  ears  are  large,  broad,  pointed,  and 
deer-like,  with  hair  of  only  very  moderate  length.  In  the  northern  race,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  skull  is  smaller,  and  the  horns  less  massive,  with  their  tips  generally 


THE   AMERICAN   WILD  SHEEP  OR  BIGHORN  (3^  nat.  si/e). 


entire,  and  directed  outwards,  as  in  the  skull  of  the  Kamschatkan  species  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  on  p.  214.  The  ears  are  small  and  thickly  furred,  with  blunted 
extremities ;  and  there  is  a  tuft  of  long  hair  between  the  ears  at  the  back  of  the 
horns.  There  are,  moreover,  certain  differences  in  the  coloration  of  the  legs  in  the 
two  races ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  southern  one  ever  assumes  the  dark 
winter  coat  frequently  found  in  the  northern  variety. 

The  American  wild  sheep  is  described  as  one  of  the  wildest  and 
most  wary  of  all  the  large  mammals  of  North  America  ;  and  since  it 
appears  to  inhabit  more  difficult  and  rugged  ground  than  many  of  the  other  species, 
its  successful  pursuit  is  proportionately  difficult.  Mr.  J.  Muir  writes  that  "  in 
spring  and  summer  the  full-grown  rams  form  separate  bands  of  from  three  to 


Habits. 


2l6 


UNGULATES. 


twenty,  and  are  usually  found  feeding  along  the  edges  of  glacier-meadows,  or  rest- 
ing among  castle-like  crags  of  the  high  summits  ;  and  whether  quietly  feeding,  or 
scaling  the  wild  cliffs  for  pleasure,  their  noble  forms,  and  the  power  and  beauty  of 
their  movements,  never  fail  to  strike  the  beholder  with  lively  admiration.  Their 
resting-place  seems  to  be  chosen  with  reference  to  sunshine  and  a  wide  outlook, 
and  most  of  all  to  safety  from  the  attacks  of  wolves."  It  is  stated  that  flocks  of 
these  sheep  have,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  been  known  to  leap  down  a  precipice 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height. 

This  species  was  formerly  found  in  large  flocks,  but  is  now  rapidly  diminishing 
in  numbers ;  so  that,  according  to  Mr.  Shields,  where  it  was  at  one  time  found  in 
bands  of  several  hundred  individuals  it  is  now  rarely  that  more  than  fifty  are  seen 
together.  Sentinels  are  posted  in  prominent  positions  to  give  notice  to  the  herd  of 
the  approach  of  danger ;  and  the  agility  of  these  animals  in  making  their  way  over 
glaciers  and  crags  is  said  to  be  unsurpassed.  In  summer  these  sheep  will  occasion- 
ally ascend  as  high  as  twelve  thousand  feet ;  but  in  the  spring  they  wander  into 
the  valleys  in  search  of  fresh  pasture  or  salt  lakes.  The  lambs,  which  are  occa- 
sionally two  at  a  birth,  but  usually  one,  are  produced  in  May  and  the  beginning  of 
June,  and  when  but  a  few  days  old  will  follow  their  mothers  up  apparently 
inaccessible  cliffs.  The  flesh  of  this  sheep  is  said  to  be  equal  in  flavour  to  the  best 
venison.  The  Indians  hunt  the  bighorn  by  tying  a  pair  of  horns  on  their  heads, 
when  they  are  able  to  creep  within  range. 

Kamschatkan  The  Kamschatkan  wild  sheep,  of  which  the  head  is  represented 

Wild  Sheep.    jn  t,ne  accompanying  woodcut  and  the  skull  in  the  figure  on  p.  214, 

is  so  very  closely  related  to 
the  northern  variety  of  the 
American  species,  that  it  may 
be  a  question  whether  it  is 
really  anything  more  than  a 
geographical  race  of  the  latter. 
Thus  both  have  the  compara- 
tively small  skull,  and  rela- 
tively slender  horns  with 
entire  and  outwardly  directed 
tips;  while  in  both  there  is 
the  same  tuft  between  the 
small  hairy  ears.  The  ears 
of  the  Kamschatkan  sheep 
are,  however,  rounded  instead 
of  blunt ;  and  the  white  patch 
on  the  rump  is  smaller,  and 
does  not  extend  above  the 
tail,  while  there  is  no  trace 
of  a  dark  stripe  down  the 
back. 

The  Kamschatkan  sheep  is  found  in  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  to 
the  north  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  as  well  as  in  the  peninsula  of 


1 


HEAD   OF  THE   KAMSCHATKAN  WILD   SHEEP. 

(From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  Marchesa.) 


Distribution. 


SHEEP.  217 

Kamschatka,  and  since  it  may  also  extend  somewhat  to  the  eastward,  it  is  obvious 
that  its  range  is  separated  by  little  more  than  Behring  Strait  from  its  American 
cousin  in  Alaska.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  such  difference  as  there  is  between  the 
two  is  merely  due  to  their  isolation  from  one  another  since  the  period  when  there 
was  a  free  communication  between  North-Eastern  Asia  and  Alaska.  Dr.  Guillemard 
found  these  sheep  abundant  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Kamschatka,  about  fifty  miles 
to  the  north-east  of  Petropaulovsky ;  his  party  having  shot  fourteen  adult  rams  in 
two  days.  He  describes  them  as  standing  about  3  feet  4  inches  at  the  shoulder  on 
the  average;  and  the  largest  horns  he  obtained  measured  38  inches  along  the 
curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  14  inches.  "  The  general  colour,"  writes  Dr.  Guille- 
mard, "  is  a  brown-grey,  the  head  and  neck  rather  greyer  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 
Both  tail  and  ears  are  remarkably  short.  The  coat  in  those  that  we  shot  was  very 
long  and  thick,  almost  like  that  of  a  reindeer ;  but  autumn  was  well  advanced, 
and  I  have  no  doubt  that  in  summer  it  is  much  thinner.  It  was  curious  that  we 
should  not  only  never  have  shot,  but  never  even  have  seen,  the  females.  All  those 
that  fell  to  our  rifles  were  rams  of  (as  far  as  we  could  judge)  from  three  to  six 
years  old.  Whether  the  females  always  herd  together  or  only  at  certain  seasons  it 
is  difficult  to  say,  and  we  were  unable  to  get  any  information  from  the  natives 
upon  this  point.  The  taste  of  the  meat  when  quite  fresh  was  slightly  rank,  but 
upon  the  second  day  the  unpleasant  flavour  had  entirely  disappeared." 

THE  MONGOLIAN  AND  TIBETAN  ARGALIS  (Ovis  ammon  and  0.  hodgsoni). 

The  magnificent  wild  sheep  of  Mongolia  known  as  the  argali  (0.  ammon),  and 
a  very  closely-allied  species  (0.  hodgsoni)  found  in  Tibet,  are  readily  distinguished 
from  the  American  and  Kamschatkan  members  of  the  genus  by  the  characters  of 
their  skull  and  horns.  The  skull  has  a  much  deeper  pit  for  the  gland  below  the 
eye;  and  the  enormous  horns  have  the  wrinkles  on  the  anterior  surface  very 
strongly  marked,  and  their  outer  anterior  angle  much  less  prominent,  the  inner 
one  being  more  distinct. 

The  two  species,  or  perhaps  varieties,  are  so  closely  related  that  one  description 
will  do  for  both ;  but  the  true  argali  appears  to  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of 
a  ruff  on  the  throat,  while  in  one  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  there  is  no 
distinct  light-coloured  patch  on  the  rump.  The  argalis  may  be  compared  in  size 
to  a  large  donkey ;  and  have  short,  coarse,  and  close  hair,  small  ears,  and  a  very 
short  tail.  In  the  males  of  the  Tibetan  species  the  hair  on  the  sides  and  under-part 
of  the  throat  is  lengthened  so  far  as  to  form  a  white  ruff,  and  there  is  also  a  shorter 
crest  of  dark  hair  running  along  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  shoulders.  The  colour 
is  greyish  brown  above,  but  whitish  beneath ;  and  in  the  males  there  is,  as  a  rule, 
a  large  white  patch  surrounding  the  tail  and  embracing  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  rump,  while  the  throat,  chest,  and  under-parts,  as  well  as  the  inner  sides  of  the 
legs,  are  likewise  white.  The  crest  of  hair  on  the  neck  and  a  stripe  down  the 
outer  side  of  the  legs  are  dark,  and  there  is  also  a  dark  mark  above  the  tail.  In 
very  old  rams  the  fur  of  the  back  becomes  greyish  by  the  admixture  of  wh^^e 
hairs ;  and  Mr.  Blanford  considers  it  probable  that  in  winter  the  whole  colour  is 
paler  than  in  summer.  In  the  ewes  the  long  hair  on  the  back  and  throat  character- 


2i8  UNGULATES. 

istic  of  the  Tibetan  argali  is  but  little  developed,  or  absent ;  and  the  light  patch  on 
the  rump  is  indistinct.  The  massive  and  closely- wrinkled  horns  of  the  rams  are 
light  brown  in  colour,  with  their  edges  much  rounded,  and  their  lateral  surfaces 
considerably  deeper  than  the  one  in  front ;  they  form  a  spiral  curve,  with  the  tips 
diverging  but  slightly  outwards,  and  the  whole  twist  falling  somewhat  short  of  a 
complete  circle.  As  in  the  American  wild  sheep,  the  horns  of  the  ewes  are  small, 
thin,  widely  separated,  and  nearly  erect,  with  a  slight  outward  and  backward 
curvatura  The  adult  ram  of  the  Tibetan  argali  stands  from  3£  to  4  feet  at  the 
shoulder ;  but  the  weight  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ascertained.  The  horns  of 
fine  specimens  generally  measure  from  36  to  40  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal 
girth  of  16  or  17  inches ;  but  these  dimensions  are  sometimes  exceeded.  The  horns 
of  a  specimen  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  have  a  length  of  47  i  and  a  girth 
of  17  inches ;  and  in  another  pair  the  length  has  been  stated  to  be  48  inches,  with 
a  girth  of  20  inches.  Some  degree  of  doubt  attaches,  however,  to  an  alleged  length 
of  53  inches,  and  a  girth  of  24  or  25  inches,  which  have  been  given  as  the  dimensions 


FRONT  AND  SIDE  VIEWS  OF  SKULL   AND   HOENS   OF  TIBETAN  AEGALI.      (From  Sir  V.  Brooke, 

Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1875.) 

of  one  example.  In  ewes  the  horns  are  seldom  more  than  18  inches,  but  it  is  stated 
that  they  may  occasionally  reach  24  inches. 

_.     .  The  ran^e  of  the  true  argali  appears  to  have  been  much  restricted 

Distribution.  . 

at  the  present  day,  owing  to  the  animal  having  been  driven  from 

many  parts  of  Northern  Siberia  by  the  Cossack  hunters.  Formerly  occurring  in 
the  Altai,  it  is  now  found  over  Northern  Mongolia,  and,  according  to  Brehm,  some 
portions  of  Southern  Siberia.  The  sheep  from  Mongolia  to  the  north  of  Pekin, 
described  as  0.  jubata,  is  probably  not  specifically  distinct  from  this  species  ;  and 
the  same  remark  will  apply  to  the  0.  nigrimontana  of  Turkestan.  The  term  argali 
is  the  Mongolian  name  of  this  sheep,  but  it  is  known  to  the  Kirghiz  as  the  arkal. 

The  Tibetan  argali  —  the  nyan  (female  nyanmo)  of  the  Ladakis  —  inhabits  the 
Tibetan  plateau  from  Northern  Ladak  to  the  districts  northwards  of  Sikhim,  and 
probably  still  farther  to  the  east.  It  is  unknown  to  the  southward  of  the  main 
axis  of  the  Himalaya,  and  in  summer  does  not  descend  below  an  elevation  of  fifteen 
thousand  feet,  but  in  winter  may  occasionally  come  as  low  as  twelve  thousand  feet. 
^rue  arali  is  stated  to  inhabit  mountains  at  an  elevation  of 


Habits 

from  three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  which  have  an 

abundance  of  naked  rocks,  but  have  their  slopes  thinly  covered  with  forest,  and 


SHEEP.  219 

their  valleys  wide  and  open.  Here  these  sheep  dwell  throughout  the  year, 
rarely  travelling  from  one  mountain  range  to  another ;  a  single  flock,  when  undis- 
turbed, frequently  inhabiting  one  and  the  same  mountain  for  many  successive  years. 
Up  to  the  breeding-season  the  rams  and  ewes  keep  separate  from  one  another,  the 
former  generally  going  in  parties  of  from  three  to  five  individuals,  while  the  latter 
are  found  singly ;  but  shortly  before  that  time  the  two  sexes  assemble  together  in 
flocks  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  number.  They  appear  to  be  essentially  diurnal  in 
their  habits,  feeding  in  the  morning  and  evening  on  the  mountain  slopes  and 
valleys,  and  retiring  to  rest  about  midday.  Both  when  feeding  and  sleeping, 
sentinels  are  placed  to  warn  the  flock  of  danger.  In  summer  the  argalis  feed  on 
grass  and  various  herbs,  but  in  winter  they  are  compelled  to  subsist  on  moss,  lichen, 
and  dry  grass.  At  such  seasons  they  resort  to  the  more  exposed  portions  of  the 
mountains,  as  it  is  there  only  that  the  wind  has  blown  away  the  snow  from  the 
lichens  and  other  herbage.  According  to  Prejewalski,  the  pairing-season  of  the 
argalis  in  Mongolia  is  in  the  month  of  August ;  but  Brehm  was  informed  by  the 
Kirghis  that  in  Southern  Siberia  it  does  not  take  place  till  October.  The  younger 
ewes  almost  invariably  give  birth  to  only  a  single  lamb  at  a  time,  but  the  older 
ones  frequently  have  two. 

As  with  the  American  wild  sheep,  it  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  the 
argali  when  taking  a  long  leap  will  break  its  fall  by  alighting  on  its  horns.  In 
both  instances  this  statement  has  however  been  contradicted  by  the  most  reliable 
authorities.  Prejewalski  states  he  has  seen  these  sheep  leap  down  from  a  height 
of  from  eighteen  to  thirty  feet  and  alight  on  their  feet  without  harm. 

The  country  inhabited  by  the  Tibetan  argali  is  of  the  most  barren  and  desolate 
nature,  scorched  in  summer  during  the  day  by  the  untempered  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
swept  during  the  night  and  throughout  the  winter  by  blasts  of  icy  coldness.  For 
days  the  traveller  may  journey  through  these  arid  regions  without  seeing  a  trace 
of  a  bush,  although  he  may  here  and  there  come  across  some  low  bush-jungle  in 
the  more  sheltered  valleys.  As  a  rule,  the  elevations  are  undulating  and  shelving, 
and  the  valleys  wide  and  open.  In  such  exposed  situations  animals  naturally 
become  extremely  wary,  but  this  wariness  is  carried  to  the  highest  degree  in  the 
rams  of  the  present  species,  which  are  considered  by  General  Kinloch  to  be  more 
difficult  to  stalk  than  any  other  kind  of  Indian  or  Tibetan  game.  The  females  and 
young  rams,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  difficult  to  approach,  and  in  Ladak  may  not 
unfrequently  be  met  with  in  considerable  numbers.  In  spite,  however,  of  their 
general  wariness,  adult  rams  will  occasionally  approach  within  rifle-shot;  the 
present  writer  on  one  occasion  having  seen  a  ram  accompanied  by  two  ewes  cross 
a  pass  and  deliberately  descend  the  valley  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  spot 
where  he  himself  was  lying  concealed.  During  the  summer  the  old  rams  are 
generally  found  in  small  parties  of  from  three  to  four  to  upwards  of  some  fifteen 
individuals  of  their  own  sex,  and  quite  apart  from  the  ewes;  but  the  above- 
mentioned  instance  shows  that  they  may  occasionally  be  accompanied  by  them. 
The  breeding-season  is  in  the  winter,  when  these  sheep  collect  in  the  lower  and 
more  sheltered  valleys ;  and  the  young  are  born  in  May  or  June.  The  flesh  of  the 
nyan,  as  the  author  can  testify  from  personal  experience,  is  most  excellent,  being 
dark-coloured,  fine-grained,  and  well-flavoured.  In  Ladak  the  chief  haunts  of  this 


220  UNGULATES. 

splendid  sheep  are  the  Chang-Chenmo  valley  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Pang- 
kong  lake,  and  thence  into  Chinese  Tibet.  A  wild  hybrid  between  a  male  of  this 
sheep  and  a  female  of  the  under-mentioned  urial,  was  shot  in  Zanskar,  and  described 
as  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of  0.  brookei  ;  while  there  is  also  a  record  of 
a  hybrid  between  the  male  urial  and  the  female  nyan. 

A  fossil  argali  occurs  in  the  forest-bed  of  the  Norfolk  coast,  and 
remains  of  other  species  have  been  obtained  from   the  superficial 
deposit  of  the  continent. 

THE  PAMIR  WILD  SHEEP  (Ovis  poli). 

Although  discovered  by  the  great  Venetian  traveller  as  long  ago  as  the  latter 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  only  since  the  year  1873  that  the  great  Pamir 
wild  sheep  has  been  fully  known  to  science.  In  that  year  it  was  described  by  the 
Eussian  naturalist  Severtzoff,  under  the  name  of  Karelin's  sheep  (0.  karelini); 
while  specimens  of  the  skin  and  horns  obtained  during  the  second  expedition  to 
Yarkand,  under  the  late  Sir  Douglas  Forsyth  in  1873-74,  were  soon  afterwards 
received  in  England.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  species  was  named  by  Mr.  E. 
Blyth  in  1840,  but  it  was  then  only  very  imperfectly  known.  Since  1873  our 
knowledge  has  advanced  rapidly;  and  this  magnificent  sheep  has  been  shot  by 
two  Englishmen — Mr.  St.  George  Littledale  and  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland — who 
travelled  to  the  Pamir  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  skins  and  horns. 

The  Pamir  sheep,  although  furnished  with  longer  horns,  does  not  appear  to 
attain  quite  such  large  dimensions  as  the  Tibetan  argali,  from  which  it  is  mainly 
distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  horns,  and  also  by  coloration.  In  the  male  the 
horns,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  are  seen  to  form  a  spiral  of  about  a  circle  and 
a  quarter ;  and  when  adult  they  are  much  longer  than  those  of  the  argali,  but  are 
less  massive  at  the  base.  In  fine  specimens  the  horns  may  measure  from  50  to  60 
inches  in  length  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  about  15  inches ;  a  specimen 
has,  however,  been  recorded  measuring  63  inches  in  length,  while  one  pair  attained 
the  enormous  length  of  73  inches,  with  a  basal  girth  of  16f  inches ;  and  another 
75  inches,  with  a  girth  of  1J  inches.  Females,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  have 
small  upright  horns  like  those  of  the  female  argali.  The  colour  of  the  fur  on  the 
upper-parts  of  the  rams  is  light  brown,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  reddish  tinge ; 
but  there  is  a  dark  line  of  longer  hair  extending  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the 
withers,  which  in  the  female  is  sometimes  continued  as  a  stripe  down  the  back. 
The  muzzle,  together  with  the  fore-part  of  the  neck,  the  chest,  the  under-parts,  the 
rump  inclusive  of  the  tail,  and  the  legs,  are  white.  The  patch  of  white  on  the 
rump  is  of  irregular  contour ;  and  sometimes,  as  in  our  figure,  there  may  be  a  small 
black  mark  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail.  In  summer  it  is  probable,  according 
to  Mr.  Blanford,  that  the  colour  is  darker  and  browner.  The  ewes  differ  by  the 
absence  of  any  white  on  the  throat.  In  addition  to  the  long  hairs  on  the  nape  of 
the  neck,  the  old  males  have  a  more  or  less  marked  ruff'  on  the  throat.  In  an  adult 
male  measured  by  Mr.  Blanford,  in  which  the  horns  had  a  length  of  48  inches,  the 
height  at  the  withers  was  3  feet  8  inches,  and  the  length  from  the  horns  to  the  tip 
of  the  tail  5  feet  2  inches,  of  which  5|  inches  was  taken  up  by  the  tail  itself.  As 


SHEEP. 


221 


is  the  case  with  the  argali,  the  ewes  are  but  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  rams. 
Dr.  Severtzow  estimates  that  an  adult  ram  would  weigh  about  500  Ibs. 

To  support  the  enormous  weight  of  the  horns  great  strength  in  the  neck  and 
fore-parts  of  the  rams  is  essential ;  and  this  is  afforded  by  the  great  depth  of  the 
neck  and  chest,  as  is  well  shown  in  our  illustration. 

The  Pamir  sheep  takes  its  name  from  inhabiting  the  elevated 
district  in  Central  Asia  known  as  the  Pamirs,  or  "  Roof  of  the  World." 
It  is  also  found  on  the  table-lands  to  the  westward  and  northward  of   Eastern 


Distribution. 


THE   PAMIR  WILD   SHEEP  (fa  nat.  size). 


Turkestan ;  while  its  range  extends  northwards  across  the  Thian  Shan  range  to 
the  Semiretchinsk  Altai.  It  has  been  obtained  from  the  head-waters  of  the  Amu 
Darya,  and  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Gobi  desert ;  while  to  the  westward  it 
extends  as  far  south  as  the  Shimshal  Pamir  just  north  of  Gilgit,  and  thus  comes 
within  the  limits  of  the  territory  under  the  influence  of  the  Government  of  India. 
On  the  average,  this  sheep  may  be  said  to  live  at  an  elevation  of  about  twelve 


222  UNGULATES. 

thousand  feet,  but  in  some  districts  it  ascends  higher,  while  in  others  it  is  found 
at  much  lower  levels. 

The  typical  and  larger  form  of  this  sheep  is  the  one  inhabiting  the  Pamirs, 
while  the  rather  smaller  variety  described  as  0.  karelini  is  from  the  Thian  Shan ; 
it  has  been  shown,  however,  that  the  one  form  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  other. 
A  sheep  described  by  Dr.  Severtzow,  under  the  name  of  0.  heinsi,  is  probably  also 
not  specifically  separable. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Wakhan  the  rams  of  the  Pamir  sheep  are  known  by 
the  name  of  kuchkar,  while  the  ewes  are  termed  mesh ;  but  in  the  Turki  language, 
as  spoken  in  Eastern  Turkestan,  the  males  are  called  kulja  or  gulja,  and  the 
females  arkar. 

The  habits  of  this  sheep  appear  to  be  almost  or  exactly  similar 

to  those  of  the  Tibetan  argali.     It  inhabits,  however,  a  far  less  barren 

country  than  the  latter;  the  undulating  slopes  of  the  Pamirs  being  covered  in 

summer  with  a  continuous  carpet  of  rich  grass.     The  breeding-season  of  this  species 


SKULL  AND  HORNS  OF  PAMIR  SHEEP.    (From  Sir  V.  Brooke,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1875.) 

occurs  in  the  winter,  during  the  months  of  December  and  January ;  and  at  that 
period  some  of  the  herds  may  be  very  large. 

Describing  the  nature  of  the  country  inhabited  by  the  Pamir  sheep,  Col.  H. 
Trotter,  who  was  attached  to  the  expedition  under  Sir  D.  Forsyth,  observes  that 
after  passing  a  place  called  Chakmak,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Thian  Shan 
range,  the  road  for  twenty-five  miles  "  continues  gently  ascending  along  the  course 
of  the  frozen  stream,  passing  through  volcanic  rocks  to  Turgat  Bela,  a  little  short 
of  which  the  country  alters,  and  the  precipitous  hills  are  replaced  by  gently  un- 
dulating grassy  slopes,  abounding  with  the  0.  poli.  These  extensive  grassy  slopes, 
somewhat  resembling  the  English  downs,  are  a  very  curious  feature  of  the  country, 
and  not  only  attract  the  Kirghiz  as  grazing-grounds  for  their  cattle,  but  are  equally 
sought  after  by  the  large  herds  of  gulja,  in  one  of  which  Dr.  Stoliczka  counted  no 
less  than  eighty-five." 

In  the  Semiretchinsk  Altai,  according  to  Dr.  Severtzow,  these  sheep  are  found 
wherever  there  are  good  meadows  and  rocky  places,  at  elevations  of  two  thousand, 
or  three  thousand  feet ;  and  the  same  writer  states  that  owing  to  the  open  nature  of 
the  country,  and  the  good  grazing-grounds  which  they  frequent,  they  are  more 
easily  driven  from  their  haunts  by  the  Kirghiz  than  are  the  ibex,  which  inhabit 
rocky  and  less  accessible  regions.  In  other  parts  of  the  Thian  Shan,  as  the  upper 


SHEEP.  223 

Naria  valley,  these  sheep  are  found  in  summer  at  elevations  of  ten  thousand  or 
even  twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

THE  URIAL  OR  SHA  (Ovis  vignei). 

The  Asiatic  wild  sheep  known  in  the  Punjab  as  the  urial,  but  in  Ladak  as  the 
sha,  belongs  to  a  group  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  species  by  their 
smaller  size  and  less  massive  horns.  It  was  long  considered  that  the  urial  of  the 
Punjab  and  other  districts  of  North- Western  India  was  specifically  distinct  from 
the  sha  of  Ladak,  but  the  investigations  of  Mr.  Blanford  have  shown  that  the  two 
forms  pass  into  one  another,  and  must  consequently  be  regarded  merely  as  varieties 
of  a  single  species. 

The  typical  urial  of  the  Punjab  stands  about  2  feet  8  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder,  but  the  Ladak  variety  is  rather  taller,  its  height  being  as  much  as  3  feet, 
or  even,  it  is  said,  rather  more.  The  horns  are  strongly  wrinkled,  and  have  their 
lateral  surfaces  not  much  broader  than  the  front  one ;  while  their  outer  front  angle 
is  much  more  rounded  off  than  in  the  argali.  The  two  horns  rise  very  close 
together,  and  curve  round  in  a  regular  circular  sweep,  sometimes  keeping 
almost  entirely  in  the  same  plane,  but  at  others  forming  a  spiral ;  their  curve 
very  seldom  exceeding  one  complete  circle.  In  the  ewes  the  horns  are 
very  short,  and  nearly  straight.  The  average  length  of  the  horns  of  the 
rams  varies  from  24  to  30  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  about 
10  inches ;  but  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  a  specimen  has  been  obtained  in  which  the 
length  of  the  horns  was  upwards  of  37|  inches,  and  their  basal  girth  11£  inches. 
In  the  sha  or  Ladak  variety  the  horns  are  generally  thicker  at  the  base  than  in  the 
true  urial,  their  basal  girth  in  some  instances  varying  between  11  and  12  inches, 
whereas  in  the  latter  it  does  not  exceed  10  inches ;  the  horns  frequently,  moreover, 
form  a  wider  circle,  and  their  outer  front  edge  is  still  more  rounded  oft! 

The  adult  ram  of  the  urial  is  characterised  by  having  a  large  ruff  of  long  hair 
on  the  throat,  commencing  on  either  side  of  the  chin  in  two  distinct  moieties, 
which  soon  unite  and  extend  down  the  throat  to  the  chest.  In  the  Ladak  variety 
the  ruff  is  generally  much  less  developed.  In  colour  the  fur  of  the  urial  is  rufous 
grey  or  fawn  on  the  upper-parts  in  the  summer  dress,  but  in  winter  becomes 
greyish  brown ;  the  under-parts,  together  with  the  rump,  tail,  and  legs,  are  whitish ; 
while  in  old  rams  the  ruff  is  generally  white  in  front,  passing  behind  into  black, 
although  in  some  cases  it  may  be  entirely  black.  There  is  a  dark  brown  or  black 
patch  behind  the  shoulder ;  and  sometimes  a  blackish  line  dividing  the  white  of 
the  under-parts  from  the  darker  area,  as  well  as  blackish  markings  on  the  limbs. 
The  ewes  and  young  rams  are  of  a  uniform  greyish  brown  colour. 
Distrib  f  ^^  geographical  range  of  the  urial  is  more  extensive  than  that 

of  any  other  Old  World  sheep,  and  includes  districts  with  exceed- 
ingly different  climatic  conditions.  The  large  variety  known  as  the  sha  extends 
from  Northern  Tibet  through  Ladak  and  Zanskar,  where  it  is  generally  found  at 
elevations  of  from  twelve  thousand  to  fourteen  thousand  feet,  through  Astor  and 
Gilgit  (where  it  is  locally  known  as  the  uria)  to  Afghanistan.  The  true  urial 
inhabits  the  Salt  range  of  the  Punjab,  the  Suliman  range,  the  Hazara  hills,  and 


224  UNGULATES. 

the  neighbourhood  of  Peshawur,  whence  it  ranges  all  through  Sind,  Baluchistan, 
and  Afghanistan  into  Eastern  Persia.  The  variety  found  in  Baluchistan  and 
Kelat  is  characterised  by  the  very  open  spiral  formed  by  the  horns,  so  that  the 
tips  diverge  much  more  than  usual ;  this  variety  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a 
distinct  species  under  the  name  of  0.  blanfordi. 

Regarding  the  different  habitats  of  the  urial,  Mr.  Blanford 
observes  that  in  Ladak  this  sheep  inhabits  open  valleys;  in  Astor 
and  Gilgit  it  keeps  to  grassy  ground  at  moderate  elevations  below  the  forest ;  in 
the  Salt  range  of  the  Punjab,  and  in  Sind,  Baluchistan,  and  Persia,  it  is  found  on 
undulating  or  hilly  ground  cut  up  by  ravines,  and  is  more  often  seen  on  stony  and 
rocky  hillsides  than  amongst  bushes  and  scrub.  The  herds  vary  usually  from 
three  or  four  to  twenty  or  thirty  in  number ;  the  sexes  are  generally  together,  but 
the  males  often  keep  apart  in  summer.  These  sheep  are  wary  and  active ;  although 
not  such  masters  of  the  art  of  climbing  amongst  precipices  as  the  goats,  tahr,  or 
bharal,  they  get  over  steep  places  with  wonderful  ease.  Their  alarm-cry  is  a  shrill 
whistle,  their  usual  call  a  kind  of  bleat.  In  the  Punjab  the  breeding-season  is  in 
September,  but  it  must  be  considerably  later  in  Astor,  where  the  lambs  are  born 
early  in  June.  There  are  either  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth ;  and  the  species  will 
freely  interbreed  with  domestic  sheep.  The  Punjab  and  Sind  urial  inhabits  a 
hotter  area  than  any  other  species  of  wild  sheep ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  a 
single  species  should  have  been  able  to  adapt  itself  to  climates  so  different  from  one 
another  as  are  those  of  the  Punjab  and  Ladak. 

In  the  Salt  range  of  the  Punjab  the  urial  may  occasionally  be  seen  grazing 
with  domestic  sheep ;  but  they  are  soon  disturbed  by  the  sight  of  a  European.  The 
broken  nature  of  the  ground,  with  numerous  sharp  ridges,  separated  by  deep  and 
narrow  ravines,  renders,  however,  urial-stalking  a  comparatively  easy  sport. 

THE  ARMENIAN  AND  CYPRIAN  SHEEP  (Ovis  gmelini  and  0.  ophiori). 

The  Armenian  sheep  brings  us  to  the  first  of  a  group  of  three  comparatively 
small  species  distinguished  from  the  urial  by  the  total  absence  of  horns  in  the 
ewes,  the  want  of  a  distinct  ruff  on  the  chin  of  the  rams,  and  the  much  finer 
wrinkles  on  the  front  of  their  horns,  as  well  as  by  the  tail  being  always  dark- 
coloured.  The  Armenian  sheep,  which  inhabits  Eastern  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
is  especially  common  in  the  Cilician  Taurus,  is  the  largest  of  these  three  species, 
the  rams  generally  standing  about  2  feet  9  inches  at  the  shoulder.  The  colour  of 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body  in  the  rams  is  russet-yellow,  the  fore  portion  of  the 
head  being  whitish,  and  the  under-parts,  insides  of  the  limbs,  and  the  whole  of  the 
lower  portions  of  the  legs,  as  well  as  a  streak  on  the  buttocks,  white.  There  is  a 
dark  mark  on  the  front  of  the  fore-legs  above  the  knee,  and  the  fringe  of  long  hair 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  throat  is  also  dark,  as  is  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  horns 
have  a  peculiar  backward  and  inward  curvature,  so  as  nearly  to  meet  behind  the 
neck,  and  as  a  rule  they  do  not  exceed  26  inches  in  length,  but  a  single  pair  has 
been  recorded  measuring  upwards  of  40  inches.  The  females  have  a  characteristic 
white  saddle-mark  on  the  back. 

In  the   Troodos   mountains   of   Cyprus   this   species   is   represented  by   the 


SHEEP. 


225 


smaller  but  closely -allied  Cyprian  sheep,  which  may  indeed  be  nothing  more 
than  a  geographical  race  of  the  other,  diminished  in  size  and  modified  by  the 
small  area  of  its  habitat  and 
its  long  isolation.  This  elegant 
species  is,  indeed,  the  smallest 
of  all  the  wild  sheep,  the  rams 
standing  only  just  over  26 
inches  at  the  shoulder,  and 
their  horns  not  exceeding  23 
inches  in  length.  According 
to  Col.  J.  Biddulph,  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  typical 
form  of  the  Armenian  sheep 
by  the  horns  being  more 
slender,  with  their  outer  front 
angle  almost  completely 
obliterated,  and  their  tips 
directed  upwards  instead  of 
downwards.  The  fringe  on  the 
throat  is  also  less  developed 

and  there  is  a  much  more  distinct  dark  line  dividing  the  white  of  the  belly  from 
the  rufous  of  the  flanks.  There  is,  however,  a  variety  of  the  Armenian  sheep  in 
which  the  horns  approximate  in  form  to  those  of  this  species. 


HEAD   OF  CYPRIAN   SHEEP. 

(From  Biddulph,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1884.) 


THE  MOUFLON  (Ovis  musimon). 

The  European  mouflon,  now  confined  to  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica, 
is  the  last  member  of  the  typical  group  of  wild  sheep.  In  height  the  rams  stand 
about  27|  inches  at  the  withers;  the  build  of  the  animal  being  very  compact  and 
neat.  The  hair  is  short  and  close  on  the  body,  with  an  abundant  under- wool,  but 
in  the  rams  is  elongated  into  a  short  mane  on  the  neck  and  a  fringe  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  throat.  With  the  exception  of  a  dark  brown  line  down  the  back,  and 
a  conspicuous  light  grey  saddle-like  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  rams,  the  general 
colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  foxy  red,  passing  into  ashy  grey  on  the  head,  while  the 
muzzle,  a  streak  on  the  rump,  the  sides  of  the  tail,  the  feet,  and  portions  of  the 
lower  parts  of  the  legs,  and  the  under-part  of  the  body  are  white.  The  horns  curve 
forwards  by  the  side  of  the  face,  and  vary  in  length  from  20  to  28  and  29  inches. 

Although  reported  to  have  occurred  formerly  in  parts  of  Greece 
and  the  Balearic  Isles,  it  does  not  seem  certain  that  the  mouflon 
was  ever  an  inhabitant  of  these  countries ;  while  Brehm  is  doubtful  if  its  alleged 
former  occurrence  in  Spain  is  a  fact.  At  one  time  the  mouflon  was  extremely 
numerous  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  accounts  being  extant  of  the  slaughter  of  four 
hundred  or  five  hundred  head  during  a  single  hunt.  At  the  present  day  it  is, 
however,  far  less  numerous,  so  that  instead  of  being  met  with  in  large  flocks,  it  is 
now  only  seen  in  companies  of  from  four  to  five  up  to  seven  individuals ;  while  in 
the  largest  "  drives  "  not  more  than  forty  or  fifty  head  are  ever  killed  at  one  time. 

VOL.  IE. — 15 


Distribution. 


226 


UNGULATES. 


Habits. 


In  Sardinia  the  mouflon,  instead  of  being  found  on  all  the 
mountain  ranges,  are  restricted  to  certain  chains,  and  there  they 
frequent  only  the  highest  ridges,  generally  confining  themselves  to  such  peaks  as 
command  a  view  of  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  flocks  of  mouflon 
are  led  by  an  old  and  powerful  ram ;  but  at  the  pairing-season  the  large  flocks 
used  to  split  up  into  small  parties,  consisting  of  one  ram  and  several  ewes.  The 
rams  engage  in  fierce  conflicts  among  themselves  for  the  supremacy;  and 
during  the  months  of  December  and  January  the  mountains  re-echo  with  the 


THE  MOUFLON  (^  nat.  size). 


sound  of  the  blows  as  one  ram  rushes  against  the  head  of  another.  The  lambs  — 
either  one  or  two  at  a  birth  —  are  produced  during  April  or  May  ;  and  are  able  in  a 
few  days  to  follow  their  dams  everywhere.  Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton  states  that  the 
Sardinian  mouflon  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  animals  to  approach  with  which  he 
is  acquainted.  He  observes  that  "  when  they  are  alarmed,  or  at  '  gaze,'  they  have 
a  habit,  or  at  least  the  rams  have,  of  placing  themselves  in  the  middle  of  a  bush  of 
macquia,  or  in  the  shadow  which  it  casts.  The  ewes,  who  are  naturally  less  con- 
spicuous, do  this  in  a  less  degree.  The  mouflon  are  assisted  by  ths  wonderful 
alertness  of  their  eyes."  Later  on  Mr.  Buxton  writes  that  "  one  of  their  favourite 


SHEEP.  227 

devices  is  to  seek  for  spots  on  the  lee-side  of  a  ridge  where  the  currents  of  air  meet. 
Here,  in  otherwise  favourable  positions,  they  are  quite  unapproachable."  Occa- 
sionally wild  mouflon  will  desert  their  own  kin  to  live  among  tame  sheep ;  while 
sometimes  also  a  motherless  domestic  lamb  has  been  known  to  seek  companionship 
among  a  flock  of  mouflon.  Evidently,  therefore,  the  wild  sheep  are  very  closely 
related  to  our  domesticated  breeds. 

DOMESTIC  SHEEP  (Ovis  aries). 

Although  from  the  similarity  in  the  form  and  structure  of  their  horns  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  domestic  races  of  sheep  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
mouflon,  Armenian  wild  sheep,  and  urial,  than  to  those  mentioned  hereafter,  yet 
we  are  at  present  quite  in  the  dark  as  to  their  origin ;  and  it  is  an  open  question 
whether  we  ought  to  regard  the  various  domesticated  breeds  as  derived  from  a 
single,  or  from  several,  original  wild  stocks.  The  most  important  features  by  which 
most  domestic  races  of  sheep  differ  from  their  wild  cousins  are  the  length  of  the 
tail,  and  the  substitution  of  a  coat  of  wool  for  one  of  hair.  No  wild  sheep  except 
the  under-mentioned  Barbary  sheep,  which  has  horns  of  a  totally  different  type,  is 
furnished  with  a  long  tail ;  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  long  tails  of  the 
domestic  breeds  are  due  to  a  kind  of  degeneracy,  although,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  this  does  not  much  advance  matters.  Unfortunately,  geology  does  not  help 
us  much  in  this  investigation ;  although  it  is  ascertained  that  the  inhabitants  of 
the  ancient  Swiss  lake-villages  were  possessed  of  a  breed  of  sheep  characterised  by 
their  small  size,  long  thin  legs,  and  goat-like  horns. 

Domestic  sheep  vary  greatly  in  the  character  of  their  horns.  Thus  while  in 
the  Dorset  breed  these  appendages  are  present  in  both  sexes,  and  of  nearly  equal 
size  in  each,  in  some  forms  only  the  males  are  provided  with  horns,  while  in  other 
breeds,  like  the  Southdown,  they  are  absent  in  both  sexes.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  a  tendency  among  some  breeds  to  produce  additional  pairs  of  horns,  so 
that  we  may  have  four-horned,  and  even  eight-horned,  sheep.  When  there  is  more 
than  one  pair  of  horns,  they  arise  from  a  peculiar  elevated  crest  on  the  frontal 
bones.  In  the  Wallachian  breed  the  horns  of  the  rams,  as  Mr.  Youatt  remarks, 
spring  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  frontal  bone,  and  then  take  a  beautiful 
spiral  form ;  in  the  ewes  they  protrude  nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  and 
then  become  twisted  in  a  singular  manner. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  types  of  domestic  sheep  is  character- 
Flat-tailed  Sheep. .  *•  *• 

ised   by   the   tail   being   flattened,   and   either   of    great   length   or 

abnormally  shortened.  It  has  been  considered  that  these  sheep  indicated  a  distinct 
aboriginal  form,  but  against  this  view  may  be  quoted  Mr.  Darwin's  observation 
that  their  drooping  ears  are  indicative  of  long  domestication.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  nature  of  the  pelage  in  the  Eastern  and  Ethiopian  varieties  of  these  breeds,  is 
suggestive  of  a  more  intimate  relationship  with  a  wild  ancestral  stock. 

In  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  parts  of  Arabia,  the  flat-tailed  sheep  have  their 
tails  of  enormous  size,  sometimes  reaching  a  weight  of  from  40  to  50  Ibs.  So 
long,  indeed,  is  the  tail,  that  it  actually  trails  upon  the  ground,  and  is  frequently 
supported  by  little  sledges  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  incommoding  its  owner. 


228 


UNGULATES. 


On  the  other  hand,  in  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  such 
as  Persia  and  many  parts  of  Central  Asia,  as  well  as  in  North-Eastern  Central 
Africa,  we  find  that  the  flat  tail  becomes  short  or  rudimentary,  and  the  fat 
accumulates  on  either  side  of  the  haunches  in  two  great  protuberances.  Hence  this 
breed  is  designated  0.  aries  steatopyga.  This  breed,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  is 
of  large  size,  and  differs  from  most  domesticated  sheep  in  its  completely  hairy 


THE    BLACK-HEADED   SHEEl'  (^  liat.  size). 

pelage.  The  coat  of  the  adult  resembles,  indeed,  very  closely  that  of  many  wild 
sheep,  generally  consisting  of  short  and  close  hair,  and  yielding  no  wool  capable  of 
being  spun  or  woven.  The  lambs  have,  however,  a  perfectly  woolly  coat.  In 
Abyssinia  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  the  fat-tailed  sheep  kept  in  the  highlands  differ 
from  the  ordinary  breed  in  being  covered  with  wool.  They  have  also  frequently 
well-developed  and  handsomely-curled  horns.  In  our  figured  example  of  the  hairy 
breed  of  these  sheep,  the  hair  is  white  on  the  body  but  black  on  the  head  and  front 
part  of  the  neck.  The  horns  are  small  and  curved.  These  sheep  are  kept  in  great 


SHEEP.  229 

numbers  by  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  Asiatic  steppes;  some  preferring  those 
which  are  entirely  black,  while  others  cultivate  a  pure  white  breed.  A  large 
number  of  lambs  of  the  black  breed  are  killed  at  a  very  early  age  for  the  sake  of 
their  skins,  which  are  covered  with  fine  curly  wool,  and  constitute  the  astrachan  of 
commerce. 

The  Fezzan  sheep,  which  is  brown  and  white  in  colour  and  has  a  long  and 
round  tail,  has  the  pelage  entirely  in  the  form  of  hair. 

It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  at  our  disposal  to  mention  the  various 
breeds  of  round-tailed  domestic  sheep  met  with  in  various  parts  of  the  world ;  and 
we  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  a  brief  mention  of  those  cultivated  in 
the  British  Islands. 

The  Shetland  and  Orkney  breeds  are  characterised  by  their  fleece 

'  being  composed  of  fine  soft  wool  largely  intermixed  with  hair.     They 

are  of  small  size  and  hardy  disposition,  with  horns  frequently  present  in  both 

sexes,  although  often  wanting  in  the  ewes ;  and  their  colour  may  be  either  black, 

brown,  grey,  or  white. 

The  older  soft-woolled  sheep  of   Scotland   are   a   small-horned 
breed,  with  lank  bodies  and  short  wool,  which  is  deficient  in  the 
property  of  felting.     They  are  nearly  extinct. 

Of  the  Welsh  sheep  there  are  two  races,  both  of  small  size.  The 
first  is  the  higher  mountain-breed,  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
horns  in  both  sexes,  their  generally  dark  colour,  and  the  intermixture  of  a  large 
proportion  of  hair  among  their  soft  wool.  The  second  breed  is  hornless,  with  soft 
wool,  which  is  deficient  in  the  property  of  felting.  These  sheep  are  hardy,  and 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  flesh ;  when  removed  from  their  native  pastures 
they  are  impatient  of  restraint. 

The  Irish  Wicklow  sheep  were  almost  identical  with  the  Welsh 
Irish  Breeds. 

mountain  sheep,  but  have  been  much  altered  by  crossing.     There  are, 

however,  several  other  Irish  breeds,  among  which  the  Kerry  is  the  best  known. 
These  are  larger  than  the  Welsh  sheep,  with  the  horns  frequently  absent  in  the 
ewes,  and  the  fleece  moderately  soft,  but  irregular,  and  mixed  with  hair.  They  are 
late  in  reaching  maturity,  and  wild  in  disposition. 

The  black-faced  Heath  breed,  which  are  natives  of  the  chain  of 
Heath  Breed. 

mountains  and  moors  extending  northwards  from  Derbyshire,  are  the 
hardiest  and  boldest  of  all  the  British  races.  Both  sexes  are  horned,  and  their 
faces  and  limbs  are  dark-coloured,  and  their  fleeces  coarse  and  shaggy.  When 
taken  to  lower  grounds,  their  wool  becomes  finer. 

.  The  Cheviot  breed,  originally  confined  to  a  small  tract  of  grassy 

hills  in  the  north  of  England,  are  rather  heavier,  although  less  robust 
than  the  last.  Both  sexes  are  hornless,  their  faces  and  limbs  are  white,  and  they 
produce  wool  of  moderate  fineness. 

The   old  Norfolk    breed,   of  the   eastern  counties   of  England, 

are  strong  and  active  sheep,  with  horns  in  both  sexes,  which  are 
thick  and  spiral  in  the  rams.  The  body  and  limbs  are  long,  the  head  carried  is 
high,  and  the  face  and  legs  are  black;  while  the  wool  is  silky  and  of  medium 
length. 


23o  UNGULATES. 

The  Dartmoor  and  Exmoor  sheep  may  be  taken  as  samples  of 

the  breeds  of  the  older  forests,  commons,  and  chases.     They  frequently 

have  dark  or  grey  faces  and  limbs,  and  may  be  with  or  without  horns ;  while  their 

size  is  small.     The  two  races  mentioned  differ  from  the  others  in  having  wool  of 

medium  length,  instead  of  extreme  shortness. 

The  well-known  Southdown  breed,  derived  from  the  chalk  hills 

of  Sussex,  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  horns,  their  dark  brown 

faces,  ears,  and  limbs,  and  their  short  felting  wool.     Their  size  and  weight  are 


HEAD   OF   MERINO    RAM. 


subject  to  local  variation ;  but  their  heads  are  always  comparatively  small,  their 
lower  jaws  thin  and  fine,  and  the  space  between  their  ears  well  covered  with  wool. 
A  good  Southdown  carries  more  meat  in  proportion  to  offal  than  does  any  other  of 
the  short-woolled  varieties. 

The  Dorset  and  pink-nosed  Somerset  breed,  are  indigenous  to 
Dorsets.  ' 

the  south-west  of  England,  and  are  easily  recognised  by  their  long 

limbs,  the  presence  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  and  their  white  limbs  and  faces,  the 
muzzle  being  often  flesh-coloured.  The  wool  is  of  medium  length,  and  the  lambs 
are  produced  unusually  early.  There  is  a  variety  of  the  Dorset  breed  in  Dean 
Forest  and  on  the  Mendip  Hills,  small,  compact  animals  that  thrive  on  the  poorest 
soil.  The  Portland  sheep  are  an  allied  but  smaller  breed. 

Merino  ^ne  sma^  merino  sheep,  in  which  the  males  have  long  spiral 

horns    while    the   females   are   usually   hornless,   may   have    either 

white  or  grey  faces  and  limbs,  and  are  distinguished  from  all  other  breeds  by  the 

great  length  and  fineness  of  their  wool.    Originally  a  native  of  Spain,  the  breed  has 


SHEEP.  231 

spread  over  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  has  been  introduced  into  South  Africa, 
America,  and  Australia;  but,  for  several  reasons,  has  not  found  much  favour 
with  English  farmers. 

Long-woolled  Finally,   we   have   the   various   strains   of   long-woolled   sheep, 

Breeds.  under  which  heading  are  comprised  the  new  Leicester,  and  the 
varieties  more  or  less  intermixed  with  it  in  blood,  such  as  the  Lincolnshire,  the 
Romney  Marsh,  the  Cotswold,  the  Devonshire,  the  Notts,  and  the  long-woolled  Irish 
breeds.  They  are  all  of  large  size,  destitute  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  and  bear  long 
wool,  which,  while  unsuitable  for  felting,  is  eminently  adapted  for  the  manufacture 
of  worsted  yarn.  These  sheep  are  stated  by  Mr.  Low  to  be  "more  especially 
adapted  to  the  plains  and  the  districts  where  artificial  food  can  be  reared  in  the 
necessary  quantity.  They  have  been  continually  increasing  in  number  with  the 
extension  of  tillage  and  the  general  improvement  of  agriculture.  Of  the  several 
varieties,  the  new  Leicester  breed  occupies  the  first  class  with  respect  to  form,  and 
the  aptitude  to  fatten  readily." 

THE  BHARAL  (Ovis  nahura). 

With  the  bharal,  or  blue  sheep  of  Tibet,  we  come  to  the  first  of  two  wild 
species  differing  markedly  from  all  the  others  in  the  characters  of  their  horns  and 
skulls,  and  approximating  in  these  respects  to  the  goats.  As  regards  the  horns,  the 
male  bharal  has  these  appendages  nearly  smooth,  and  rounded  or  subquadrangular 
at  the  base,  while  their  curvature  assimilates  more  to  a  letter  S  than  to  the  spiral 
characteristic  of  the  typical  sheep.  They  are  marked  with  fine  transverse  strise, 
and  rise  very  close  together  on  the  head;  their  direction  is  outwards,  at  first 
upwards,  then  downwards,  and  at  the  extremities  backwards.  The  females  have 
short  horns,  curving  upwards  and  outwards.  There  is  no  gland  on  the  face,  and 
consequently  no  pit  in  the  skull  below  the  eye.  The  tail  is  relatively  longer  than 
in  any  of  the  wild  species  yet  noticed.  The  fur  is  of  uniform  length  throughout, 
without  any  trace  of  a  mane  on  the  neck  or  fringe  on  the  throat,  and  is  remarkable 
for  its  smoothness  and  compactness.  As  regards  coloration,  the  adult  male  bharal 
is  a  decidedly  striking  animal.  Thus,  whereas  the  general  colour  of  the  upper- 
parts  is  brownish  grey,  becoming  more  distinctly  brown  in  summer,  and  tending  to 
slaty  grey  in  winter,  the  under-parts,  the  inside  and  back  of  the  limbs,  as  well  as 
the  rump  so  far  as  the  root  of  the  tail,  are  white.  The  front  of  the  face,  the 
chest,  a  stripe  down  the  front  of  the  limbs,  interrupted  by  white  at  the  knees,  and 
a  stripe  along  the  side  dividing  the  white  of  the  belly  from  the  dark  of  the  upper- 
parts,  as  well  as  the  last  two-thirds  of  the  tail,  are  black.  The  black  markings 
on  the  face,  chest,  and  flanks,  are  wanting  in  the  females. 

The  male  bharal  stands  about  3  feet  in  height  at  the  withers,  and  good-sized 
horns  have  a  length  of  24  or  26  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  some 
11  inches.  Specimens  have,  however,  been  recorded  measuring  30|  and  32  inches  in 
length,  and  13  inches  in  girth.  The  female  bharal  is  altogether  a  smaller  animal. 

The  bharal  is  essentially  -a  Tibetan  species,  ranging,  according  to 

Mr.  Blanford,  from  near  Shigar  in  Baltistan  and  the  neighbourhood 

of  Sangu,  south-east  of  Yarkand,  as  far  eastwards  as  Moupin  in  Eastern  Tibet ; 


232  UNGULATES. 

while  in  a  north  and  south  direction  it  embraces  the  area  lying  between  the  main 
axis  of  the  Himalaya  (or  a  few  of  the  higher  ranges  to  the  south)  and  the  Kuen- 
Lun  and  Altyn  Tagh  ranges. 

Structurally  the  bharal  is  as  much  a  goat  as  a  sheep,  but  in  the 

absence  of  a  beard  and  of  a  strong  odour  in  the  rams,  as  well  as  in 
general  appearance,  it  is  more  like  a  sheep,  and  is  consequently  placed  in  the  same 
genus.  It  exhibits,  however,  a  marked  difference  from  other  species  of  the  same 
general  size  in  refusing  to  breed  with  domestic  sheep ;  and  its  relationship  to  the 
goats  is  so  strong  that,  were  it  not  for  convenience,  there  are  considerable  grounds 
for  including  both  sheep  and  goats  in  a  single  genus. 

In  conformity  with  its  structure,  the  bharal,  as  Mr.  Blanford 

remarks,  is  intermediate  in  its  habits  between  the  sheep  and  the 
goats.  Like  the  former  it  is  found  on  undulating  ground,  and  frequently  lies  down 
during  the  day  on  its  feeding-ground,  though  generally  amongst  stones ;  but,  like 
the  latter,  it  is  a  splendid  climber,  perfectly  at  home  on  precipitous  cliffs,  and  wont, 
when  alarmed,  to  take  refuge  in  ground  inaccessible  to  man.  It  is  found  in  herds 
of  from  eight  or  ten  to  fifty  or  even  a  hundred ;  the  males  and  females  being 
generally  found  apart  in  the  summer,  but  frequently  associating  together  at  all 
seasons.  The  herds  keep  to  high  open  ground  above  forest  and  never  even  enter 
bush.  They  feed  and  rest  alternately  during  the  day.  Owing  to  their  colour  it  is 
peculiarly  difficult  to  make  them  out  when  they  are  lying  down  amongst  stones." 
It  appears  that  these  animals  are  never  found  below  an  elevation  of  ten  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  while  in  summer  they  range  up  to  fourteen  thousand  and 
sixteen  thousand  feet.  Bharal  are  by  no  means  difficult  of  approach  in  districts 
where  they  have  not  been  much  disturbed,  and  on  one  occasion  in  Ladak  the 
present  writer  came  suddenly  upon  a  flock  of  five  rams  lying  asleep  in  an  un- 
frequented path.  They  are  generally  well  represented  in  the  Gardens  of  the 
London  Zoological  Society,  where  they  have  bred  freely. 

THE  BARBARY  SHEEP  (Ovis  tragelaphus). 

The  Barbary,  or  maned  sheep,  which  is  the  only  wild  representative  of  the 
group  met  with  in  Africa,  while  agreeing  with  the  bharal  in  the  general  character 
of  its  horns  and  skull,  is  distinguished  by  the  great  mass  of  long  hair  clothing  the 
throat,  chest,  and  fore-limbs,  and  likewise  by  the  great  length  of  the  thickly- 
haired  tail,  which  reaches  slightly  below  the  hocks.  Although  commonly  referred 
to  in  works  of  natural  history  under  the  name  of  aoudad,  it  does  not  appear  that 
this  title  is  recognised  by  the  inhabitants  of  its  native  country,  to  whom  this  sheep 
is  known  as  the  arui. 

The  Barbary  sheep  attains  a  height  of  rather  over  3  feet,  and  is  of  a  nearly 
uniform  pale  rufous  yellow  colour,  with  the  individual  hairs  differently  coloured  in 
different  parts  of  their  lengths.  The  females  are  distinguished  from  the  males  by 
the  much  shorter  hair  on  the  fore-quarters,  but  have  horns  nearly  or  quite 
so  long.  The  horns  do  not  generally  exceed  25  inches  in  length,  but  may  reach 
26  or  a  little  more,  and  although  finely  wrinkled  in  the  young  are  nearly 
smooth  in  the  adult. 


ifl 


m 


L.   ^ 


SHEEP. 


233 


Distribution. 


These  sheep  are  generally  found  alone  or  in  parties  of  two  or 
three,  and  are  sparsely  distributed  over  the  more  precipitous  regions 
of  the  arid  southern  slopes  of  the  Atlas  range,  from  the  Atlantic  to  Tunis.  They 
are  unknown  in  the  interior  of  the  range  near  the  coast,  always  keeping  within 
sight  of  the  desert,  and  capable,  according  to  Arab  reports,  of  going  several  days 
without  water.  Their  colour  harmonises  admirably  with  the  limestone  rocks  of 
their  native  mountains. 

Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton  observes  that  the  Arabs  are  in  the  habit  of 
pitching  their  tents  near  the   scanty  springs  frequented   by  these 
sheep,  and  daily  lead  their  goats  high  up  the  mountains.     Consequently,  the  arui 


Habits. 


THE  BARBARY  SHEEP  (fr  na,k  size). 

have  "  no  means  of  escaping  from  them,  as  every  mountain  within  reach  of  water 
is  similarly  infested.  They  are  constantly  within  sight  and  hearing  of  the  Arabs 
and  their  goats,  and  as  they  cannot  get  away  they  have  developed  the  art  of  hiding 
themselves  to  an  extraordinary  extent,  and  they  have  unlimited  confidence  in  their 
own  invisibility.  This  was  demonstrated  by  me  one  evening  when  I  sat  for  twenty 
minutes  carefully  spying  the  surrounding  country.  The  knoll  on  which  I  sat 
commanded  a  small  shallow  hollow.  In  this  there  was  not  a  vestige  of  cover 
except  a  few  thin  thuya  bushes  which  looked  as  if  they  could  not  hide  a  rat.  It 
was  not  till  I  rose  to  shift  my  position  that  a  female  arui  and  two  yearlings  started 


234  UNGULATES. 

from  these  bushes.  They  had  been  lying  within  sixty  yards  of  me,  and  must  have 
been  fully  conscious  of  my  presence  all  the  time.  The  arui,  in  this  habit  of  hiding, 
is  very  like  the  Pyrenean  ibex,  which  lives  in  rather  similar  ground,  and  also 
trusts  to  concealment  in  preference  to  flight." 

In  Algeria  the  rams  of  this  species  are  distinguished  as  fechtal,  the  ewes  as 
massa,  and  the  lambs  as  charuf. 


THE  GOATS. 
Genus  Capra. 

The  two  preceding  species  of  sheep  connect  the  more  typical  representatives 
of  that  group  so  intimately  with  the  goats  that  there  is  some  difficulty  in  drawing 
up  a  list  of  characters  which  will  satisfactorily  distinguish  between  the  two.  The 
males  of  all  the  goats  are,  however,  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  peculiar 
strong  odour,  while  they  very  generally  have  a  beard  on  the  chin.  None  of  them 
have  any  gland  on  the  face  below  the  eye  (in  which  respect  they  resemble  the 
bharal  and  Barbary  sheep) ;  and  they  differ  from  all  the  sheep  in  the  absence  of 
any  glands  between  the  hoofs  of  the  hind-feet,  while  in  some  cases  these  glands 
are  likewise  wanting  in  the  fore-feet.  In  all  cases  the  tail  is  short,  and  there  are 
peculiar  hard  patches,  or  callosities,  on  the  knees,  and  in  some  instances  also  on 
the  chest.  The  skull  of  a  goat  differs  from  that  of  a  sheep  in  that  the  plane  of  the 
portion  behind  the  horns  meets  that  of  the  part  in  front  of  the  same  in  an  obtuse 
instead  of  a  right  angle,  while  the  profile  of  the  face  is  very  concave,  and  the 
occipital  region  rounded  instead  of  nearly  flat.  The  true  goats,  or  those  constitut- 
ing the  genus  Capra,  are  further  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  horns 
of  the  males.  These  are  situated  close  together  immediately  above  the  eyes,  and 
are  continued  upwards  at  first  in  the  plane  of  the  forehead ;  they  may  be  either 
scimitar-shaped,  with  a  backward  sweep,  or  spiral,  and  are  generally  more  or  less 
compressed  and  angulated,  while  they  are  frequently  ornamented  with  knobs  or 
knots  in  front.  In  the  females  the  horns  are  much  smaller,  and  set  farther  apart 
at  their  bases. 

Although  the  term  goat  is  applied  to  one  American  ruminant,  yet  goats  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word  are  exclusively  restricted  to  the  Old  World.  Moreover, 
these  animals  are  mainly  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia  north  of  the  southern  flanks 
of  the  Himalaya.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  one  species  occurs  in  Egypt  and  another 
in  Abyssinia,  but  the  group  is  quite  unknown  in  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of 
Africa,  while  the  species  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Southern  India  is  classed 
in  a  genus  apart  from  that  containing  the  true  goats.  There  are  about  ten  species 
of  true  wild  goats,  all  of  which  live  in  herds,  although  the  males  sometimes  keep 
apart  from  the  females,  and  are  occasionally  solitary.  Like  the  sheep,  the  goats 
are  essentially  mountain  animals,  but  they  generally  inhabit  more  rugged  and 
precipitous  ground  than  do  the  majority  of  the  former;  this  is,  however,  not 
invariably  the  case,  as  the  Himalayan  ibex  ranges  on  to  the  open  country  of  the 
Pamirs.  All  the  members  of  the  group  are  very  active  and  wary  animals,  and 
they  are  characterised  by  their  tendency  to  browse  on  the  young  shoots  and  leaves 


GOATS. 


235 


of  such  trees  and  shrubs  as  they  can  reach,  whereas  sheep  mainly  confine  them- 
selves to  grazing.  On  account  of  these  browsing  habits  goats  are  extremely 
destructive  to  forests,  eating  off  the  tops  of  the  young  trees  and  thus  preventing 
all  new  growth. 

Geologically,  goats  appear  to  be  somewhat  older  than  the  sheep,  remains  of 
certain  species  having  been  obtained  from  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills 
in  Northern  India,  while  those  of  others  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  the 
plains  of  Central  Europe.  The  latter  belong  to  a  species  of  ibex,  which  is  a  matter 
of  some  interest  as  showing  that  during  a  colder  epoch  these  animals  could  exist 


SKELETON   OF  THE  IBEX. 


in  the  lowlands,  from  whence,  with  an  increase  of  the  temperature,  they  migrated 
to  the  various  mountain-chains,  where  they  have  differentiated  into  distinct  species 
from  isolation.  This  explains  the  occurrence  of  allied  species  of  wild  goats  in  the 
Caucasus  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  the  Alps  and  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula. 


THE  CAUCASIAN  WILD  GOATS,  OR  TUR  (Capra  cylindricornis,  etc.). 

There  occur  in  the  Caucasus  range  three  different  kinds  of  wild  goats,  locally 
known  as  tur,  which,  as  being  those  approaching  most  nearly  to  the  sheep, 
naturally  come  first.  These  three  kinds  are  commonly  ranked  as  distinct  species, 
but  it  may  be  a  question  whether  they  are  not  really  only  races  of  one  species 


236 


UNGULATES. 


exhibiting  variations  in  the  structure  of  its  horns  analogous  to  those  existing  in 
the  Himalayan  markhor  noticed  subsequently. 

The  goat  inhabiting  the  Eastern  Caucasus  is  known  as  Pallas's 

'    tur  (C.  cylindricomis),  and  is  found  to   the  westward   of   Kasbeg 

and  throughout  Daghestan.     It  may  be  described  as  a  goat  with  horns  like  those 

of  the  bharal.  The 
horns  are  black,  smooth, 
and  nearly  cylindrical, 
directed  outwards  and 
backwards  in  a  some- 
what spiral  manner, 
with  their  tips  directed 
inwards,  and  sometimes 
not  separated  from  one 
another  by  an  interval 
of  more  than  a  foot. 
The  general  colour  of 
the  animal  is  light 
HORNS  OF  PALLAS'S  TUR.  brown,  and  the  height 

at   the   shoulder   about 

3  feet.  The  reddish  brown  beard  is  short  and  stiff,  and  curved  inwards  towards 
the  middle  of  the  chin.  Another  distinctive  feature  is  to  be  found  in  the  lower 
incisor  teeth,  which  have  very  narrow  crowns.  Good  specimens  of  the  horns  may 
measure  some  31  inches  along  the  curve,  and  occasionally  reach  34|  and  36 
inches. 

In  the  Central  Caucasus,  between  Elburz  and  Daghestan,  the 
preceding  form  is  replaced  by  the  true  Caucasian  tur  (C.  caucasica), 
which  is  intermediate  between  it  and  Severtzow's.  This  tur  is  very  similar 
in  appearance  to  Pallas's,  having  horns  with  a  spiral  curvature,  and  approach- 
ing each  other  at  the  tips,  but  with  a  nearly  square  cross-section  at  the  base, 
and  with  knobs  on  the  front  surface.  The  colour  is  very  like  that  of  Sever- 
tzow's tur,  but  the  head  is  more  reddish,  the  beard  like  that  of  Pallas's,  and 
the  under-part  of  the  body  darker,  while  the  tail  has  longer  hairs.  The  incisors 
are  like  those  of  C.  cylindricornis  and  the  horns  vary  from  30  to  40  inches  in 
length. 

_     _,      ,  „  Severtzow's    tur    (C.   severtzowi),   inhabits   the    whole    of    the 

Severtzow's  Tur.  ... 

Western    Caucasus,    and    presents    considerable    local    variation    in 

colour.  It  is  a  very  strongly  -  built  animal,  standing  about  3  feet  at  the 
withers.  Its  general  colour  is  brownish  grey  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  the  head 
and  spine  being  darker,  the  under-parts  a  lighter  shade  of  brown,  and  the  limbs 
dark  with  a  pale  stripe  on  their  hinder  surface.  The  brown  beard  is  long  and 
narrow,  and  the  tail  very  short.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  goat  is, 
however,  found  in  its  horns.  These  are  very  large,  black  in  colour,  and  directed 
upwards  and  backwards  in  a  scimitar-like  form,  curving  almost  entirely  in  a  single 
plane,  with  their  tips  widely  separated,  and  generally  directed  downwards,  although 
occasionally  outwards.  The  section  of  these  horns  at  the  base  is  triangular,  and 


GOATS.  237 

they  are  ornamented  in  front  with  more  or  less  distinct  knobs,  so  that  they  are 
very  like  those  of  ibex,  although  shorter  and  thicker.  They  vary  somewhat  in 
their  degree  of  outward  inclination  —  being  sometimes  separated  by  as  much  as 
3  feet  at  the  tips — and  those  in  which  the  outward  inclination  is  most  marked  and 
the  knobs  most  developed  approach  nearest  to  Pallas's  tur.  This  form  is  further 
distinguished  by  the  crowns  of  the  lower  incisor  teeth  being  wide  and  rounded. 

If  we  had  only  Pallas's  tur  and  Severtzow's  tur  to  deal  with  there  would  be 
no  hesitation  in  regarding  them  as  distinct  species,  but  the  Caucasian  tur, 
inhabiting  the  intermediate  area,  suggests  a  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
The  habits  of  these  goats  are  probably  very  similar  to  those  of  the  next  species. 

THE  SPANISH  WILD  GOAT  (Capra  pyrenaica). 

Although  often  termed  an  ibex,  the  Spanish  wild  goat — the  cabramontes  of 
the  Spaniards — is  much  more  nearly  allied  to  the  turs.  It  is  characterised  by  the 
horns  of  the  males  having  an  upward  and  outward  direction,  and  forming  a  slight 
and  very  open  spiral.  They  are  flattened  on  the  inner  side  and  keeled  behind,  so 
as  to  present  a  pyriform  cross-section.  When  seen  from  the  front,  as  in  the  right- 
hand  figure  of  woodcut  on  next  page,  their  form  is  somewhat  lyrate,  and  on  their 
outer  side  they  carry  more  or  less  well-marked  bosses  or  knobs,  resembling  those 
on  the  front  of  the  horns  of  the  ibex.  There  is  a  small  but  thick  black  beard, 
which  may  be  of  considerable  length.  The  general  colour  of  the  hair  is  light 
brown,  but  it  is  much  darker  around  the  nose  and  on  the  forehead  and  the  back 
of  the  head ;  a  triangular  patch  on  the  back,  a  streak  on  the  flanks,  and  the  front 
of  the  limbs  are  black ;  the  upper  lips,  the  cheeks,  the  sides  of  the  throat,  and  the 
hinder  surfaces  of  the  legs  are  greyish,  and  the  remainder  of  the  under-parts  are 
white.  There  is,  however,  considerable  variation  in  colour  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year,  and  also  a  certain  amount  of  local  variation  in  this  respect.  The  hair 
is  much  longer  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  there  is  a  thick  woolly  under-fur. 
The  height  of  the  animal  is  about  26  inches  at  the  shoulder.  Horns  of  old  rams 
average  24  or  25  inches,  but  may  reach  27  or  28  inches  in  length. 

The   Spanish   wild   goat   inhabits   the   Pyrenees,   some   of    the 
Distribution.  &  .  .    ,  .    A     ,   ,      . 

mountains  of  Central  Spam,  and   the   higher  ranges  ot  Andalusia 

and  Portugal.  That  the  species  has  existed  in  the  southern  portion  of  its  habitat 
since  the  Pleistocene  epoch  is  proved  by  the  occurrence  of  its  bones  in  the  caves  of 
Gibraltar,  in  company  with  those  of  an  extinct  rhinoceros. 

It  was  at  one  time  considered  that  the  wild  goat  of  Andalusia  was  specifically 
distinct  from  the  Pyrenean  form,  but  it  is  now  known  that  the  two  are  only 
varieties  of  a  single  species.  It  appears  from  the  observations  of  Mr.  A.  Chapman 
that  the  variety  from  the  Pyrenees  is  the  largest,  and  is  characterised  by  the  horns 
of  very  old  males  tending  to  assume  a  smooth  form,  without  distinct  knobs,  and 
thus  approximating  to  those  of  the  Caucasian  tur.  In  specimens  obtained  from  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  in  Andalusia,  at  elevations  of  about  eleven  thousand  feet,  the  horns 
are  frequently  as  long  as  those  of  the  Pyrenean  variety,  but  they  are  generally 
more  flattened,  while  the  size  of  the  animals  themselves  is  considerably  less.  The 
wild  goats  of  the  Central  Spanish  Cordilleras  are  those  with  the  heaviest  and  most 


238  UNGULATES. 

distinctly  knobbed  horns,  but  there  is  a  complete  transition  from  this  type  to  the 
Pyrenean  form. 

During  the  greater  portion  of  the  year  the  males  of  the  Spanish 

wild  goat  live  apart  from  the  females,  and  it  is  only  during  the 

breeding-season  that  the  two  sexes  come  together.     Both  sexes  associate  in  flocks, 


THE  SPANISH  WILD  GOAT  (^  nat.  size). 


which  may  be  very  large,  comprising  at  times  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and 
fifty  head.  As  a  rule,  the  old  bucks,  heedless  of  snow  and  cold,  reside  on  the  most 
exposed  and  highest  peaks  of  the  mountains  ;  but  the  does,  especially  in  the  late 
spring,  frequent  the  southern  slopes,  and  in  the  depth  of  the  winter  will  descend 
even  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  villages.  When  feeding  or  reposing,  sentinels  are 
placed  in  commanding  positions  to  apprise  the  flock  of  approaching  danger,  which 
they  do  by  means  of  a  loud  snort,  upon  which  the  whole  company  at  once  takes 


GOATS.  239 

to  flight.  Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton  states  that  these  goats  are  generally  found  among 
thick  scrub,  and  he  considers  that  the  incurving  tips  of  their  horns  are  thus 
formed  on  purpose  to  admit  of  easy  passage  among  bushes.  The  pairing-season 
takes  place  in  November,  when  the  flocks  of  opposite  sexes  come  together,  and  the 
males  engage  in  combats  for  the  possession  of  the  females.  In  December  the  sexes 
again  split  up  into  separate  flocks,  the  males  from  one  to  three  years  of  age 
consorting,  however,  with  the  females.  The  kids  are  born  in  April  or  the  beginning 
of  May,  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  weeks  after  the  pairing-season,  and  in  a  few 
hours  after  birth  are  able  to  follow  their  mothers  over  the  roughest  ground.  While 
the  kids  are  young  the  mothers  confine  themselves  to  the  southern  slopes  and 
warmer  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  carefully  avoid  such  situations  as  are  exposed 
to  cold  and  cutting  winds.  These  goats  are  hunted  either  by  stalking  or  driving, 
and  in  either  case  display  the  extreme  wariness  characteristic  of  the  group. 

That  the  Spanish  wild  goat  is  allied  to  the  Caucasian  tur  is  quite  evident. 
The  form  and  curvature  of  its  horns,  together  with  the  presence  of  a  keel  on  their 
posterior  border,  is,  however,  suggestive  of  a  transition  from  the  type  of  horn 
obtaining  in  the  ibex  to  that  found  in  the  markhor,  and  it  is  thus  easy  to  see  how 
all  the  varieties  of  horns  found  among  the  goats  may  have  been  derived  from  a 
single  common  form. 

THE  PERSIAN  WILD  GOAT  (Capra  cegagrus). 

The  Persian  wild  goat — the  pasang  (rock-footed)  of  the  Persians — is  a  species 
of  especial  interest  as  being  the  chief  ancestral  stock  from  which  the  various  breeds 
of  domestic  goats  are  derived.  This  species  is  characterised  by  the  long  scimitar- 
like  horns  of  the  males,  which  are  much  compressed,  with  the  front  edge  forming  a 
sharp  keel,  marked  by  irregular  prominences  and  notches,  while  the  hinder  edge  is 
rounded,  and  the  outer  side  more  convex  than  the  inner.  Generally  the  tips  of  the 
horns  are  inclined  inwards,  although  they  are  occasionally  divergent.  The  horns  of 
the  does  are  much  smaller,  with  an  even  front  edge.  The  male  pasang  has  a  small 
beard  on  the  chin ;  and  in  the  winter  coat  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulders  is 
rather  longer  than  elsewhere ;  and  at  the  same  season  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 
animals'  habitat  a  coat  of  woolly  under-fur  is  developed  beneath  the  hair.  In 
winter  the  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  brownish  grey,  tending  in  summer 
to  yellowish  or  rufous  brown ;  the  under-parts  and  the  inner  sides  of  the  buttocks 
being  whitish  or  white.  In  the  older  bucks,  as  in  the  central  figure  of  our  illustra- 
tion on  the  following  page,  the  general  colour  is,  however,  paler ;  a  stripe  down  the 
back,  the  tail,  the  chin,  throat,  and  beard,  the  front  of  the  legs,  with  the  exception 
of  the  knees,  and  a  stripe  along  the  flanks  are  dark  brown.  There  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  white  on  the  lower  part  of  the  legs. 

An  adult  male,  measured  by  Captain  Hutton,  stood  37  inches  at  the  withers. 
Good  horns  of  the  pasang  measure  40  inches  along  the  curve  ;  but  in  one  specimen 
killed  near  Karachi,  the  length  was  upwards  of  52£  inches,  with  a  basal  girth 
of  7  inches. 

^  x  .,_  A.  The  range  of  this  species  is  extensive,  and  was  formerly  even 

Distribution.  f 

more  so  than  it  is  at  the  present  day.     There  is  evidence  that  m 


24o  UNGULATES. 

classic  times  this  goat  was  widely  distributed  over  the  Grecian  Archipelago ; 
although  in  Europe  it  is  now  found  only  in  Crete,  the  island  of  Antimelo  in  the 
Cyclades,  and  perhaps  also  in  Giura,  to  the  north-east  of  Euboea.  Eastwards  it  is 
found  in  the  hills  and  mountains  of  Asia  Minor,  being  especially  common  in  the 
Taurus  range ;  and  it  extends  thence  through  Persia  into  Baluchistan,  Sind,  and 
Afghanistan.  In  India  its  range  does  not  extend  beyond  the  western  side  of  Sind, 


THE  PERSIAN  WILD   GOAT  (^  nat.  size). 

as  eastwards  and  north-east  of  the  Bolan  Pass  and  Quetta  its  place  is  taken  by  the 
markhor.  Found  in  Sind  and  Baluchistan  in  hills  little  above  the  sea-level,  in 
the  mountains  of  Persia  it  ascends  to  elevations  of  eleven  or  twelve  thousand 
feet. 

The  pasang  is  an  extremely  active  animal,  chiefly  frequenting 

craggy  and  rocky  districts,  and  taking  leaps  of  great  length  with 

unerring  precision.      Although   such   a   feat  has  been   expressly   denied   by   all 

competent  authorities  as  occurring  among  the  sheep,  it  is  recorded  by  a  trustworthy 


GOATS.  241 

observer,  that  one  of  these  goats,  which  had  missed  its  footing,  saved  itself  by 
alighting  on  its  horns.  Writing  of  this  species  in  Persia,  St.  John  observes  that  "in 
spite  of  the  constant  persecution  to  which  it  is  subjected,  it  exists  in  vast  numbers. 
On  the  Kuh-i-barf,  a  not  very  lofty  or  extensive  hill,  constantly  shot  over,  near 
Shiraz,  I  once  counted  over  a  hundred  in  a  herd,  which  had  been  driven  together 
by  two  days'  consecutive  fusilade  from  half  a  dozen  shikaris.  .  .  .  The  ibex,"  as  Sir 
Oliver  calls  the  animal,  "  is  marvellously  shy  and  wary.  In  my  earlier  residence  in 
Persia  I  spent  many  a  weary  day  after  them,  but  never  managed  to  bag  a  buck. 
Even  native  sportsmen,  though  admirable  shots,  and  thoroughly  familiar  with  every 
nook  and  cranny  of  the  hills,  rarely  get  one  by  fair  stalking ;  most  of  those  killed 
being  obtained  by  building  a  wall  of  loose  stones  near  water,  and  shooting  the  goats 
when  drinking.  The  males  drink  in  the  morning  and  evening  only,  but  the 
females,  in  hot  weather,  at  least,  drink  also  at  midday.  While  putting  up  the 
telegraph  about  sixty  miles  north  of  Shiraz,  in  1864,  I  came  suddenly  upon  a  herd 
of  twenty  or  more  does  and  kids,  drinking  by  the  roadside,  a  couple  of  hundred 
yards  from  the  foot  of  the  hills.  Except  when  alarmed,  bucks  and  does  seem  to 
keep  apart." 

In  Sind  and  Baluchistan  these  goats  inhabit  barren  rocky  hills,  but  in  parts  of 
Asia  Minor  they  are  found  on  forest-clad  uplands.  In  such  localities,  according  to 
Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton,  they  may  often  be  found  within  hearing  of  the  drovers  on  the 
roads,  or  even  of  the  railways ;  but  this  confidence  is  accompanied  by  exceeding 
watchfulness.  The  number  in  a  flock  in  these  districts  is  generally  from  four  to  ten, 
and  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Buxton's  observations  bucks  and  does  were  found  together. 
Sentinels  are  almost  always  posted  to  warn  the  flock,  these  being  relieved  at  short 
intervals ;  and  it  appears  that  this  sentry-duty  is  undertaken  according  to  seniority, 
the  youngest  animals  commencing  first,  and  the  oldest  buck  taking  his  turn  last. 
In  Asia  Minor  pasang  are  hunted  both  by  driving  and  by  stalking ;  but  they  are  so 
cunning  that  the  former  method  is  not  generally  very  successful.  The  Cabulis 
hunt  them  on  the  lower  grounds  of  Afghanistan  with  greyhounds. 

In  the  Caucasus  the  kids  are  born  in  May,  but  Mr.  Blanford  believes  that  in 
Sind  they  are  produced  somewhat  earlier.  There  may  be  either  one  or  two,  and, 
it  is  said,  occasionally  three  at  a  birth. 

The  bezoar-stone,  so  highly  esteemed  in  Persia  as  an  antidote  to  poison  and  a 
remedy  for  several  diseases,  is  a  concretion  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  pasang, 
from  whence  it  derives  its  old  European  name  of  Pazen,  or  Pasen. 

In  the  island  of  Giura,  near  Euboea,  there  occurs  a  wild  goat 

Giura  Goat. 

which  has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of 
C.  dorcas.  There  is,  however,  little  doubt  but  that  it  is  the  descendant  of  tamed 
goats  which  have  run  wild,  or  of  such  animals  crossed  with  the  pasang. 

DOMESTIC  GOATS  (Capra  hircus). 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  various  breeds  of  domesticated  goat 
have  been  mainly  if  not  exclusively  derived  from  the  Persian  wild  goat,  and  they 
may  accordingly  be  most  conveniently  considered  in  this  place.  In  saying  that 
domestic  goats  are  mainly  derived  from  that  species,  it  should,  however,  be  men- 

VOL.  II. 1 6 


242 


UNGULATES. 


tioned  that  it  is  probable  that  many  races  may  have  been  crossed  with  other  wild 
kinds.  Domestic  goats  exhibit  great  variety  in  the  form  of  their  horns ;  some 
retaining  the  backward  scimitar-like  sweep  of  the  ancestral  pasang,  while  others 
assume  a  spiral  form  recalling  these  of  the  markhor.  When,  however,  such  spiral- 
horned  specimens  are  carefully  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  direction  of  the 
twist  is  precisely  the  opposite  of  that  which  occurs  in  the  markhor. 


ANGORA  GOAT  (^  nat.  size). 


The  varieties  of  domestic  goats  are  almost  innumerable,  and  there  is  such  an 
amount  of  difference  between  the  more  extreme  types  that  it  is  at  first  sight 
difficult  to  believe  that  they  all  belong  to  a  single  species.  In  certain  instances  the 
horns  may  disappear  from  one  or  from  both  sexes,  while  in  other  cases  those  of  the 
female  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  male,  and  occasionally  a  second  pair 
may  be  developed.  Equal  diversity  obtains  in  regard  to  the  length  of  the  hair, 
which  in  the  long-legged  and  pendulous-eared  Indian  breed  is  no  longer  than  in  a 
deer  ;  while  in  the  Kashmir  and  Angora  goats  it  reaches  nearly  to  the  ground. 


GOATS.  243 

The  colour,  again,  may  vary  from  pure  white  to  brownish  black ;  and  there  are 
great  differences  as  regards  the  size  and  shape  of  the  body.  The  ears  may  be 
either  upright  or  pendent,  and  when  in  the  latter  state  sometimes  attain  an 
enormous  length. 

Goats  were  domesticated  by  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  the 
Swiss  lake -cities,  and  were  likewise  well  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  Noticing  only  a  few  of  the  more  remarkable  modern  races,  one  of  the 
most  valued  is  the  Angora  goat,  a  native  of  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  but  which  has 
been  imported  into  several  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a  large  species,  with  long,  flattened, 
and  spirally-twisted  horns  in  the  males ;  and  has  been  regarded  by  some  writers  as 
a  direct  descendant  of  the  markhor.  The  body  is  low,  the  legs  are  stout,  the  head 
and  neck  short,  and  the  ears  pendent.  The  white  hair  is  long,  wavy,  and  silky, 
and  it.  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  cloth.  During  the  cold 
weather  these  goats  are  kept  in  stables,  but  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  are 
suffered  to  roam  at  large ;  the  flocks  are  very  large,  each  buck  being  accompanied 
by  about  a  hundred  does.  They  are  shorn  in  April ;  and  during  the  heats  of 
summer  their  hair  is  carefully  washed  and  combed  in  order  to  prevent  its  deteriora- 
tion. Some  few  are  born  without  horns,  and  it  is  stated  that  in  such  cases  the 
hair  is  short  and  close. 

Of  equal  celebrity  with  the  last  is  the  Kashmir  eroat,  which  is  a 
Kashmir  Goat. 

rather  small  but  strongly-built  variety,  characterised  by  the  presence 

of  a  thick  under-coat  of  wool  beneath  the  long  hair.  The  neck  is  short,  the  head 
somewhat  thick,  the  eyes  small,  and  the  pendent  ears  longer  than  half  the  length 
of  the  head.  The  horns  are  long  and  flattened,  with  a  sharp  edge  in  front,  and 
curved  outwards  and  backwards;  their  tips  being  inclined  inwards.  There  is 
considerable  variation  in  colour ;  but  generally  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body,  and  the  tail  are  silvery  or  yellowish  white.  Some  individuals 
are  uniformly  coloured  throughout,  and  may  be  either  pure  white,  yellow,  light  or 
dark  brown,  or  even  black.  Although  most  abundant  in  Tibet,  the  Kashmir  goat 
extends  to  Bokhara,  and  the  country  of  the  Kirghiz ;  while  of  late  years  it  has 
been  introduced  into  France,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Austria.  These  goats  are  valued 
for  their  under-wool,  which  is  combed  out  during  the  summer,  and  is  known  in 
Kashmir  as  pashm.  From  this  pashm  are  manufactured  the  Kashmir  shawls,  and 
also  a  very  fine  and  soft  dove-coloured  cloth,  pashmina.  A  certain  quality  of 
pashm  is  also  obtained  from  the  Himalayan  ibex.  Enormous  flocks  of  these  goats 
are  kept  in  many  parts  of  Tibet. 

The  Syrian  or  mamber  goat  of  Eastern  Europe  and  South- 
western Asia  resembles  the  preceding  in  the  length  of  the  hair,  but 
is  distinguished  from  all  other  breeds  by  the  extraordinary  length  of  its  pendent 
ears,  which  are  half  as  long  again  as  the  head.  These  goats  are  of  large  size  and 
very  tall ;  the  horns  are  usually  present  in  both  sexes,  and  curve  in  a  semicircle ; 
the  profile  of  the  face  is  convex;  and  both  sexes  have  a  small  beard.  The  long 
black  hair  is  shaggy  and  silky. 

Ejnrof     GO  t  ^^e  Nile  or  Egyptian  goat  is  another  allied  breed,  agreeing  in 

size  with  the  ordinary  domestic  goat,  but  with  longer  legs  and  shorter 

horns,  and  especially  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  the  head  and  the  extreme 


244  UNGULATES. 

convexity  of  the  profile.  The  horns  are  frequently  absent  in  both  sexes,  and  when 
present  are  short,  thick,  and  crumpled ;  while  there  is  generally  no  beard.  The 
pendent  ears  are  about  as  long  as  the  head,  and  are  rounded  at  the  tips,  and  flat. 
The  hair  is  short,  and  generally  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  but  inclining  to  yellow 
on  the  legs.  Sometimes,  however,  the  colour  is  slaty  grey,  or  spotted.  These 
goats  extend  from  the  countries  along  the  Lower  Nile  to  Central  Nubia.  The 
Theban  race  of  this  breed  has  the  most  marked  convexity  of  profile. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  breeds  is  the 

Sudan  goat,  characterised  by  the  short  horns  of  3  or  4  inches  in 
length,  curving  at  first  backwards  and  outwards,  and  then  bending  forwards  at 
their  tips.  The  legs  are  short  and  strong ;  and  the  short  but  thick  hair  is  generally 
dark  coloured,  frequently  showing  a  mixture  of  black  and  reddish.  Sometimes  the 
general  dark  colour  is  relieved  by  white  spots ;  but  red,  yellowish  brown,  and 
perfectly  black  specimens  are  not  uncommon.  From  the  chin  depends  a  black 
beard  reaching  to  the  chest,  where  it  divides  to  spread  over  the  shoulders  and 
upper-parts  of  the  fore-limbs.  These  goats  are  found  over  all  the  country  lying 
between  the  White  Nile  and  the  Niger,  and  doubtless  extend  over  the  greater 
part  of  Central  Africa  to  the  West  Coast.  They  are  kept  by  the  natives  in 
enormous  flocks. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  wild  goats  of  the  Isle  of 

Giura,  which  are  probably  derived  from  a  domestic  race  perhaps 
crossed  with  the  pasang.  Goats  have  also  run  wild  in  many  other  places,  more 
especially  mountainous  islands  like  St.  Helena,  Tavolara  near  Sardinia,  and  Juan 
Fernandez.  In  St.  Helena  these  wild  goats  have  completely  destroyed  a  large 
portion  of  the  native  flora,  and  this  has  resulted  in  the  disappearance  of  much 
of  the  fauna.  Goats  were  introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into  Juan  Fernandez 
in  the  year  1563.  These  soon  increased  enormously,  and  in  order  to  diminish  their 
numbers  dogs  were  subsequently  let  loose,  and  likewise  ran  wild.  At  the  time  of 
Lord  Anson's  visit,  in  the  summer  of  1741,  the  goats  had  been  greatly  reduced  in 
numbers  by  the  dogs,  and  they  were  further  so  much  thinned  by  his  party  that 
it  was  estimated  only  about  two  hundred  remained.  About  thirty  years  ago 
Pechuel-Loesche  visited  the  island,  and  found  that  while  the  dogs  had  disappeared, 
the  goats  had  once  more  become  exceedingly  numerous.  In  1885  the  goats  were 
being  vigorously  hunted  by  the  settlers  with  guns  and  dogs.  The  general  colour  of 
these  goats  is  reddish  brown,  in  some  districts  spotted  with  dirty  white. 

IBEX  (Capra  ibex,  etc.). 

Although  the  Spanish  and  Persian  wild  goats  are  frequently  spoken  of  as 
ibex,  it  seems  preferable  to  restrict  this  term  to  four  nearly-allied  species,  namely, 
the  true  or  Alpine  ibex,  the  Himalayan  ibex,  the  Arabian  ibex,  and  the  Abyssinian 
ibex.  All  these  species  are  characterised  by  their  nearly  uniform  coloration,  and 
by  the  front  surface  of  their  long  scimitar  -  shaped  horns  being  flattened  and 
ornamented  by  a  number  of  bold  transverse  knots  or  ridges.  These  horns  curve 
backwards,  and  diverge  regularly,  although  in  some  cases  their  tips  have  an 
inward  inclination ;  they  are  nearly  triangular  in  cross-section,  the  base  of  the 


ALPINE    IBEX. 


GOATS.  247 

triangle  being  formed  by  the  broad  front  surface,  and  the  apex  by  the  sharp 
hinder  edge.  In  the  females  the  horns  are  small  and  placed  wider  apart  at 
the  base,  with  a  nearly  oval  section,  and  they  are  marked  by  parallel  wrinkles. 

The  Alpine  ibex,  steinbok,  or  bouquetin  (C.  ibex),  is  now 
exterminated  as  a  wild  animal,  although  preserved  by  the  Italian 
Government  in  one  or  two  valleys  on  the  Piedmont  side  of  Monte  Rosa.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  from  the  Himalayan  ibex  by  the  extremely  small  size  of  the 
beard  of  the  males,  which  is  so  short  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable.  The  animal  is 
also  of  smaller  size,  and  at  the  present  day,  at  least,  its  horns  are  far  shorter,  and 
have  less  prominent  knobs  than  those  of  the  Himalayan  species.  Doubtless,  how- 
ever, the  general  size  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the  length  of  its  horns,  have 
been  considerably  reduced  by  the  circumscribed  area  to  which  it  is  now  confined. 
Formerly,  indeed,  the  ibex  roamed  over  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Tyrol ;  but  it  is  unfortunate  that  there  do  not  appear  to  be  records  of  the  length 
to  which  the  horns  formerly  attained.  Horns  of  26f  and  31f  inches  in  length  have, 
however,  been  recorded  of  late  years. 

The  pairing-season  is  in  January,  and  the  kids  are  born  at  the  end  of  June  or 
beginning  of  July.  The  habits  of  this  species  are  practically  identical  with  those 
of  the  Himalayan  ibex. 

The  Himalayan  ibex  (C.  sibirica)  differs  from  the  Alpine  species 
Himalayan  Ibex.  "  m  f         -,         i          ,1         i  •         P  ,-,       i       i  j 

by  the  presence  of  a  profuse  beard  on  the  chin  or  the  bucks,  ana  a 

ridge  of  coarse  dark  hair  along  the  back,  as  well  as  by  its  superior  size  and 
longer  horns.  The  hair  is  coarse  and  brittle ;  and  in  winter  is  underlain  by  a 
thick  coat  of  wool,  or  pashm,  which  enables  the  animal  to  withstand  the  intense 
cold  of  its  native  mountains.  The  horns  of  the  bucks  have  very  large  knobs, 
placed  at  fairly  regular  intervals ;  and  it  may  be  observed  here  that  these  knobs 
do  not  indicate  the  annual  stages  of  growth,  which  are  marked  by  fine  lines  on 
the  sides  of  the  horns.  In  colour  the  Himalayan  ibex  is  subject  to  a  considerable 
amount  of  seasonal  and  local  variation.  Generally,  however,  in  summer  the  colour 
is  brown,  only  slightly  paler  above  than  below ;  but  old  males  have  some  dirty 
white  patches  on  the  back.  On  the  other  hand,  in  winter  the  coat  assumes  a 
yellowish  white  hue,  more  or  less  tinged  with  brown  or  grey.  The  dark  line  on 
the  back  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  in  addition  to  this  the  beard,  tail,  and 
legs  are  also  dark  brown.  In  Baltistan  very  dark-coloured  ibex  are  met  with ; 
and  specimens  from  Siberia  and  the  Thian  Shan  range  are  distinguished  by 
having  the  under  surface  of  the  hinder-part  of  the  body  and  portions  of  the  legs 
entirely  white. 

A  well-grown  buck  of  the  Himalayan  ibex  will  stand  about  40  inches  at  the 
shoulder ;  while  does  are  about  a  third  smaller.  Fine  specimens  of .  the  horns 
measure  from  40  to  45  inches  along  the  curve ;  but  a  pair  have  been  recorded 
measuring  upwards  of  54  inches  in  length,  with  a  girth  of  11|  inches  just  above 
the  first  knob ;  and  there  are  several  of  51  inches,  or  a  little  over,  in  existence. 

Assuming:  the  ibex  of  the  Himalaya  to  be  identical  with  the  one 
Distribution.  * 

inhabiting  the  Thian  Shan  range  and  Siberia,  the  species  has  a  very 

extensive  geographical  range.  Thus,  it  is  found  in  all  the  mountain  ranges  of 
Central  Asia,  from  the  Himalaya  to  the  Altai,  and  from  the  neighbourhood  of 


248 


UNGULATES. 


Habits. 


Herat,  on  the  Persian  frontier,  in  the  north-west,  to  Kumaon  in  the  south-east. 
It  is  found  not  only  on  the  crags  but  likewise  on  the  open  Pamir  country. 
To  the  south  of  the  Valley  of  Kashmir  the  ibex  is  unknown  in  the  Pir  Panjal 
range,  and  its  continuation  to  the  north-west  of  the  Jhelam  river,  the  Kajnag; 
but  it  is  not  known  to  occur  in  the  Himalaya  to  the  eastward  of  the  sources  of  the 
Ganges,  neither  is  it  recorded  from  Eastern  Tibet.  Messrs.  Blanford  and  Hodgson 
have,  however,  reason  to  believe  that  it  occurs  in  Tibet  to  the  northwards  of 
Shikatse,  on  the  Sanpo  river,  and  also  near  Lhasa. 

Like  its  Alpine  cousin,  the  Himalayan  ibex  inhabits  the  crags 
and  upland  meadows  at  or  near  the  snow-level,  rising  or  descending 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year.     General  Macintyre  writes  of  the  habits  of 

this  species,  in  the  following 
words  : — "  From  what  I  have 
seen  and  heard  of  ibex,  their 
sense  of  smell  is  not  nearly  so 
acute  as  their  sight.  But 
they  seldom  apprehend  danger 
from  above,  so  it  is  best  to 
approach  them,  if  possible, 
from  that  direction.  During 
the  spring  and  early  summer 
they  may  be  seen  feeding  at 
almost  any  time  of  the  day 
on  the  green  patches  of  herb- 
age among  the  higher  crags 
and  snow-fields,  only  taking 
a  siesta  for  a  few  hours  at  a 
time.  In  the  dead  of  winter 
they  are  found  much  lower 
on  the  mountain-sides.  Pro- 
vided they  do  not  see  the 
hunter,  they  are  not  always 
scared  away  by  firing,  prob- 
ably owing  to  their  being  so 
accustomed  to  hearing  the 
noise  of  falling  rocks  and 

avalanches.  And  sometimes  they  get  so  bewildered  by  the  echoes  of  a  shot,  that 
they  give  time  for  several  easy  chances  before  making  up  their  minds  to  be  off. 
If  one  of  them,  however,  catches  only  a  glimpse  of  anything  suspicious,  a  warning 
whistle  at  once  sends  off  the  whole  herd,  although  they  often  depart  very  leisurely, 
even  after  being  shot  at.  Ibex  sometimes  congregate  in  large  numbers,  but  they 
are  usually  found  in  flocks  of  from  six  or  seven  to  twenty  or  so,  the  older  bucks 
often  herding  separately,  except  during  the  rutting-season.  Despite  the  quantities 
that  are  shot,  killed  by  avalanches,  and  by  those  terrible  foes  to  all  Himalayan 
game,  the  wild  dogs,  there  appears  to  be  little  decrease  in  their  numbers  on  the 
more  sequestered  hunting-grounds ;  for  they  are  very  prolific,  each  doe  having  as 


HEAD  OP  HIMALAYAN  IBEX. 


.  GOATS. 


249 


a  rule  a  pair  of  kids  every  summer.  The  villagers  train  their  dogs  to  hunt 
them  down,  when  the  ibex  become  so  stupefied  with  terror  that  they  are  easily 
approached  and  shot." 

The  foregoing  account  refers  to  the  habits  of  this  ibex  in  the  Kashmir  district, 
and  it  accords  in  the  main  with  an  earlier  one  from  the  pen  of  General  Kinloch. 
The  latter  writer  states  that 
ibex  but  seldom  come  as  low 
as  the  upper  limits  of  forest ; 
and  even  during  the  winter 
"do  not,  as  a  rule,  descend 
very  low,  but  resort  to  places 
where,  from  the  steepness  of 
the   hillside,  the   snow   does 
not  lie  in  any  quantity.    Here 
they   may   be    detained    for 
weeks  by  a  heavy  fall,  pick- 
ing    a     scanty     subsistence 
from  the   scattered   tufts  of 
withered  herbage   that  here 
and   there   crop   out    of   the 
crevices   of   the    rocks.      At 
this  season  males  and  females 
herd   together;    but    as    the 
snow  melts  and  the  time  for 
the     birth     of     the     young 
approaches,    the    old     males 
forsake     the     females    alto- 
gether, and,  as   the  summer 
advances,  retire  to  the  most 
inaccessible    mountains,    fre- 
quently sleeping  during  the 
day  above  the  limits  of  vege- 
tation, and  descending  great 
distances     to     feed    in    the 
mornings  and  evenings.     The 
best   time   to   shoot   ibex   is 
when  the  young  grass  is  just 
beginning  to  sprout  along  the 
margin  of  the  snow  in  May 
and  June ;  after  the  hardships  and  frequent  long  fasts  of  winter  they  feed  greedily 
on  the  fresh  young  shoots,  and  in  secluded  spots  may  be  found  lying  down  on 
the  grassy  slopes  during  the  day." 

The  same  writer  proceeds  to  observe  that,  although  excessively  wary,  the 
Himalayan  ibex,  on  account  of  the  broken  nature  of  the  ground  it  frequents,  is  not 
very  difficult  to  approach  within  shooting  distance.  From  our  own  personal 
observation  and  the  accounts  of  the  natives  of  the  secluded  valleys  around 


ARABIAN   IBEX. 


25o  UNGULATES. 

Kashmir,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  Himalayan  ibex  is  in  the  habit  of 
descending  to  lower  levels  than  is  admitted  by  General  Kinloch ;  and  we  have 
been  told  that  in  the  valleys  of  Wardwan  and  Tibet  numbers  are  killed  at  this 
season  in  the  snow  quite  close  to  the  villages.  On  one  occasion,  during  the 
summer,  we  observed  a  small  flock  of  ibex  driven  down  from  the  heights  by  a 
sudden  snowstorm  to  the  level  of  the  high-road  between  Kashmir  and  Ladak,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Indus.  In  1854  Colonel  Markham  wrote  that  in  Kashmir  ibex 
might  be  seen  in  flocks  of  a  hundred  or  more,  but  nothing  like  these  numbers  are 
found  at  the  present  day ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  statement  of  General  Macintyre,  it 
appears  to  us  that  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Kashmir  this  magnificent 
animal  is  becoming  rapidly  scarcer. 

The  bucks  descend  from  the  higher  crags  to  join  the  does  about  October,  the 
pairing-season  taking  place  during  the  winter;  and  the  young  are  born  in  May 
and  June,  or  about  a  month  earlier  than  is  the  case  with  the  Alpine  species.  To 
the  natives  of  Kashmir  the  ibex  is  know  as  the  kel,  while  in  Baltistan  and  Ladak 
it  is  termed  skin,  or  iskin. 

The  third  representative  of  the  group  is  the  Arabian  or  Sinaitic 
ibex  (C.  sinaitica),  locally  known  as  the  beden.  This  goat  is  found 
in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  in  portions  of  Palestine,  and  in  Upper  Egypt ;  it  is  common 
in  Arabia  Petrsea,  but  more  rare  in  Palestine  proper,  and  never  appears  to  have 
extended  northwards  of  the  Lebanon,  where  a  few  still  remain.  In  Egypt  its 
southern  limit  is  approximately  marked  by  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  This  species 
is  distinguished  from  the  Himalayan  ibex  by  the  horns  being  more  compressed, 
and  having  the  knobs  on  the  front  surface  arranged  at  less  regular  intervals.  The 
general  colour  of  the  fur  is  yellowish  brown,  with  dark  markings  on  the  back, 
chest,  and  front  of  the  legs ;  the  under-parts  and  the  hinder-surface  of  the  limbs 
being  whitish.  In  well -grown  adult  males  the  horns  may  attain  a  length 
of  36  inches  along  the  curve,  and  Sir  E.  G.  Loder  has  a  pair  almost  39  inches  in 
length.  The  habits  of  the  animal  appear  to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  others. 

Abyssinian  Lastly,  there  is  the   little-known  Abyssinian   ibex   (C.  walie)y 

ibex.  from  Abyssinia,  distinguished  from  the  others  by  the  curvature 
of  its  horns,  and  the  presence  of  a  protuberance  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 

THE  MARKHOR  (C.  falconeri). 

The  Himalayan  markhor  (literally  snake-eater),  or  spiral-horned  goat,  brings 
us  to  the  last  representative  of  the  genus  Capra,  and  one  distinguished  from  all 
the  others  by  its  upwardly-directed  and  spirally-twisted  horns,  and  also  by  the 
extension  of  the  beard  on  to  the  chest  and  shoulders.  In  the  latter  respect  this 
species  reminds  us  of  the  arui  among  the  sheep,  although  the  markhor  agrees  with 
other  goats  in  the  shortness  of  its  tail.  The  markhor  is  further  remarkable  for 
the  enormous  amount  of  variation  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  horns ;  one  variety 
having  them  twisted  in  the  form  of  a  corkscrew,  with  not  more  than  one  and  a  half 
complete  turns,  while  in  another  they  are  twisted  on  their  own  axis  in  the  form  of 
a  screw,  which  may  have  as  many  as  three  complete  turns.  These  varieties  were 
formerly  regarded  as  constituting  distinct  species,  but  since  they  are  more  or 


GOATS.  251 

less  completely  connected  by  intermediate  forms  like  those  represented  in  our 
illustrations,  they  are  now  generally  regarded  as  the  extreme  developments  of  one 
very  variable  species.  The  horns  of  the  varieties  with  a  corkscrew-like  twist  are 
the  finest  trophies  yielded  by  any  of  the  goats. 

According  to  General  Kinloch,  the  male  markhor  may  stand  nearly  3  feet 
8  inches  at  the  withers,  although  an  adult  Gilgit  specimen,  measured  by  Col.  J. 


THE  MARKHOR,    CABUL  VARIETY  (f,  nat.  size). 

Biddulph,  measured  only  3  feet  2£  inches.  The  magnificent  beard,  extending  in 
the  adult  males  on  to  the  chest  and  shoulders,  and  sometimes  reaching  nearly  to 
the  knees,  is  black  in  front  and  grey  behind ;  in  the  young  bucks  and  the  does 
at  all  ages  it  is  confined  to  the  chin.  The  fur  has  but  little  or  no  pashm,  and  in 
summer  is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  but  becomes  grey  in  winter ;  it  is  paler  on 
the  under-parts,  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  front  of  the  legs  have  a  dark  stripe. 
In  summer  the  very  old  males  become  whitish  all  over;  while  the  young  are 
uniformly  greyish  brown,  except  for  a  dark  stripe  along  the  back.  Owing  to  the 


252 


UNGULATES. 


variation  of  the  horns  in  the  different  races,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  a 
description  which  will  hold  good  for  them  all.  They  are,  however,  much  com- 
pressed, placed  close  together  at  the  base,  and  spirally  twisted,  with  a  keel  both  in 
front  and  behind.  The  front  keel,  which  tends  to  become  rounded  in  old  animals, 
at  first  turns  outwards  in  each  horn ;  and  the  sharp  back  keel  twists  forwards  to 
form  the  prominent  front  ridge  of  the  first  turn  of  the  spiral.  The  length  varies 
greatly  in  the  different  races.  The  females  have  small  horns  with  a  slight  twist. 

The  markhor  is  first  met  with  in  the  Pir  Panjal  range,  forming 
the  outer  boundary  of  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  but  does  not  extend  to 
the  eastwards  of  the  valley  of  the  Chinab  river.  To  the  north  and  north-west  of 
the  valley  of  Kashmir  it  extends  into  the  districts  of  Baltistan,  Astor,  and  Gilgit ; 
and  it  is  also  found  in  many  of  the  ranges  of  Hazara  and  Afghanistan,  and  likewise 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Quetta. 

Four  distinct  varieties  of  the  markhor  are  recognised  by  Mr. 
Varieties 

Blanford,  and  are  characterised  as  follows : — First  of  all,  we  have  the 

typical  Astor  and  Baltistan  markhor,  in  which  the  horns  form  a  very  open  spiral, 
never  forming  more  than  one  and  a  half  turns.  The  horns  are  extremely  massive, 
arid  attain  a  great  length.  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  has  specimens  measuring  49  and  55 
inches  in  length  along  the  posterior  keel ;  and  it  is  probable  that  an  example  with 
a  length  of  63  inches  belonged  to  this  variety.  Next  we  have  the  Pir  Panjal 
markhor,  of  which  the  horns  are  represented  in  the  woodcut  on  the  next  page.  Here 
the  spiral  is  less  open,  and  may  form  from  one  to  two  complete  turns.  This  race 
extends  across  the  Jhelam  river  into  the  Kajnag  range,  and  from  thence  probably 
into  Hazara  and  Gilgit,  where  it  passes  into  the  third  variety.  Mr.  Shaw  has  a 
pair  of  horns  measuring  45  inches  along  the  curve,  and  others  have  been  recorded 
of  50  inches  and  rather  over.  In  the  third  or  Cabul  variety,  which  is  the  one 
represented  in  our  first  illustration,  the  horns  are  almost  straight,  but  still  have 
a  slight  spiral,  with  two  complete  twists.  Specimens  have  been  measured  with 
a  length  of  44  inches,  but  it  is  said  that  as  much  as  60  inches  have  been  recorded, 
measured  along  the  curve.  Lastly,  we  have  the  markhor  of  the  Suliman  range, 
on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Afghanistan,  in  which  the  horns  are  generally  perfectly 
straight,  with  the  front  and  back  keels  wound  round  in  a  sharp  spiral,  which  may 
form  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  complete  turns.  In  the  largest  recorded  head 
the  length  along  the  hind  keel  was  49  inches.  This  variety  is  considerably  inferior 
in  size  to  the  other,  and  has  a  smaller  beard. 

The  different  varieties  of  the  markhor  exhibit  some  diversity  in 
Habits. 

their  habits,  owing  to  the  varying  nature  of  their  native  districts ; 

General  Kinloch  remarking  that  while  the  open-horned  varieties  inhabit  lofty 
pine-clad  ranges,  whose  summits  are  generally  wreathed  in  snow,  the  straight- 
horned  Suliman  race  has  its  home  among  barren  and  rocky  hills  of  trifling 
elevation,  where  the  heat  during  the  summer  months  is  frequently  intense. 

Like  other  goats,  markhor  go  in  small  flocks,  the  males  generally  keeping 
apart  from  the  females.  General  Kinloch  remarks  of  the  male  that  "  his  flowing 
black  beard,  and  long  shaggy  mane,  falling  from  his  neck  and  shoulders  to  his 
knees,  give  him  a  most  imposing  appearance ;  and  as  he  stands  to  gaze  on  some 
jutting  rock  on  the  face  of  a  rugged  precipice,  overhung  by  dark  pine  trees,  no 


GOATS. 


253 


sportsman  nor  lover  of  nature  can  fail  to  be  struck  with  admiration  at  his  noble 
bearing.  He  is  powerfully  and  compactly  made,  and,  in  spite  of  his  weight, 
he  has  perhaps  no  equal  in  traversing  difficult  and  dangerous  ground.  I  know  of 
no  animal  whose  pursuit  habitually  entails  so  much  difficult  climbing,  and  to  be 
successful  one  must  occasionally  venture  into  places  where  no  less  inducement 
would  tempt  one  to  run  the  risk.  Old  male  markhor  are  extremely  difficult  to 
find,  especially  where  they  have  been  frequently  disturbed.  Unlike  the  ibex,  which 
keeps  to  the  rugged  crags  and  steep 
ravines  above  the  limits  of  the  forest, 
the  markhor  delights  in  rocky  forests, 
and  although  it  occasionally  comes  out 
into  the  open  glades,  it  seeks  conceal- 
ment as  much  as  possible." 

This  description  applies  to  the 
markhor  of  Kashmir  and  Astor;  but 
in  Afghanistan  the  animal  inhabits  bare 
and  rugged  hillsides,  owing  to  the 
general  absence  of  forest  in  that  country. 
The  ground  haunted  by  markhor  in 
many  parts  of  Kashmir  territory  is  of 
the  most  loose  and  rotten  description, 
which  renders  stalking  decidedly  danger- 
ous. Not  unfrequently  markhor  are 
found  with  one  or  both  horns  much 
broken,  but  whether  this  is  due  to 
accidents  from  landslips  and  avalanches, 
or  to  combats  between  one  another,  does 
not  appear  to  be  ascertained.  As 
already  mentioned,  the  Suliman  markhor 
is  frequently  found  at  a  comparatively 
low  elevation ;  and  it  appears  that  in  all 
localities  this  goat  does  not  bear  extreme 
cold  so  bravely  as  its  cousin  the  ibex, 
and  that  in  winter  it  always  descends 
to  the  more  protected  valleys.  This 
sensitiveness  to  cold  is  doubtless  correctly  attributed  by  Colonel  Biddulph  to  the 
absence  of  under-fur,  or  pashm,  in  the  markhor. 

The  agile  habits  of  this  goat  were  well  exhibited  by  a  buck  formerly  kept  in 
the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  which,  in  spite  of  the  weight  of  a  heavy  chain,  was 
found  nearly  every  morning  mounted  on  the  top  of  the  high  wall  surrounding 
his  enclosure.  In  captivity  markhor  breed  freely,  the  number  of  young  at  a 
birth  being  either  one  or  two.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained  when  the 
young  are  born  in  the  Pir  Panjal  range,  but  in  the  districts  of  Astor  and  Gilgit 
they  are  produced  in  May  and  June.  Markhor  have  frequently  interbred  with 
domestic  goats ;  and  it  was  formerly  considered  that  the  spiral-horned  varieties  of 
the  latter  traced  their  parentage  directly  to  this  species.  In  domestic  goats,  as 


HEAD  OF  MARKHOR;  PIR  PANJAL  VARIETY. 


254 


UNGULATES. 


already  mentioned,  the  horns  are  almost  invariably  twisted  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  those  of  the  markhor,  although  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  there  are 
occasionally  exceptions.  It  is,  however,  not  improbable  that  some  races  of  domestic 
goats  may  have  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  markhor  blood. 

The  markhor  appears  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  types  of  wild  goat,  since  a  fossil 
species,  which  cannot  at  present  be  satisfactorily  distinguished  from  the  living 
one,  occurs  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya. 

THE  TAHR  AND  THE  NILGIRI  GOAT. 
Genus  Hemitragus. 

The  Himalayan  goat,  known  as  the  tahr  (H.  jemlaicus),  together  with  an  allied 
species  from  Arabia,  and  a  third  from  the  Nilgiri  hills  of  Southern  India,  differ  so 
markedly  from  the  true  goats  that  Mr.  Blanford  considers  they  should  be  placed 
in  a  genus  by  themselves.  All  these  goats  are  utterly  devoid  of  a  beard,  and  also 
distinguished  by  having  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  naked.  Their  skulls  are 
longer  and  narrower  than  in  the  true  goats,  with  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  less  pro- 
minent ;  and  the  horns  are  relatively  short,  and  but  little  smaller  in  the  does  than 
in  the  bucks.  In  form  the  horns  are  compressed  and  angulated  in  front,  with 
their  bases  quite  close  together ;  and  they  curve  backwards  from  the  plane  of  the 
forehead.  Neither  of  the  species  have  glands  in  the  fore-feet. 

The  Himalayan  tahr,  which  is  represented  in  our  illustration,  is 

readily  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  black  horns,  which  have 
their  lateral  surfaces  flattened  and  shelving  regularly  up  to  the  sharp  and  beaded 
keel  on  the  inner  front  border ;  they  diverge  regularly  from  their  bases,  at  the  same 
time  curving  sharply  backwards,  with  a  slight  inward  inclination  at  the  tips.  On 
the  head  the  hair  is  short,  but  it  becomes  longer  on  the  body,  and  in  old  bucks  is 
so  lengthened  on  the  neck,  chest,  and  shoulders  as  to  form  a  long  shaggy  mane 
reaching  below  the  knees.  There  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  colour, 
but  the  general  tint  of  the  hair  is  dark  or  reddish  brown ;  old  males  being  gener- 
ally very  dark,  although  pale-coloured  individuals  of  both  sexes  are  not  unfre- 
quently  met  with.  The  face  and  the  front  of  the  limbs  are  very  dark,  in  some 
instances  almost  black;  and  old  males  have  an  indistinct  dark  line  down  the 
middle  of  the  back.  In  young  animals  the  colour  is  a  uniform  greyish  brown ; 
and  the  kids  are  reported  to  be  very  pale  coloured.  The  female  tahr  differs  from 
all  other  goats,  as  well  as  from  sheep,  in  having  four  teats. 

In  height  the  male  tahr  varies  from  3  feet  to  3  feet  4  inches  at  the  shoulder ; 
the  does  being  much  smaller.  Good  specimens  of  the  horns  vary  from  12  to  15 
inches  in  length,  measured  along  the  curve ;  but  a  pair  has  been  recorded  with  a 
length  of  16|  and  a  basal  girth  of  10 J  inches.  In  the  does  the  length  of  the  horns 
is  seldom  more  than  10  inches. 

.  This  goat  is  found  throughout  the  higher  forest-regions  of  the 

Himalaya,  from  the  Pir  Panjal  range  on  the  outer  side  of  the  valley 
of  Kashmir  in  the  north-west  to  Sikhim  in  the  south-east,  but  is  unknown  in  the 
arid  Tibetan  districts  of  the  interior.  Tahr  is  the  native  name  by  which  it  is 


GOATS. 


255 


known  in  the  Western  Himalaya,  but  in  Kashmir  it  is  termed  kras,  while  in  Nipal 
it  goes  by  the  name  of  jharal.  Quite  recently  a  second  smaller  species,  with  only 
two  teats,  has  been  discovered  in  Arabia ;  while  a  fossil  tahr  occurs  in  the  rocks 
of  the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya. 

In  spite  of  the  small  size  of  its  horns,  the  tahr  is  decidedly  a  fine- 
looking  animal ;  and  it  is  plentifully  distributed  over  many  parts  of 
the  Himalaya.  Although  in  the  Pir  Panjal  range  tahr  are  often  found  on  the  same 
ground  as  markhor,  in  other  districts  they  frequent  almost  worse  ground,  and  we 


Habits. 


THE   HIMALAYAN   TAHR  (£  Hat.  size). 

have  known  many  instances  where  specimens  have  been  completely  smashed  by 
falling  down  precipices  after  they  were  killed.  After  mentioning  that  the  tahr 
resembles  the  markhor  in  its  forest-loving  habits,  General  Kinloch  observes  that 
"although  it  sometimes  resorts  to  the  rocky  summits  of  the  hills,  it  generally 
prefers  the  steep  slopes  which  are  more  or  less  clothed  with  trees.  Female  tahr 
may  frequently  be  found  on  open  ground,  but  old  males  hide  a  great  deal  in  the 
thickest  jungle,  lying  during  the  heat  of  the  day  under  the  shade  of  trees  or  over- 
hanging rocks.  Nearly  perpendicular  hills  with  dangerous  precipices,  where  the 
forest  consists  of  oak  and  ringal-cane,  are  the  favourite  haunts  of  the  old  tahr,  who 


256 


UNGULATES. 


climb  with  ease  over  ground  where  one  would  hardly  imagine  that  any  animal 
could  find  a  footing." 

The  old  male  tahr  generally  herd  separately  from  the  females  during  the 
summer,  but  about  October  the  two  sexes  come  together;  and  it  is  believed  that 
the  kids  are  born  in  June  and  July,  only  a  single  one  being  produced  at  a  birth. 

The  Nilgiri  wild  goat  (H.  hylocrius) — the  warri-atu  of  the 
Tamils,  and  the  Nilgiri  ibex  of  English  sportsmen — is  a  southern 
species  inhabiting  the  Nilgiri  and  Anamalai  Hills,  and  the  so-called  Western  Ghats 
as  far  south  as  Cape  Comorin.  It  is  generally  found  at  elevations  of  from  four 
thousand  to  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  but  occasionally  somewhat  lower 
down.  This  species  may  be  distinguished  at  a  glance  from  the  tahr  by  the  form 
of  the  horns,  and  the  absence  of  the  shaggy  mane  which  forms  such  a  conspicuous 
feature  on  the  fore-quarters  of  the  males  of  the  latter.  Instead  of  being  flattened 
externally,  the  horns  of  this  goat  have  their  outer  side  highly  convex,  and  thus 
have  a  distinct  anterior  surface,  internally  to  which  there  is  a  slight  ridge ;  more- 
over, for  some  distance  the  two  horns  run  parallel  to  one  another,  after  which  they 
diverge  gradually.  The  hair  is  short,  thick,  and  coarse ;  the  males  having  a  short, 
stiff  mane  on  the  back  of  the  neck  and  withers.  The  general  colour  is  dark 
yellowish  brown  above,  with  a  darker  stripe  down  the  back;  while  the  under- 
parts  are  paler.  The  females  and  young  show  a  more  or  less  decided  grey  tinge. 
In  height  old  males  of  the  Nilgiri  goat  stand  from  3|  feet  to  3£  feet  at  the 
shoulder;  the  horns  measuring  from  12  to  16  inches  in  length  along  the  curve, 
although  in  one  instance  a  length  of  17  inches  has  been  recorded. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  "  the  Nilgiri 
goat  is  found  usually  in  herds  of  from  five  or  six  to  fifty  or  sixty  amongst  the 
crags  and  rocky  precipices  that  border  the  Nilgiris  and  other  high  ranges  in  the 
extreme  south  of  India.  It  keeps  above  the  forest,  and  but  rarely  enters  woods. 
I  have  more  than  once  seen  these  animals  feeding  on  the  grassy  hills  at  the  top  of 
the  Kundahs  west  of  the  Nilgiris,  but  their  usual  haunts  are  the  grassy  slopes  and 
precipitous  crags  on  the  edges  of  the  plateau;  they  feed  on  the  former  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings,  and  rest  on  ledges  amongst  the  cliffs  during  the  day. 
They  are  quite  as  wary  and  sharp-sighted  as  tahr  or  markhor,  and  just  as  nimble 
and  alert  on  precipitous  ground.  An  old  doe,  as  with  other  goats,  usually  acts  as 
sentinel  to  the  herd,  and  they  always  appear  to  suspect  danger  from  below  and 
not  from  above."  The  young  appear  to  be  born  almost  at  any  season  of  the  year ; 
and  it  is  stated  that  there  are  generally  two  at  a  birth. 

How  this  species  originally  reached  its  present  habitat,  so  remote  from  that  of 
its  allies,  is  not  very  easy  to  understand ;  but  the  occurrence  of  a  fossil  goat  appar- 
ently allied  to  this  group  in  Perim  Island,  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  may  eventually 
aid  in  solving  the  problem. 

In  regard  to  the  present  distribution  of  this  goat,  a  recent  writer  observes  that 
it  is  still  fairly  abundant  on  the  Anamalai  and  Travancore  Hills ;  but  has  sadly 
decreased  elsewhere  owing  to  the  war  of  extermination  waged  against  it  by  the 
native  pot-hunter  and  European  shooter,  who  have  alike  been  indefatigable  in 
slaying  the  does  and  young  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  ibex,  as  it  has  been 
locally  misnamed,  has  become  so  scarce  on  the  Nilgiris  that  its  destruction  has 


G ORALS. 


257 


been  wholly  prohibited  since  last  year,  but  it  is  feared  that  this  prohibition  has 
been  effected  too  late  to  prevent  the  extinction  of  the  few  now  left,  for  the  leopards 
are  most  deadly  and  persistent  enemies,  and  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  for  a  small 
herd  to  hold  its  own  and  increase  in  spite  of  their  depredations. 


THE  GORALS. 
Genus  Cemas. 

The  goral  (Cemas  goral)  of  the  Himalaya  is  our  first  representative  of  an 
assemblage  of  mountain-haunting  Ruminants  which  to  a  great  extent  connect  the 
goats  with  the  antelopes.  Most  of  these  animals  have  a  more  or  less  goat-like  build, 


THE   GORAL  (A  liat.  size). 


goat-like  teeth,  short  tails,  relatively  small  cylindrical  horns,  and  no  beards.  The 
goral  is  a  relatively  small  creature,  standing  only  27  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and 
having  somewhat  stout  limbs,  and  rather  coarse  short  hair,  which  becomes  elon- 
gated into  a  slight  crest  along  the  back  of  the  neck.  Its  general  colour  is  brown, 
with  a  more  or  less  rufous  or  grey  tinge  ;  but  there  is  a  dark  stripe  from  the  nape 
of  the  neck  to  the  black  tail,  and  another  down  the  front  of  each  leg,  while  the 
throat  is  white.  The  muzzle  is  naked  ;  and  the  face,  as  in  the  goats,  has  no  gland 
below  the  eye,  while  the  skull  lacks  any  depression  in  the  same  region.  The 
short,  black,  and  conical  horns  curve  regularly  backwards,  and  are  marked,  except 
at  the  tip,  by  a  number  of  small  and  irregular  rings.  In  the  bucks  they  may  vary 
VOL.  ii.  —  17 


258 


UNGULATES. 


from  6  to  8  inches  in  length,  but  a  pair  has  been  recorded  of  upwards  of  9f  inches. 
The  horns  of  the  does  are  only  slightly  smaller  than  those  of  the  bucks. 

The  goral  is  found  throughout  the  outer  ridges  of  the  Himalaya, 

on>    from  Kashmir  to  Bhutan,  at  elevations  of  from  three  thousand  tc 

eight  thousand  feet.     In  Eastern  Tibet  its  place  is  taken  by  the  ashy  goral  (C. 

cinerea)  and  the  grey  goral  (C.  grisea) ;  while  in  Northern  China  and  Amurland  it 

is  represented  by  the  long-tailed  goral,  distinguished  by  its  longer  tail. 

The  Himalayan  goral  is  generally  found  in  small  parties 
of  from  four  to  eight  individuals ;  but  sometimes  these  animals 
associate  only  in  pairs,  and  old  bucks  appear  to  be  generally  solitary.  They 
frequent  rugged  grassy  hills  or  rocky  forest-clad  ground;  and  during  cloudy 
weather  feed  throughout  the  day,  but  when  fine,  only  in  the  morning  and 
evening.  Where  one  goral  is  seen,  there  others  will  almost  certainly  be  found 
in  the  neighbourhood ;  and  these  animals  but  rarely  forsake  their  feeding-grounds. 
When  alarmed,  they  utter  a  kind  of  hissing  snort.  General  Macintyre  writes 
that  "  goral-stalking  in  the  precipitous  and  broken  ground  on  the  middle  ranges 
[of  the  Himalaya],  is  perhaps  the  pleasantest  though  not  the  grandest  kind  of 
mountain  sport.  The  amount  of  stiff  climbing  it  entails  is  quite  enough  to  give 
it  zest,  without  making  it  excessively  laborious.  The  sportsman  can  generally 
return  to  his  tent  to  rest  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  whilst  the  goral  are  doing 
likewise,  hidden  away  among  the  shady  recesses  of  the  rocks,  and  he  can  always 
get  back  at  night  to  a  comfortable  bed." 

THE  SEROWS. 
Genus  Nemorhcedus. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  gorals  are  the  more  shaggy  animals  known  as  serows,  or 
goat-antelopes,  which  are  likewise  peculiar  to  South-Eastern  and  Eastern  Asia. 
Although  resembling  the  gorals  in  their  general  build,  their  naked  muzzles,  short 
tails,  and  the  presence  of  four  teats  in  the  females,  the  serows  are  distinguished  by 
having  a  gland  beneath  the  eye,  and  a  corresponding  shallow  depression  in  the 
skull  for  its  reception.  Moreover,  the  plane  of  the  forehead  passes  imperceptibly 
into  that  of  the  region  behind  the  horns,  whereas  in  the  gorals  the  two  are 
separated  by  a  distinct  angle. 

The  common  serow  (Nemorhcedus  bubalinus)  is  a  Himalayan  species  extending 
from  Kashmir  to  the  Mishmi  Hills,  where  it  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  six 
to  twelve  thousand  feet.  It  is  much  larger  than  the  goral,  standing  about  37 
inches  at  the  shoulders,  and  the  horns  of  bucks  generally  measuring  from  9 
to  10  inches  in  length,  although  they  may  reach  as  much  as  13£  inches.  The 
serow  is  rather  an  ugly-looking  animal,  with  large  ears,  and  coarse  and  some- 
what thin  hair  of  moderate  length,  which  forms  a  kind  of  crest  along  the  neck. 
The  head  and  neck  are  black,  and  the  rest  of  the  hair  of  the  upper-parts  black  or 
dark  grey,  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  grizzle ;  the  muzzle,  chin,  and  inside  of  the 
ears  are  white,  and  the  under-parts  are  also  whitish,  while  the  flanks,  chest,  etc., 
are  rusty  red.  The  black  horns  curve  regularly  backwards,  and,  in  addition  to 


TAKIN. 


259 


Habits. 


numerous  rings,  are  marked  by  a  number  of  longitudinal  striae.  The  two  sexes 
are  very  similar. 

The  Burmese  serow  (N.  sumatrensis),  which  inhabits  hilly  districts  from  the 
Eastern  Himalaya  to  Yunnan  and  Eastern  Tibet,  and  thence  to  Siam,  Burma,  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  Sumatra,  is  only  distinguished  by  its  redder  colour,  and 
perhaps  rather  smaller  size.  The  other  two  species  are  the  Japanese  serow  (N. 
Crispins)  from  Japan,  and  Swinhoe's  serow  (N.  swinhoei)  from  the  island  of 
Formosa;  both  of  which  are  distinguished  by  their  smaller  size,  which  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  goral. 

The  habits  of  all  the  serows  are  probably  very  similar.  Writing 
of  the  Himalayan  species,  General  Kinloch  observes  that  it  "  has  an 
awkward  gait,  but,  in  spite  of  this,  it  can  go  over  the  worst  ground ;  and  it  has, 
perhaps,  no  superior  in  going  down  steep 
hills.  It  is  a  solitary  animal,  and  is  nowhere 
numerous;  two  or  three  may  be  found  on 
one  hill,  four  or  five  on  another,  and  so  on. 
It  delights  in  the  steepest  and  most  rocky 
hillsides,  and  its  favourite  resting-places  are 
in  caves,  under  the  shelter  of  overhanging 
rocks,  or  at  the  foot  of  shady  trees.  Although 
very  shy  and  difficult  to  find,  the  serow  is  a 
fierce  and  dangerous  animal  when  brought  to 
bay.  I  have  even  heard  of  an  unwounded 
male  charging  when  his  mate  had  been  shot. 
It  is  said  that  a  serow  will  sometimes  beat 
off  a  pack  of  wild  dogs,  and  I  believe  that 
serow  and  dogs  have  been  found  lying  dead 
together.  When  disturbed,  the  serow  utters  a 
most  singular  sound,  something  between  a 
snort  and  a  screaming  whistle,  and  I  have 
heard  them  screaming  loudly  when  they  had 
apparently  not  been  alarmed."  General  Mac- 
intyre  relates  that  on  one  occasion  "  a  female 

serow  had  been  shot  by  a  sportsman,  when,  on  his  native  follower  approaching 
to  secure  it,  a  male  companion  rushed  out  from  the  dense  cover  hard  by,  and, 
going  for  the  man,  sent  him  rolling  downhill  with  a  butt  from  its  horns." 


HORNS   OF  HIMALAYAN   SEROW. 


THE  TAKIN. 
Genus  Budorcas. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  members  of  this  group  is  the  little-known  takin 
(Budorcas  taxicolor),  from  Eastern  Tibet  and  the  Mishmi  Hills,  which  is  evidently 
allied  to  the  serow,  although  with  very  differently  shaped  horns.  The  takin  is  a 
heavily-built  and  comparatively  large  animal,  standing  3|  feet  at  the  shoulder, 
with  stout  limbs,  large  lateral  hoofs,  and  a  small  goat-like  tail.  The  muzzle  is 


260 


UNGULATES. 


is  convex. 


covered  with  hair,  except  a  small  spot  at  the  extremity ;  and  the  profile  of  the  face 
The  horns  are  black  and  thick  in  both  sexes ;  in  the  males  they  rise 

(as  in  our  figure)  close  together, 
and  at  first  curve  outwards, 
after  which  they  make  a  sharp 
turn  and  are  directed  straight 
backwards.  According  to  Mr. 
A.  O.  Hume,  the  horns  of  the 
female  are  placed  further  apart 
at  the  base,  and  curve  outwards 
and  then  backwards  without 
any  marked  angulation;  but 
other  writers  state  that  they  are 
similar  in  shape  to  those  of  the 
males,  but  smaller  and  thinner. 
Male  horns  vary  in  length  from 
20  to  24  inches,  with  a  basal 
girth  of  9  or  10  inches.  The 
head  of  the  takin  is  black,  but 
the  colour  of  the  coarse  hair 

of  the  body  varies  from  yellowish  to  reddish  brown  mingled  with  black.     Very 

little  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  Tibetan  ruminant,  but  it  appears  to  be  found 

either  singly  or  in  herds. 


UPPER  PART  OF  SKULL  AND   HORNS   OF  MALE  TAKIN. 

(From  Hume,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1887.) 


THE  KOCKY  MOUNTAIN  GOAT. 
Genus  Haploceros. 

The  so-called  goat  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (Haploceros  montanus),  which  is 
the  third  and  last  representative  of  the  Bovidce  inhabiting  America,  is  another 
animal  nearly  allied  to  the  serow.  This  creature  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  sheep, 
and  averages  100  Ibs.  in  weight.  It  has  very  short  and  stout  legs,  terminating  in 
broad  and  blunted  hoofs,  pointed  ears,  and  jet  black  horns,  curving  backwards,  and 
ringed  for  about  half  their  length,  but  smooth  above  this.  The  body  is  covered 
with  a  long  coat  of  white  hair,  which  is  nearly  straight,  and  falls  on  the  sides  of 
the  body  and  limbs,  but  is  erect  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  as  it  becomes 
longer  over  the  withers  and  haunches  the  animal  looks  as  though  it  had  two  humps. 
Beneath  the  hair  there  is  a  thick  coat  of  wool.  There  are  no  glands  below  the 
eyes.  In  length  the  horns  vary  from  6  to  10|  inches ;  and  the  skeleton  is  remark- 
able for  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  cannon-bones. 

^.     .      .  The  range  of  this  animal  extends  through  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Distribution. 

from  about  lat.  36°  in  California  at  least  as  far  north  as  lat.  62°, 

but  Mr.  J.  Fannin  believes  that  it  will  be  found  as  far  north  as  the  mountains 
reach.  The  same  writer  observes  that  it  "is  extremely  abundant  in  British 
Columbia,  ranging  from  its  southern  boundary  to  the  watershed  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  from  the  coast-line  to  the  Rockies.  Here,  amid  nature's  wildest  scenes, 


CHAMOIS.  261 

amid  storm-swept  canons  and  beetling  crags,  amid  steel-blue  glaciers  and  snowy 
peaks,  where  the  silence  is  seldom  broken  save  by  the  rush  of  mountain  torrent, 
the  howling  of  the  storm,  or  the  crashing  of  the  treacherous  avalanche, — here,  far 
removed  from  the  trail  of  the  ordinary  hunter,  the  mountain-goat,  solitary  in  its 
habits,  and  contented  with  its  chaotic  and  gloomy  surroundings,  increases  and 
multiplies." 

Although  chiefly  a  mountain  animal,  this  species  is  occasionally 
observed  close  to  the  sea-level,  and  has  even  been  seen  swimming  salt- 
water estuaries  or  rivers.  Such  occurrences  are,  however,  rare ;  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
Rocky  Mountain  goat  lives  above  or  close  to  the  upper  limits  of  forests.  But  when 
driven  by  hunger,  these  animals  sometimes  descend  to  lower  levels  in  the  forest, 
while  they  will  not  unfrequently  traverse  the  lowlands  separating  one  mountain  or 
range  from  another.  During  the  pairing-season  in  November  and  in  the  middle 
of  winter  they  are  gregarious,  although  not  markedly  so  at  other  seasons  of  the 
year.  As  might  be  inferred,  from  their  short  and  clumsy  limbs,  these  animals  have 
but  little  speed ;  and  when  disturbed  they  move  leisurely  off,  trusting  rather  to 
concealment  behind  sheltering  rocks  than  in  rapidity  of  pace.  Formerly  the  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  was  much  hunted  by  the  Indians  for  the  sake  of  its  fleece,  but  now 
that  the  demand  for  blankets  made  from  its  wool  has  well-nigh  ceased,  the  pursuit 
itself  has  been  abandoned  in  many  districts. 

Although  extremely  agile  among  its  native  mountains,  the  Rocky  Mountain 
goat,  in  spite  of  many  statements  to  the  contrary,  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very 
wary  animal.  Indeed,  Mr.  Fannin  states  that  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  stupid 
animal  in  the  mountains,  and  little  or  no  skill  is  required  in  hunting  it.  The  great 
difficulty  is  in  reaching  the  almost  inaccessible  places  which  it  usually  inhabits. 
The  best  time  for  hunting  is  in  September  and  October,  before  the  rainy  season 
sets  in,  although  the  skins  are  not  in  their  best  condition  till  later  on.  In  colora- 
tion this  animal  is  unique  among  Ruminants ;  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  few 
mammals  that  are  white  at  all  seasons.  Its  white  coat  is  admirably  adapted  to 
harmonise  with  the  snows  of  its  highest  haunts,  but  would  seem  to  be  conspicuous 
when  the  animal  is  among  dark  rocks  or  on  its  grazing-grounds. 

THE  CHAMOIS. 
Genus  Rupicapra. 

The  last  representative  of  the  goat-like  antelopes  is  the  well-known  chamois  or 
gemse  (Rupicapra  tragus),  of  the  mountains  of  Europe,  readily  distinguished  from 
all  the  others  by  the  short  and  cylindrical  black  horns  rising  for  a  considerable 
distance  vertically  from  the  forehead,  and  then  bending  sharply  backwards  and 
downwards  in  a  hook -like  manner.  The  chamois  is  a  strongly -built  animal,  with 
relatively  long  and  stout  limbs,  and  a  very  short  stumpy  tail ;  in  height  it  stands 
about  2  feet  at  the  withers.  The  hair  is  close  and  rather  long,  with  a  thick 
woolly  under-fur.  During  the  winter  the  general  colour  is  a  chestnut-brown,  paler 
on  the  face  and  under-parts,  and  there  is  a  well-marked  brown  streak  extending 
from  below  the  eye  nearly  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth  ;  the  tail  being  black.  In 


262 


UNGULATES. 


the  summer  the  coat  is  lighter  coloured,  having  in  spring  a  more  or  less  marked 
grey  hue.  The  erect  ears  are  sharply  pointed ;  and  the  horns,  except  at  their  tips, 
are  marked  both  by  slight  transverse  rings  and  by  longitudinal  striae.  Fair-sized 
horns  are  about  7  inches  in  length,  but  some  specimens  measure  as  much  as  9 
inches,  or  rather  more,  while  a  few  reach  10£  inches.  The  weight  of  a  buck 
chamois  may  vary  from  50  to  70  Ibs.  Light-coloured,  or  even  white  varieties,  are 


THE  CHAMOIS  (•?•,  iiat.  size). 

occasionally  met  with.  The  face  has  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  and  there 
is  a  corresponding  shallow  depression  in  the  skull  for  its  reception;  while  the 
muzzle  is  completely  covered  with  hair.  The  hoofs  have  their  outer  edges  higher 
than  the  central  portion,  and  are  thus  adapted  for  securing  a  firm  foothold  on 
rocks. 

The  chamois  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  mountains  of  Europe, 
occurring  in  the  Pyrenees  (where  it   is  known  as  the  izard),  the 
mountains  of  the  coast  of  Spain,  in  Dalmatia  and  Greece,  in  the  Carpathians,  the 


Distribution. 


CHAMOIS    AT    BAY. 


CHAMOIS.  265 

Swiss  and  Transylvanian  Alps,  the  Caucasus,  the  Taurus  Range,  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Georgia.  The  Pyrenean  izard  is  a  smaller  form,  with  shorter  horns 
and  a  more  foxy-red  colour  than  the  typical  Alpine  gemse ;  and  the  variety  found 
in  the  Caucasus,  where  it  is  known  as  atchi,  has  also  certain  distinctive  differences. 
Neither  of  these  can,  however,  be  regarded  as  more  than  local  races.  At  the 
present  day  the  chamois  has  become  rare  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  but  in  the  Eastern 
Alps,  in  the  districts  of  Bavaria,  Salzburg,  Styria,  and  Carinthia,  it  is  far  more 
common;  while  it  is  abundant  on  the  precipitous  summits  of  the  central  Car- 
pathians. Fossil  remains  of  the  chamois  are  found  in  caverns  at  low  elevations  in 
several  parts  of  the  European  continent,  thus  indicating  very  different  climatic 
conditions  from  those  now  prevailing. 

As  regards  its  habits,  the  general  notion  is  that  the  chamois  is 

Habits 

an  essentially  Alpine  animal ;  that  is,  one  frequenting  the  glaciers 
and  snowy  peaks  above  the  forest-level.  This,  however,  according  to  Brehm,  is  a 
mistaken  idea ;  the  truth  being  that  the  chamois  is  really  a  forest-dwelling  animal, 
and  that  most  individuals  of  the  species  live  from  year's  end  to  year's  end  within 
the  limits  of  the  forest.  A  certain  number  during  the  summer  always  leave, 
however,  the  main  flock,  to  take  up  their  abode  for  a  period  of  weeks  or  months 
among  the  glaciers  and  snow-fields  above  the  upper  limits  of  forests.  These 
adventurous  individuals  are  known  to  the  hunters  as  glacier  -  chamois,  in 
contradistinction  to  wood-chamois;  but  a  short  spell  of  severe  weather  is 
sufficient  to  drive  even  these  back  to  the  shelter  of  the  forests.  The  favourite 
haunts  of  the  chamois  are  the  western  and  north-western  slopes  of  the  Alps  in 
summer ;  while  in  the  winter  they  prefer  the  spots  with  an  easterly  or  southerly 
aspect. 

Chamois  are  essentially  gregarious  animals,  usually  associating  together  in 
herds  of  fifteen  or  twenty  individuals.  They  repose  during  the  night,  but  with 
the  first  glimmer  of  dawn  commence  feeding;  towards  the  middle  of  the  day 
they  again  seek  the  shelter  of  rocks  or  trees,  where  they  lie  in  the  shade  till 
evening,  when  they  once  more  issue  forth  to  feed. 

Their  chief  nutriment  consists  of  lichens  and  the  scanty  mountain  herbage. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  old  males  live  a  solitary  life  apart 
from  the  flocks;  but  during  the  pairing-season  in  October  and  November  they 
join  the  flocks  of  females,  from  which  they  drive  away  the  young  bucks.  During 
this  period  the  old  bucks  engage  in  fierce  contests  among  themselves,  which  occa- 
sionally terminate  fatally. 

The  young,  generally  one  but  occasionally  two  in  number,  are  born  in  May 
or  June,  after  a  gestation  of  about  twenty-eight  weeks,  and  are  clothed  with  a 
thick  woolly  coat  of  a  reddish  colour.  When  but  a  day  old  they  are  able  to  follow 
their  dams  almost  anywhere ;  and  in  three  months  first  show  their  horns.  In 
three  years  they  attain  their  full  size ;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  span  of  life  of 
a  chamois  will  extend  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years,  although  this  requires 
confirmation. 

All  who  have  seen  chamois  in  their  native  haunts  are  agreed  as  to  their  extreme 
agility  and  wariness ;  and  their  sure-footedness  has  become  proverbial.  When 
alarmed,  they  utter  a  shrill  whistling  sound,  which  at  once  sets  the  whole  flock  in 


266 


UNGULATES. 


rapid  motion.     A  chamois  is  able  to  stand  on  the  summit  of  a  pinnacle  of  rock 
with  all  its  four  feet  gathered  into  a  space  of  the  size  of  a  crown  piece ;  and  as  its 


THE  LEAP  OP  THE  CHAMOIS. 


sense  of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing,  are  of  the  acutest,  its  pursuit  taxes  the  utmost 
powers  of  the  hunter. 


ANTELOPES. 


267 


ELAND. 
Genus  Orias. 

With  the  large  and  handsome  African  animals  known  as  eland,  or  impofo,  we 
come  to  the  first  representatives  of  the  extensive  group  of  antelopes,  which 
includes  the  whole  of  the  remain- 
ing members  of  the  bovine 
family.  Although  the  term 
antelope  is  one  in  common  use, 
and  most  of  the  members  of 
the  group  are  easily  recognised, 
yet,  owing  to  the  number  of 
generic  types  and  the  diversity 
of  their  structure,  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  distinguish 
antelopes  as  a  whole  from  the 
oxen  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
the  goats  on  the  other;  the 
transition  to  the  former  group 
being  effected  by  means  of  the 
anoa,  and  to  the  latter  by  the 
goat-like  antelopes  just  described. 
Antelopes  are,  indeed,  the  most 
generalised  members  of  the  pre- 
sent family  now  existing,  and 
since  they  are  also  its  oldest 
known  representatives,  it  is  prob- 
able that  from  them  have  been 
derived  the  more  specialised 

types  already  treated  of,  so  that  HEAD  op  BULL  ELAND._After  Nicoiis  and  Eglington. 

the  above-mentioned  transitions 

are  precisely  what  we  might  naturally  expect  to  occur. 

Characters  of  As  a  whole,  antelopes  are  characterised  by  their  graceful  build, 

Antelopes.  an(j  by  the  head  being  carried  considerably  above  the  level  of  the 
back.  The  horns,  which  may  or  may  not  be  present  in  the  females,  are  generally 
long,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and  often  lyrate  in  shape ;  while  they  are  frequently 
marked  with  prominent  rings,  and  have  an  upright  direction.  Their  bony  internal 
cores,  instead  of  being  honeycombed,  as  in  the  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  are  nearly 
solid  throughout.  These  animals  very  generally  have  a  gland  beneath  the  eye,  by 
which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  oxen  and  goats ;  but,  as  regards  their  teeth, 
some  of  them  resemble  the  oxen,  while  others -approximate  to  the  sheep  and  goats. 

Antelopes  (in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word)  are  strictly  confined 
Distribution.  £      \.  /     r  .   '.          „     , 

to  the  Old  World ;  and  by  far  the  greater  majority  ot  them  are  now 

restricted  to  Africa,  with  the  adjacent  regions  of  Syria  and  Arabia.     Indeed,  if  we 
except  the  widely-spread  group  of  gazelles,  the  only  antelopes  found  beyond  those 


268 


UNGULATES. 


regions  are  the  black-buck,  four-horned  antelope,  and  nilgai  of  India,  the  saiga  of 
Tartary,  and  the  chiru  of  Tibet.  It  was  not,  however,  always  so,  since  in  early 
times  antelopes  of  African  types  were  distributed  over  a  large  portion  of  India  and 
Southern  Europe ;  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  problems  of  zoology  to  account  satis- 
factorily for  the  disappearance  of  these  animals  from  the  latter  regions.  The 
introduction  of  antelopes  into  Africa  appears  to  have  been  comparatively  recent ; 
but  having  once  made  good  their  footing  on  that  continent  they  multiplied,  both 
as  regards  individuals  and  species,  in  a  manner  quite  unparalleled  in  any  other 
region,  the  total  number  of  African  antelopes  exceeding  ninety.  Unfortunately, 


SKELETON   OF  THE  ADDAX. 


Eland. 


this  profusion  and  exuberance  of  ruminant  life,  which,  but  a  few  decades  back, 
characterised  the  dark  continent,  is  rapidly  disappearing  before  the  advance  of 
civilisation. 

The  eland  belongs  to  a  group  of  large  and  almost  exclusively 
African  antelopes,  characterised  by  the  general  absence  of  horns  in 
the  females,  and  by  those  of  the  male  being  devoid  of  rings,  angulated  in  front, 
and  usually  spirally  twisted.  There  is  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  the  muzzle  is 
naked,  the  tail  long,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  generally  have  short  crowns. 

Eland  are  the  largest  of  all  antelopes,  and  differ  from  the  other  members  of 
the  group  in  having  horns  in  both  sexes ;  these  being  spirally  twisted  on  their  own 
axis  and  directed  upwards  and  outwards.  The  horns  have  a  sharp  ridge  both  in 


ANTELOPES. 


269 


front  and  behind,  and  are  directed  upwards  and  outwards  in  the  plane  of  the  face. 
The  naked  muzzle  is  broad,  the  gland  below  the  eye  small,  and  the  tufted  tail 
reaches  below  the  hocks.  Both  sexes  have  a  large  dewlap ;  and  the  crowns  of  the 
upper  molar  teeth  are  low  and  broad.  The  common  eland  (Orias  canna),  which 
formerly  ranged  over  the  greater  part  of  South,  East,  and  Central  Africa,  is  char- 


THE  ELAND 


acterised  by  the  horns  of  the  cows  being  longer  and  thinner  than  those  of  the 
bulls.  The  bulls  have  a  tuft  of  long  dark  brown  hair  covering  the  forehead  ;  but 
the  colour  of  the  rest  of  the  head  and  body  varies  from  pale  fawn  to  bluish  grey  ; 
the  blue  tint  being  most  marked  in  old  individuals  —  more  especially  bulls,  in 
which,  owing  to  the  scantiness  of  the  hair,  the  colour  of  the  skin  shows  through. 
In  the  southern  part  of  its  range  the  eland  is  uniformly  coloured,  but  further  north 
there  occurs  a  variety  in  which  the  body  is  marked  with  vertical  white  stripes, 


270  UNGULATES. 

descending  from  a  dark  stripe  on  the  back.  The  degree  of  distinctness  of  these 
stripes  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals ;  and  frequently  in  this  variety  there 
is  a  white  stripe  across  the  nose,  while  there  is  always  a  dark  patch  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  knee.  Mr.  Crawshay  states  that  in  Nyasaland,  among  a  single  troop, 
individuals  may  be  seen  varying  from  a  light  tawny  yellow  to  a  slaty  blue  in  very 
old  age,  while  in  some  the  stripes  are  clearly  defined,  in  others  faintly,  and  in 
others  again  they  are  not  distinguishable  at  all.  An  average-sized  bull  eland  shot 
by  Mr.  Selous  stood  5  feet  9  inches  at  the  withers,  but  some  specimens  are  doubt- 
less taller.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  the  average  weight  varies  from  800  to 
1100  Ibs.,  but  that  in  old  bulls  it  may  reach  1400  or  even  1500  Ibs.  The  average 
length  of  the  horns  may  be  set  down  at  25  inches  for  bulls  and  26  inches  for  cows ; 
but  Mr.  Selous  has  recorded  a  length  of  30  inches  in  the  former  and  34  inches  in 
the  latter.  In  old  bulls  the  horns  may  be  worn  down  to  less  than  a  foot  in 
length. 

The  eland  was  formerly  distributed  over  all  Southern  and 
Eastern  Africa,  but  has  now  disappeared  from  the  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  the  Orange  Free  State,  Griqualand  West,  and  the  Transvaal.  A  few  years 
ago  these  antelopes  were,  however,  abundant  in  the  districts  between  the  Chobi 
and  Zambesi  Rivers,  as  well  as  in  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  latter ;  while 
they  are  still  plentiful  in  parts  of  Nyasaland,  and  are  not  uncommon  in  the 
Kilima-Njaro  district.  Their  complete  extirpation  is,  however,  probably  merely  a 
matter  of  time ;  the  animal  being  slaughtered  on  account  of  its  hide. 

Eland   are  found  both  in  the   desert -country,  and   in  wooded 
Hcibits 

districts,  both   hilly  and   flat.      In   Nyasaland  Mr.   Crawshay  says 

that  their  favourite  haunts  are  undulating,  well-timbered  country,  where  the 
grass  is  not  too  long,  and  where  there  are  intervening  open  plains ;  as  a  rule,  they 
visit  the  plains  at  night  or  in  the  early  mornings  to  drink,  and  then  wander  back 
long  distances  to  the  forest,  where  they  spend  the  hot  hours  of  the  day.  In  the 
great  Kalahari  Desert,  where  they  are  still  common,  Mr.  Selous  states,  however, 
that  eland  go  a  long  period  without  drinking  any  water,  except  that  which  they 
may  obtain  by  eating  water-melons  and  other  plants.  Eland  are  generally  found 
in  large  herds,  numbering  from  fifty  to  upwards  of  a  hundred  head,  but  solitary 
bulls  or  small  parties  of  bulls  are  not  unfrequently  observed. 

Elands  are  generally  accompanied  by  "  rhinoceros  birds,"  which,  in  addition 
to  their  natural  timidity,  make  them  difficult  to  approach  on  foot.  Consequently 
they  are  generally  hunted  on  horseback.  The  bulls,  when  fat,  can  be  easily  ridden 
down  by  a  good  horse;  but  the  cows  have  greater  speed  and  staying  power. 
When  pursued,  eland  frequently  leap  high  in  the  air.  The  calves  are  born  in  July 
and  August ;  and  it  appears  that  the  females  do  not  breed  oftener  than  once  in 
every  two  years,  so  that  the  rate  of  increase  is  slow.  When  they  have  their  calves 
with  them,  the  cows  will  attack  and  impale  dogs  on  their  horns ;  but  at  other 
seasons  both  sexes  are  quite  harmless.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  flesh  of  the 
eland  has  been  very  generally  over-estimated ;  and  during  the  dry  season,  when 
these  animals  often  subsist  entirely  upon  leaves,  it  is  quite  uneatable.  In  captivity 
the  eland  breeds  freely;  and  it  was  at  one  time  considered  that  it  might  be 
profitably  acclimatised  in  England. 


MALE    AND    FEMALE    KUDU. 


ANTELOPES. 


273 


Abnormal  Horns. 


Occasionally,  cow  eland  are  found  with  one  or  both  horns 
abnormally  formed ;  such  abnormal  horns  being  long  and  nearly 
straight,  with  a  triangular  cross-section.  Such  a  pair,  measuring  30  inches  in  a 
straight  line,  were  described  a  few  years  ago  under  the  name  of  Antilope  triangul- 
aris,  and  were  supposed  to  indicate  an  extinct  species  of  aiitelope,  which  was 
subsequently  referred  to  a  new  genus. 

The  magnificent  animal  known  as  the  Derbian  eland  (0. 
derbiamis),  replaces  the  common  species  on  the  West  Coast  in  the 
districts  of  Angola  and  Senegambia.  It  is  considerably  larger  than  the  southern 
and  eastern  form ;  and  the  bulls  have  a  large  dark  brown  mane  and  much  finer 
horns.  The  horns  of  the  cows  are,  however,  relatively  small.  Male  horns  have 
been  measured  of  34  i  inches  in  length. 


Derbian  Eland. 


KUDU. 
Genus  Strepsiceros. 

The  graceful  and  beautifully  marked  antelopes  known  as  kudu,  of  which 
there  are  likewise  two  species, 
are  distinguished  from  eland 
by  the  absence  of  horns  in 
the  female,  and  by  the  cork- 
screw -  like  spiral  formed  by 
those  of  the  male,  as  well  as 
by  the  much  shorter  tail, 
which  does  not  reach  the 
hocks.  The  horns  are  char- 
acterised by  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  front  ridge,  and 
rise  from  the  skull  at  an 
obtuse  angle  to  the  plane  of 
the  face.  The  neck  is  maned, 
and  the  throat  may  be  fur- 
nished with  a  fringe  of  long 
hair.  The  body  is  marked 
with  narrow  vertical  white 
stripes  descending  from  a  white 
line  on  the  back ;  and  there 
is  also  a  white  chevron  on  the 
face,  together  with  white  spots 
on  the  cheek,  and  splashes  of 
the  same  colour  on  the  throat 
and  limbs.  The  hoofs  are 
short. 

The   common  kudu   (Strepsiceros  kudu},  which  is  the  species 
represented  in  our  illustration,  is  distinguished  by  its  large  size,  the 

VOL.  ii. — 18 


HEAD  OF  KUDU.— After  Nicolls  and  Eglington. 


Common  Kudu. 


274  UNGULATES. 

open  spiral  formed  by  the  enormous  horns  of  the  male,  and  the  presence  of  a 
thick  fringe  of  hair  on  the  throat.  The  ground-colour  of  females  and  young  males 
is  reddish  or  greyish  brown,  marked  with  eight  or  nine  white  stripes ;  but  in  old 
males  it  becomes  bluish  grey,  apparently  owing  to  the  skin  showing  through  the 
scanty  hair.  The  kudu  is  only  inferior  in  size  to  the  eland ;  a  full-grown  bull 
standing  about  4  feet  4  inches  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  may  attain  a  length  of  3 
feet  5  or  6  inches  in  a  straight  line,  while  one  instance  is  recorded  where  the  one 
horn  measured  3  feet  9  inches,  and  the  other  3  feet  9£  inches.  In  a  pair  measuring 
3  feet  5  inches  in  a  straight  line,  the  length  along  the  curve  was  5  feet  4  inches. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  kudu  extends  from  the  Cape  to 
Distribution.  ..,..,       ,  ,         .          ,,  ^  .  p  .  -.  -,. 

the  Abyssinian  highlands,  embracing  all  Eastern  Africa  and  extending 

westwards  to  Angola.  Some  years  ago  Mr.  Selous  stated  that  a  few  kudu  still 
lingered  in  the  Cape  Colony,  while  in  Griqualand  West  they  were  not  uncommon. 
From  the  Limpopo  to  the  Zambesi  they  were  at  that  time  abundant;  and  Mr. 
Crawshay  records  them  as  distributed  all  over  Nyasaland.  In  the  Kilima-Njaro 
district  they  appear  to  be  rare.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  kudu  is  usually  partial 
to  hilly  country  covered  with  dense  thickets ;  but  hills  are  by  no  means  necessary 
to  its  existence,  as  it  is  common  in  the  thick  bush  along  both  banks  of  the  river 
Chobi,  where  there  are  no  hills  whatever,  and  it  is  also  plentiful  in  the  wait-a-bit 
thorn-jungles  on  the  Lower  Molapo,  just  on  the  edge  of  the  flat  and  sandy  Kalahari 
Desert.  In  Nyasaland  they  are  never  found  far  away  from  the  hills.  Mr. 
Crawshay  states  that  kudu  are  fond  of  browsing  on  the  young  and  tender  shoots 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  especially  in  the  dry  season,  when  the  grass  has  been  burnt  off, 
and  has  not  had  time  to  grow.  When  alarmed,  kudu  sometimes  give  vent  to  a  low 
bark,  but  this  is  only  audible  at  close  quarters. 

Kudu  are  generally  found  in  pairs  or  in  small  parties.     Their 

speed  is  not  great ;  but  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  when  dis- 
turbed they  invariably  make  for  the  roughest  ground,  while  the  districts  they 
haunt  are  frequently  infested  with  the  tsetse  fly,  it  is  but  seldom  that  they 
can  be  hunted  on  horseback.  With  dogs,  however,  they  afford  excellent  sport ; 
and  Mr.  Drummond  gives  the  following  graphic  account  of  two  bull  kudu 
brought  to  bay  by  a  pack  of  Kaffir  dogs.  "My  eyes,"  writes  Mr.  Drummond, 
"  were  fixed  upon  the  river,  for  there,  on  a  small  sandbank,  stood  the  two  noble 
kudu  bulls  at  bay.  Two  or  three  dogs  had  also  gained  a  footing,  and  made  the  air 
ring  with  their  sharp  barking,  re-echoed  back  again  and  again  by  the  precipice  on 
which  I  stood ;  while  several  more  swam  about  trying  to  stem  the  current  and 
regain  the  ground  which  they  had  lost.  One  of  the  antelopes  stood  with  lowered 
head,  and  his  long  circling  horns  pointed  towards  the  dogs,  and  in  his  side  I  now 
saw  that  a  spear  was  half  buried ;  the  other,  evidently  unwounded  but  unwilling 
to  leave  its  companion,  remained  motionless,  his  nostrils  thrown  forward,  as  if  to 
catch  the  first  taint  of  the  human  pursuers  sure  to  follow  in  their  dogs'  wake,  and 
his  equally  magnificent  horns  resting  almost  on  his  haunches." 

The  lesser  kudu  (8.  imberbis)  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  apparently 

restricted  to  Somaliland  and  the  Kilima-Njaro  district.  In  addition 
to  its  inferior  dimensions,  this  species  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  fringe 
of  long  hair  down  the  throat,  and  by  the  more  compressed  spiral  of  its  horns. 


ANTELOPES.  275 

Measured  in  a  straight  line,  the  horns  vary  from  about  17  to  25  inches  in  length. 
The  lesser  kudu,  although  very  common  about  Kilima-Njaro,  is  but  seldom  seen,  as 
it  rarely  leaves  the  bush.  In  Somaliland  Captain  Swayne  states  that  while  the 
large  kudu  frequents  the  mountain  ranges,  the  present  species  inhabits  the  thicket- 
clad  slopes  at  their  feet. 

An  imperfect  skull  appears  to  indicate  the  occurrence  of  a  kudu   in   India 
during  the  Pliocene  period. 


THE  HARNESSED  ANTELOPES. 
Genus  Tragelaphus. 

The  harnessed  antelopes,  or  bush-bucks,  of  which  five  species  are  now 
recognised,  come  so  close  to  the  kudus  that  it  may  be  a  question  whether  they 
ought  not  to  be  included  in  the  same  genus.  They  are,  perhaps,  the  handsomest 
of  all  the  antelopes,  being  generally  ornamented  with  vertical  stripes  like  the 
kudus,  while  in  some  cases  the  ground-colour  is  of  a  most  brilliant  hue.  The 
harnessed  antelopes  resemble  kudus  in  the  females  being  hornless ;  but  they  differ 
in  that  the  horns,  which  are  placed  behind  the  eyes,  have  but  one  or  two  turns  to 
the  spiral,  while  the  ridge  on  their  front  surface  is  less  strongly  marked.  More- 
over, the  skull  generally  lacks  the  deep  depression  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead 
characteristic  of  the  kudus,  and  the  vacuity  below  the  eye  is  of  smaller  size.  The 
throat  may  be  either  fringed  or  smooth ;  and  in  some  species  the  hoofs  are  extra- 
ordinarily elongated.  The  coloration  of  the  two  sexes  is  usually  very  different. 
The  group  is  confined  to  Africa ;  and  whereas  four  of  the  species  are  of  large  size, 
the  fifth  does  not  exceed  the  dimensions  of  an  ordinary  goat. 

The   largest   of   all   is   the   West   African  bongo   (Tragelaphus 

euryceros),  from  Liberia,  Fanti,  the  Ashkankolu  mountains,  and  the 
Gabun.  It  has  short  hoofs,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  short  hair,  the  deep  chestnut 
colour  of  the  males,  the  numerous  and  distinct  narrow  white  stripes,  the  want  of  a 
fringe  on  the  throat,  and  the  smooth  and  massive  horns,  forming  rather  more  than 
a  single  turn,  and  wearing  yellow  at  their  tips.  The  chest  is  marked  by  a  white 
crescent,  and  there  are  two  white  spots  on  the  face  below  the  eye.  The  males 
attain  a  height  of  3  feet  7  inches  at  the  shoulder ;  and  the  horns  may  reach  a 
length  of  30  or  31  \  inches  in  a  straight  line.  We  have  practically  no  knowledge 
of  the  habits  of  this  species,  except  that,  like  the  rest,  it  is  a  forest -dwelling 
one. 

In  East  Africa,  in  Zululand,  and  St.  Lucia  Bay,  the  bongo  is 

replaced  by  the  nyala  (T.  angasi).  The  males  stand  about  3  feet 
4  inches  at  the  withers,  and  have  horns  varying  from  22  to  28  inches  in  length. 
The  hair  is  long,  and  the  general  colour  of  the  males  dark  bluish  grey,  with  the 
white  stripes  faintly  marked  and  few  in  number,  and  a  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the 
neck  and  under-parts  of  the  body.  The  horns  are  characterised  by  their  rough 
surface.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  these  antelopes  are  only  to  be  found  in  low- 
lying,  fever-stricken  swamps,  where  they  frequent  the  densest  jungle  they  can  find. 
They  are  shy  and  difficult  to  stalk ;  and  from  this  circumstance,  coupled  with  the 


276 


UNGULATES. 


Antelope. 


feverish  nature  of  their  haunts,  comparatively  few  are  killed  by  Europeans.     The 
ground-colour  of  the  female's  fur  is  reddish. 

west  African  '^^ie    third    species    is   the   West   African   harnessed    antelope 

Harnessed      (T.  gratus),  from  the  Carnerun  mountains  and  the  Gabun  district,  of 
which   the  head  is    figured   in  the   accompanying   woodcut.      This 

antelope  agrees  with  the  last  in 
having  white  spots  on  the  head  and 
stripes  on  the  body,  but  differs 
from  all  those  yet  noticed  in  the 
extreme  elongation  of  the  main 
hoofs,  which  are  evidently  specially 
adapted  for  walking  on  swampy 
ground.  The  lateral  hoofs,  more- 
over, which  in  most  of  the  fore- 
going species  are  extremely  small, 
are  in  this  antelope  large  and 
elongated.  The  male  stands  about 
3 1  feet  at  the  shoulder;  and  is 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  a 
fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  throat, 
and  the  dark  olive  tint  of  the  coat. 
In  the  female  the  ground-colour 
of  the  fur  is  bright  rufous,  orna- 
mented, as  in  the  male,  with  white 
spots  on  the  face  and  stripes  on 
the  body.  The  horns  of  the  male 
are  generally  about  18  or  19  inches 
in  length,  measured  in  a  straight 
line.  Little  or  nothing  appears  to 
be  known  as  to  the  habits  of  this 
species  in  its  wild  state,  but  several 
examples  have  been  exhibited  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Amster- 
dam, where  they  have  bred. 

The  last  of  the  four  large  species  of  harnessed  antelopes  is  the 
nakong  or  sititunga  (T.  spekei),  of  the  swamps  of  Central  and  South- 
Central,  and  East  Africa.  This  species,  while  agreeing  with  the  last  in  its  elongated 
hoofs,  differs  from  all  those  yet  noticed  in  its  perfectly  uniform  greyish  brown 
colour.  The  young  are,  however,  faintly  striped  and  spotted.  The  hair  is  longer 
and  more  silky  than  that  of  the  others ;  and  the  smooth,  slender,  and  strongly- 
ridged  horns  form  nearly  two  complete  turns,  and  thus  approximate  to  those  of  the 
kudu.  The  height  of  the  male  is  3  feet  7  inches.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the 
longest  horns  he  met  with  measured  25  inches  in  a  straight  line,  but  a  pair  of  27 
inches  has  been  subsequently  recorded.  Like  the  other  members  of  the  genus,  the 
nakong  goes  in  pairs,  and  is  never  found  in  herds.  Mr.  Selous  observes  that  he 
once  saw  a  female  nakong  "  standing  breast-deep  in  the  water,  in  the  midst  of  a 


HEAD   OF  WEST  AFRICAN   HARNESSED   ANTELOPE. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  SOc.,  1883.) 


Nakong. 


ANTELOPES. 


277 


bed  of  reeds,  feeding  on  the  young  shoots  that  just  appeared  above  the  water. 
When  she  saw  us,  she  at  once  made  off,  making  a  tremendous  splashing  as  she 
plunged  through  the  water.  The  natives  told  me  that  very  often  when  these 
antelopes  are  met  with  under  similar  circumstances  they  do  not  attempt  to  run,  but, 
sinking  down  in  the  water,  submerge  their  whole  bodies,  leaving  only  their  nostrils 
above  the  surface,  and  trusting  that  their  enemies  will  pass  them  unobserved. 
They  (the  Kaffirs)  then  paddle  alongside,  and  assegai  them  from  the  canoe. 
Another  way  the  natives  have  of  killing  them  is  by  setting  fire  to  the  reeds  when 
they  become  quite  dry,  and  then  waiting  for  the  sititunga  in  their  canoes  in  one 
of  the  channels  of  open  water  by  which  the  marsh  is  intersected."  Further  up  the 
Chobi  River  it  is  stated  that  these  antelopes  are  in  the  habit  of  diving,  and  even 
sleeping  beneath  the  water  with  only  their  nostrils  exposed. 


Guib. 


MALE  AND  FEMALE   GUIB  (A  nat.  Size). 

The  guib  (T.  scriptus)  is  the  last  representative  of  the  harnessed 
antelopes,  and  differs  from  all  the  others  by  its  inferior  size,  being 
about  equal  in  dimensions  to  an  ordinary  goat.  The  average  length  of  the  horns 
is  about  12  inches,  but  specimens  of  14  inches  and  one  of  16£  inches  have  been 
recorded.  This  species  has  a  wide  distribution,  ranging  from  Abyssinia  to  the 
Cape ;  and  it  exhibits  such  variations  in  colour  that  it  was  originally  split  up  into 
four  distinct  species,  now  regarded  as  varieties.  In  the  Abyssinian  variety,  which 
is  shorter  and  stouter  than  the  others,  the  general  colour  is  yellowish,  and  the 


278  UNGULATES. 

stripes  are  nearly  obsolete ;  but  there  is  one  distinct  longitudinal  band,  sometimes 
broken  into  spots,  and  the  haunches  are  spotted,  while  the  back  has  a  dark  line. 
In  the  typical  variety,  from  West,  Central,  and  South-Central  Africa  (which  is  the 
one  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  277),  the  colour  is  bright  rufous,  brilliantly 
marked  all  over  the  body  with  white  spots  and  longitudinal  and  vertical  stripes. 
In  the  males  the  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back  is  white ;  and  the  chest  has  a 
fringe  of  blackish  hair.  In  East  Africa  we  come  across  a  third  variety  in  which 
the  general  colour  of  the  bucks  is  dark  brown,  with  two  or  three  obscure  vertical 
stripes  on  the  hind-quarters,  and  even  these  occasionally  absent.  The  spots  are 
variable,  although  less  numerous  than  in  the  preceding  variety.  Lastly,  we  have 
the  true  bush-buck  of  the  Cape,  in  which  the  coloration  is  of  a  uniform  dark  brown 
at  all  ages,  with  no  trace  of  stripes,  and  the  spots  reduced  to  a  few  indistinct  ones 
on  the  haunches. 

Guib,  or  bush-buck,  are  very  common  in  most  parts  of  Africa.  Writing  of  this 
species,  Mr.  Selous  says  that  it  is  "  never  met  with  except  in  places  where  dense 
bush  conies  right  down  to  the  water's  edge ;  and  on  the  Chobi,  where  I  have  seen 
most  of  these  antelopes,  I  have  never  found  one  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a 
hundred  yards  from  the  river." 

Remains  of  antelopes  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to  Traqela.phus 
Extinct  Species.  .  A        .  /  *       f 

are  common  in  the  Tertiaries  or  Europe,  as  far  down  as  the  Middle 

Miocene,  so  that  the  group  is  evidently  a  very  old  one. 


THE  NILGAI. 
Genus  Boselaphus. 

The  nilgai  (Boselaphus  tragocamelus),  which  is  the  largest  of  the  Indian 
antelopes,  appears  to  be  the  oriental  representative  of  the  group  of  African  species 
described  above,  although  it  differs  from  them  in  several  important  structural 
features.  The  males  only  are  horned,  and  the  horns  themselves  are  short,  smooth, 
nearly  straight,  and  directed  upwards  and  backwards,  with  a  triangular  section  at 
the  base,  but  becoming  cylindrical  at  the  tip.  In  front  the  horns  have  a  distinct 
ridge,  comparable  to  that  found  in  those  of  the  eland,  and  in  very  old  individuals 
this  ridge  extends  forwards  and  inwards,  till  the  horns  almost  touch  at  their  bases. 
The  nilgai  is  peculiar  in  having  the  fore-limbs  longer  than  the  hinder,  and  the 
withers  very  high,  in  consequence  of  which  its  whole  appearance  is  somewhat 
ungainly.  The  tail  is  tufted,  and  reaches  the  hocks ;  and  in  both  sexes  the  neck  is 
maned,  while  the  throat  of  the  male  has  a  small  tuft  of  hair.  The  gland  below  the 
eye  is  very  small  and  the  muzzle  naked.  The  upper  molar  teeth  (one  of  which  is 
figured  on  p.  155)  differ  from  those  of  the  foregoing  species  by  their  tall  crowns, 
with  a  large  additional  column  on  the  inner  side.  In  general  colour  the  adult  bull 
nilgai  is  dark  grey,  with  either  a  brownish  or  bluish  tinge.  The  long  hairs  on  the 
neck,  throat,  and  tail,  and  some  portions  of  the  ear,  are  however  black ;  and  there 
are  white  markings  on  the  face,  ears,  and  throat,  while  the  under  surface  of  the 
tail,  the  under-parts  of  the  body,  and  a  ring  above  and  below  each  fetlock  are 
likewise  white.  In  young  males  and  females  the  colour  is  brown.  A  bull  nilgai 


ANTELOPES, 


279 


usually  stands  from  4  feet  4  inches  to  4  feet  8  inches  at  the  withers,  but  it  is  stated 
that  4  feet  10  inches  has  been  measured.  The  cows  are  much  smaller.  The  black 
horns  average  8  or  9  inches  in  length,  with  a  basal  girth  of  8  inches ;  but  one  pair 
lias  been  recorded  with  a  length  of  llf  and  a  girth  of  9|  inches. 

The  nilgai  is  exclusively  an  Indian  animal,  being  quite  unknown 
in  Ceylon.     Even  in  India  its  distribution  is  restricted,  as  it  does  not 
occur  in  Eastern  Bengal  or  Assam  nor,  apparently,  near  the  Malabar  coast.     Fossil 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


THE  NILGAI  (,V  nat.  size). 

species  occur  in  the  river-gravels  of  Central  India,  and  also  in  the  Pliocene  sandstones 
of  the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya. 

Nilgai  may  be  found  either  on  the  plains  or  in  low  hills,  generally 
preferring  ground  covered  with  thin  bush,  among  which  are  scattered 
low  trees,  or  alternations  of  scrub-jungle  with  open  grassy  plains.  They  are  but 
seldom  met  with  in  thick  forest,  although  far  from  unfrequent  on  cultivated 
grounds.  The  bulls  are  generally  solitary,  but  occasionally  assemble  in  small 
parties,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  may  include  as  many  as  a  dozen  head. 
The  females  and  calves  are  generally  found  in  parties  of  from  four  to  ten,  but 
sometimes  in  herds  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  or  more,  and  they  are  on  some 


280 


UNGULATES. 


occasions  accompanied  by  one  or  more  full-grown  bulls.  Nilgai  both  graze  and 
browse,  and  will  feed  at  any  time  of  the  day,  although  they  resort  sometimes  to  the 
shade  for  repose.  Mr.  Blanford  believes  that,  in  the  cold  season,  at  least,  they  drink 
but  once  in  two  or  three  days.  General  Kinloch  writes  that  "  in  places  where  they 
are  not  disturbed,  especially  in  some  of  the  native  states,  nilgai  are  absurdly  tame, 
but  in  districts  where  they  are  much  molested  they  become  extremely  shy  and 
wary.  It  must  not,  therefore,  be  supposed  that  they  can  always  be  easily  shot,  but 
they  afford  such  a  poor  trophy  that  they  are  not  much  sought  after.  When  they 
can  be  found  sufficiently  far  from  thick  cover  they  may  be  speared,  and  they  then 
show  capital  sport,  as  they  will  probably  lead  a  well-mounted  horseman  a  chase  of 
several  miles.  On  hard  ground  I  doubt  if  a  cow  nilgai  could  be  speared  by  a 
solitary  hunter ;  the  bull,  being  much  heavier,  is  more  easily  ridden  down."  They 
can  be  readily  tamed,  but  the  bulls  are  apt  to  be  savage.  Either  one  or  two  young 
are  produced  at  a  birth. 

THE  ADDAX. 
Genus  Addax. 

With  the  addax  (Addax  nasortiaculatus)  we  come  to  a  group  of  African  and 
Arabian  antelopes  of  large  size,  including  the  genera  Addax,  Oryx,  and  Hippotragus, 


THE  ADDAX  (i1*  nat.  size). 


which  present  the  following  distinctive  characteristics.    They  have  long  cylindrical 
horns  in  both  sexes,  which  are  placed  over  or  above  the  eyes,  and  are  either  sub- 


ANTELOPES.  281 

spiral,  straight,  or  recurved.  The  muzzle  is  covered  with  hair,  and  there  is  no 
gland  below  the  eye ;  while  the  skull  has  no  depression  below  the  socket  of  the 
eye,  and  but  a  very  narrow  unossified  space  in  the  same  region.  The  tail  is  long 
and  tufted,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  resemble  those  of  the  oxen,  having  very  tall 
and  broad  crowns,  with  a  large  additional  column  on  the  inner  side.  It  is  probable 
that  this  group  is  very  closely  related  to  the  oxen ;  and  all  the  members  are  desert - 
haunting  animals. 

The  addax,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia,  has  the  horns 
ringed  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  and  ascending  in  an  open  spiral  nearly 
in  the  plane  of  the  face.  In  height  this  antelope  stands  a  little  over  3  feet,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  body  is  covered  with  short  and  thick  hair.  There  is, 
however,  a  tuft  of  long  hair  on  the  forehead  and  a  mane  extending  down  the  neck 
to  the  shoulders,  and  also  a  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  throat.  The  general  colour 
is  yellowish  white,  in  marked  contrast  to  which  is  the  brown  of  the  head,  neck,  and 
mane.  There  is  a  transverse  white  band  below  the  eyes,  while  the  lips  and  a  spot 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  ears  are  also  white.  In  the  males  the  long  hair  is  more 
abundant  and  darker  in  colour  than  in  the  other  sex,  and  during  the  winter  the 
yellowish  white  of  the  body  tends  to  grey.  The  horns  attain  a  length  of  from  20 
to  28  inches  in  a  straight  line,  and  from  26  to  35f  along  the  spiral. 
Distribution  and  The  range  of  the  addax  in  Africa  lies  to  the  northward  of  the 
Habits.  18th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and,  like  the  gemsbok,  the  animal 
inhabits  barren,  sandy  deserts,  where  water  is  scarce.  It  is  a  shy  and  wary  creature, 
and  is  doubtless  able  to  go  for  long  periods  without  slaking  its  thirst.  Our  accounts 
of  its  habits  are  far  from  full,  but  its  general  mode  of  life  is  probably  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  gemsbok.  The  addax  is  hunted  by  the  Bedouins,  partly  for  the  sake 
of  its  flesh,  partly  in  order  to  capture  the  young,  and  also  to  test  the  speed  of  their 
horses  and  greyhounds.  Large  hunting-parties  are  assembled  for  this  jpurpose,  and 
the  expeditions  may  last  for  several  weeks.  The  skeleton  of  the  addax  is  figured 
on  p.  268. 

ORYX. 

Genus  Oryx. 

Under  the  title  of  oryx  may  be  included  five  species  of  antelope,  distinguished 
from  the  addax  by  their  straight  or  recurved  horns,  their  longer  and  more  bushy 
tails,  the  small  size  of  the  mane  on  the  neck,  and  by  the  throat  being  either  short- 
haired  or  furnished  with  a  single  tuft  of  long  hair.  The  horns,  which  are  of  great 
length,  slope  backwards  more  or  less  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  face.  Oryx  are 
found  throughout  the  desert  regions  of  Africa,  and  also  range  into  Arabia  and 
Syria. 

Commencing  with  South  Africa,  we  find  the  group  represented 
by  the  gemsbok  (Oryx  gazella),  characterised  by  its  long  straight 
horns,  ringed  for  about  half  their  length,  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  throat,  and  the 
black  markings  on  the  head,  body,  and  limbs.  The  gemsbok  stands  about  4  feet 
in  height,  and  its  general  colour  is  greyish,  becoming  white  beneath.  A  black  stripe 
011  the  flanks  divides  the  grey  of  the  sides  from  the  white  below,  and  there  is  also  a 


2g2  UNGULATES. 

black  area  on  the  haunches  extending  as  a  line  on  the  back,  and  continued  over 
the  whole  of  the  tail.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is  also  black  on  the  upper-parts 
of  the  limbs,  on  the  front  of  the  legs  above  the  fetlocks,  and  along  the  throat ;  the 

throat-stripe  dividing  and  run- 
ning up  the  sides  of  the  head 
nearly  to  the  ears.  On  the  face 
a  black  stripe  runs  from  each 
horn  through  the  eye  nearly  to 
the  muzzle,  which  is  connected 
by  a  narrow  stripe  with  a  broad 
black  patch  on  the  centre  of  the 
forehead,  thus  completely  isolat- 
HEAD  OF  GEMSBOK.— After  Nicolis  and  Eglington.  ing  the  white  of  the  muzzle 

from  that  of  the  upper  part  of 

the  face.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  longest  male  horns  of  this  species  which  he 
saw  measured  42  inches  in  length,  while  those  of  the  female  may  reach  46  \  inches. 
Horns  have,  however,  been  recorded  measuring  47 \  inches. 

Distribution  and  Gemsbok  inhabit  the  desert  regions  of  South- Western  Africa, 
Habits.  an(j  are  gtill  fairly  common  in  the  Kalahari  Desert,  while  in 
Damaraland  they  are  reported  to  occur  in  large  herds:  north  of  the  Chobi 
River  they  appear  to  be  unknown.  On  the  west  coast  they  occur  in  Senegambia, 
Timbuctu,  and  the  Niger  district.  Mr.  Selous  says  that  they  are  generally  met 
with  where  the  country  is  either  completely  open  or  covered  with  stunted  scrub. 
Gordon  Gumming  writes  that  the  gemsbok  "thrives  and  attains  high  condition 
in  barren  regions  where  it  might  be  imagined  that  a  locust  would  not  find 
subsistence ;  and,  burning  as  is  the  climate,  it  is  perfectly  independent  of  water, 
which,  from  my  own  observation  and  the  repeated  reports  both  of  the  Boers  and 
aborigines,  I  am  convinced  it  never  by  any  chance  tastes.  Its  flesh  is  deservedly 
esteemed,  and  ranks  next  to  the  eland."  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  gemsbok  is  by 
no  means  fleet,  and  that  it  can  be  run  to  a  standstill  by  a  hunter  on  foot.  According 
to  Boer  reports,  the  gemsbok  is  enabled  to  beat  off  the  lion  with  its  spear-like 
horns ;  and  several  instances  are  recorded  where  the  skeletons  of  the  two  animals 
have  been  found  together,  the  body  of  the  lion  having  been  transfixed  by  the  horns 
of  the  antelope,  which  remained  too  firmly  fixed  in  the  flesh  to  admit  of  their 
withdrawal  during  life. 

In  Abyssinia  and  Somaliland  as  well  as  on  the  Red  Sea  littoral 
Beisa. 

near   Suakin,   the    gemsbok   is   replaced    by    the    beisa    (0.    beisa), 

readily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  throat,  and 
by  the  black  patch  on  the  front  of  the  face  being  completely  separated  from 
the  stripe  running  through  the  eye.  There  is  no  black  on  the  haunches  and 
thighs,  and  the  horns  also  are  shorter  and  less  divergent,  their  maximum 
recorded  length  being  36  inches  in  the  male  and  37  inches  in  the  female.  The 
beisa  is  probably  the  true  oryx  of  the  ancients,  and  may  be  the  animal  which 
gave  rise  to  the  legend  of  the  unicorn.  Mr.  Blanford  says  that  in  Abyssinia  these 
animals  are  found  in  herds  of  considerable  size,  when  they  present  an  imposing 
appearance.  Their  favourite  pace  is  a  quick  walk  or  trot,  and  they  only  break 


ANTELOPES. 


283 


into  a  gallop  when  frightened.  At  such  times  they  dash  off  with  lowered  heads 
and  upraised  tails,  at  the  same  time  puffing  and  snorting.  In  Somaliland  the  beisa, 
according  to  Captain  Swayne,  chiefly  frequents  open  stony  grounds  or  grassy  plains, 
but  it  may  be  found  in  any  kind  of  country  except  thick  jungle  or  the  cedar  forests. 
The  herds  are  chiefly  composed  of  cows,  the  bulls  wandering  about  by  themselves. 


The  Midgans  of  Somaliland  hunt  the  beisa  with  packs  of  yellow  pariah  dogs.  One 
of  the  largest  pair  of  horns  measured  34i  inches  in  length. 

Fringe-Eared  In  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  the  genus  is  represented  by  the 

oryx.  fringe-eared  oryx  (0.  callotis),  distinguished  from  the  beisa  by  the 
ground-colour  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face  being  of  a  rich  fawn,  and  by  the  sharply- 

)inted  ears  terminating  in  a  tuft  of  long  black  hair,  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
m  p.  287.  This  species  is  common  in  the  plains  and  the  tracts  of  thin  thorny 
msh.  In  examples  killed  by  Sir  J.  Willoughby  the  horns  in  the  females  measured 

>m  30  to  32  inches  in  length,  while  those  of  the  males  were  shorter,  but  thicker. 


284 


UNGULATES. 


Beatrix  Antelope. 


The  beatrix  antelope  (0.  beatrix)  of  Western  Arabia,  and,  it  is. 
'said,  of  the  Bushire  district,  is  a  much  smaller  animal  than  either  of 
the  above,  standing  about  2  feet  8  inches  in  height,  and  is  of  a  whitish  colour, 
with  a  dark  spot  on  the  face,  and  a  large  dark  patch  on  each  cheek  meeting 
beneath  the  throat ;  the  knees  and  the  front  of  the  lower  part  of  both  legs  are 
also  blackish  brown,  and  the  end  of  the  tail  is  black.  The  horns  are  only  about  15 
inches  in  length. 

sabre-Horned  The  last  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  sabre-horned  antelope, 

Antelope.      or  leucoryx  (0.  leucoryx),  which,  while  agreeing  nearly  in  size  with 

the  beisa,  differs  from  the  other  four  species  in  its  recurved  scimitar-like  horns, 


THE   SABRE-HORNED  ANTELOPE  (A  nat.  size). 

and  uniform  whitish  coloration,  which  frequently  shows  a  reddish  tinge.  The 
reddish  tinge  is  more  marked  in  the  under-parts  and  the  inner  surfaces  of  the 
limbs  than  elsewhere ;  and  the  neck  is  darker  than  the  body.  The  head  is  marked 
by  six  brown  patches,  of  which  there  are  one  between  the  horns,  two  between  the  ears, 
and  two  between  the  horns  and  eyes,  while  the  sixth  forms  a  streak  on  the  nose. 
The  horns  vary  from  34  to  39J  inches  in  length.  The  leucoryx  is  confined 
to  the  north-eastern  portion  of  Central  Africa,  being  abundant  in  Senaar  and 


ANTELOPES.  285 

Kordofan,  less  common  in  the  Central- Western  Sudan,  and  also  occurring  in  parts 

of  Nubia. 

In  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  various  parts  of  Europe,  there  occur 
remains  of  antelopes  closely  allied  to  the  oryx,  some  of  which  have 
been  generically  separated  under  the  name  of  Palceoreas,  and  are  said  to  show 
signs  of  affinity  with  the  sable  antelope  and  its  kindred. 


Genus  Hippotragus. 

The  sable  and  roan  antelopes,  together  with  some  allied  species,  constitute  an 
exclusively  African  genus  nearly  allied  to  the  oryx.  They  are  distinguished  by 
the  stout  horns,  which  are  ringed  nearly  to  their  tips,  rising  vertically  from 
a  ridge  on  the  skull  immediately  over  the  eyes  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  the  plane 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  and  then  curving  in  a  bold  sweep  backwards.  The 
neck  is  clothed  with  a  distinct,  erect,  and  often-recurving  mane ;  the  tail  is  rather 
short  and  distinctly  tufted ;  and  the  ears  are  enormous.  The  horns  of  the  females 
are  shorter  than  those  of  the  males. 

The  roan  or  equine  antelope  (Hijjpotraqus  equinus) — the  bastard 

Roan  Antelope.  .  J  ,    .    *  .    ,  ,  , ,   £  ,. 

gemsbok  of  the  rsoers — is  represented  in  the  right-hand  figure  or 

our  illustration  on  next  page,  and  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the  best-known  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus,  standing  rather  over  4|  feet  at  the  withers.  There  is 
considerable  individual  variation  in  colour,  some  specimens,  according  to  Mr.  Selous, 
being  of  a  strawberry  roan,  others  of  a  deep  dark  grey  or  brown,  and  others  again 
so  light  in  colour  as  to  appear  almost  white  at  a  distance.  The  under-parts  are 
but  little  lighter  than  the  body,  while  the  head  and  jaw  have  dark  brown  markings. 
The  latter  markings  are  characterised  by  the  white  streak  in  front  of  the  eye 
being  separated  by  a  dark  band  from  the  white  of  the  muzzle.  The  ears  are  very 
large,  and  the  mane  small  and  erect.  The  horns  of  the  bull  seldom  exceed 
36  inches  in  length,  measured  along  the  curve,  but  specimens  measuring  33  and 
42  inches  have  been  recorded.  This  species  has  a  large  range  in  central  South 
Africa,  and  has  also  been  recorded  from  Senegal.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  it  is 
nowhere  numerous,  and  it  is  seldom  that  as  many  as  twenty  are  seen  together. 

The  blaubok  (H.  leucophceus)  was  a  smaller  but  nearly-allied 

species  from  the  Cape,  which  now  appears  to  be  extinct.    It  derived  its 

Dutch  name  from  the  bluish  hue  of  the  hairs,  and  its  head  was  uniformly  coloured. 

Perhaps   the   handsomest   member   of    the   genus   is   the   sable 
Sable  Antelope.  *  .       .  i.'j.tiii.i.j/s  £ 

antelope   (H.   mger),   represented   in   the   left-hand    ngure    or    our 

illustration.  This  species  is  rather  smaller  than  the  roan  antelope,  but  has  much 
longer  horns,  smaller  ears,  and  a  longer  and  more  abundant  mane,  which  is  partly 
pendent.  With  the  exception  of  portions  of  the  face,  buttocks,  and  the  under- 
parts,  the  fur  is  entirely  of  a  deep  glossy  black ;  the  contrast  formed  by  the  white 
of  the  under-parts  being  very  striking ;  the  markings  on  the  face  differ  from  those 
of  the  roan  antelope  in  that  the  white  streak  in  front  of  the  eyes  is  continued 
to  join  the  white  of  the  muzzle,  and  is  separated  by  a  dark  streak  from  that  of 


286 


UNGULATES. 


the  throat.     The  horns  of  the  males  not  unfrequently  attain  a  length  of  42  or 
inches,  but  they  may  reach  as  much  as  44|  or  even  46  inches  along  the  curve. 
In  the  females  36  inches  seems  to  be  the  maximum. 

Distribution  and          The  sable  antelope  is  a  southern  species,  ranging  some  distance 

Habits.        £o   t}ie   north   of   the   Zambesi,   and   being  now  most  abundant  in 

Mashonaland.       This   antelope,   unlike   the   various    species    of    oryx,   generally 


THE  SABLE  ANTELOPE  AND  THE  ROAN  ANTELOPE  (j^  nat.  size). 

frequents  forest-clad  highlands.  In  Mashonaland,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  it 
is  commonly  met  with  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  although 
occasionally  as  many  as  fifty  may  be  seen  together.  The  same  writer  observes 
that,  "  as  a  rule,  the  sable  antelope  runs  very  swiftly  and  has  good  bottom ;  but 
in  this  respect  different  individuals  differ  considerably,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
animals,  and  I  have  run  down  without  much  difficulty  individual  sable  antelopes 


ANTELOPES. 


287 


and  roan  antelopes,  and  one  gemsbok,  whilst  others  have  gone  clean  away  from 
inc.  The  sable  antelope  is  often  very  savage  when  wounded,  and,  like  the  roan 
antelope  and  gemsbok,  will  commit  terrible  havoc  amongst  a  pack  of  dogs. 
Indeed,  I  have  known  one  to  kill  three  dogs  with  three  consecutive  sweeps 


FRINGE-EARED  ORYX. 


SABLE   ANTELOPE. 


ROAN  ANTELOPE. 


of  its  long  scimitar-shaped  horns."  As  mentioned  on  p.  573  of  the  first  volume, 
the  sable  antelope  is  sometimes  successfully  chased,  by  the  Cape  hunting-dog. 
From  having  been  discovered  by  Sir  C.  Harris,  it  is  frequently  termed  the  Harris- 
buck  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cape. 

All  who  have  seen  this  antelope  in  its  native  wilds  seem  to  be  impressed  with 
its  beauty  and  majestic  appearance.  Gordon  Gumming,  writing  of  his  first  sight  of 
the  sable  antelope,  says  that  "  I  shall  never  forget  the  sensation  I  experienced  on 


288 


UNGULATES. 


beholding  a  sight  so  thrilling  to  the  sportsman's  eye  ;  he  stood  with  a  small  troop 
of  palas  right  in  our  path,  and  had,  unfortunately,  detected  us  before  we  saw  him. 
Shouting  to  my  pack,  I  galloped  after  him ;  but  the  day  was  close  and  warm,  and 
the  dogs  had  lost  their  spirit.  My  horse  being  an  indifferent  one  soon  lost  ground, 
and  the  beautiful  creature,  gaining  a  rocky  ridge,  was  quickly  beyond  my  reach, 
and  vanished  for  ever  from  my  view.  I  sought  in  vain  to  close  my  eyelids  that 
night,  for  the  image  of  the  sable  antelope  was  still  before  me." 

In  the  Sudan  the  genus  is  represented  by  Baker's  antelope 
\H.  lakeri),  standing  upwards  of  4  feet  8  inches  at  the  withers,  and 
distinguished  by  its  pale  liver-colour,  pencilled  ears,  and  some  black  stripes  across 
the  shoulders.  Its  horns  are  of  a  massive  type. 

Fossil  antelopes  from  the  Pliocene  deposits  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya  indicate  the  existence  of  the  genus  Hippotragus  at  a  former 
period  of  the  earth's  history  in  India,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  also 
represented  in  Europe  during  the  same  epoch. 


Baker's  Antelope. 


Extinct  Species. 


HEAD  OK  SABLE  ANTELOPE. —After  Nicolls  and  Eglington. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

THE  UNGULATES, — continued. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS, — continued. 
THE  GAZELLES.     Genus  Gazella. 


A  <ITREK"  OP  SPRINGBOK. 


THE  large  and  extensive  group  of 

antelopes  known  as  gazelles  brings 

us  to  the  first  of  an  assemblage  of 

several  widely-spread  genera,  differ-   ; 

ing    considerably   from    those    yet 

noticed.      Most  of   these  antelopes 

are  of  small  or  moderate  size,  and  the  majority  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the 

deserts  of  the  Old  World.     The  whole  of  them  have  narrow  upper  molar  teeth 

like   sheep,   and   their   muzzles   are   similarly  covered  with  hair.     There  is  very 

frequently  a  gland  below  the  eye,  and  the  tail  is  either  short  or  of   moderate 

length.      As   a    rule,   the   horns    are    compressed    and    lyrate   or   recurved,  or 

cylindrical   and   spiral,   with  distinct  rings  for  a  considerable  portion   of    their 

length.     The  skull  has  large  pits  in  the  forehead. 

The  gazelles  are  among  the  most  elegant  of  all  antelopes,  and  are  characterised 
by  their  sandy  colour  and  the  presence  of  a  white  streak  on  the  side  of  the  face 
from  the  base  of  the  horn  nearly  to  the  nose,  thus  cutting  off  a  dark  triangular 
patch  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  while  the  streak  itself  is  bordered  externally 

VOL.  ii. — 19 


UNGULATES. 


by  a  diffused  dark  line.1     The  horns,  which  are  generally  present  in  both  sexes, 
are  lyrate  or  recurved  and  are  compressed,  oval  in  section,  and  completely  ringed 

throughout  the  greater  part  of  their 
length.  The  knees  are  generally 
furnished  with  tufts  of  hair.  Glands 
are  present  in  the  feet,  and  the  gland 
below  the  eye,  if  present,  is  small 
and  covered  with  hair.  Most  of  the 
gazelles  do  not  exceed  30  inches  in 
height,  although  the  mohr  reaches 
36  inches.  There  are  about  twenty- 
one  living  species  belonging  to  the 
genus  Gazella,  which  are  mainly 
found  in  the  deserts  of  Asia  and 
North  Africa,  although  the  group 
is  represented  in  South  Africa  by 
the  springbok.  Two  of  the  Asiatic 
species  are  found  at  great  eleva- 
tions. Several  species  of  fossil 
gazelles  occur  in  the  Pleistocene  and 
Pliocene  deposits  of  both  Europe 
and  India. 

The  existing  gazelles  may  be 
divided  into  several  groups,  accord- 
ing to  coloration  and  the  presence 
or  absence  of  horns  in  the  females ; 
and,  since  the  species  are  so 
numerous,  we  shall  content  our- 
selves with  selecting  one  from  each 
group  for  special  notice. 

Our  first  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  South  African 
springbok  (Gazella  euchore),  which  differs  from  all  the  other  species 
by  the  presence  of  a  stripe  of  long  white  erectile  hairs  running  down  the  middle 
of  the  back,  and  also  by  having  only  two  premolar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  Both 
sexes  are  horned.  In  height  the  springbok  stands  about  30  inches,  and  the  black 
horns  are  lyrate,  with  about  twenty  complete  rings,  and  in  the  males  attain  a 
length  of  from  10  to  15  inches.  The  general  colour  is  dark  cinnamon-yellow,  but 
there  is  a  dark  brown  stripe  on  the  flanks  dividing  the  cinnamon  colour  of  the 
sides  from  the  white  of  the  under-parts,  and  a  dark  streak  running  through  the 
eye.  The  general  distribution  of  the  white  is  shown  in  our  figure,  but  it  may  be 
remarked  that  there  is  more  white  on  the  face  than  in  any  other  species,  the  dark 
central  area  of  the  forehead  being  reduced  to  a  small  patch  below  the  horns.  The 
snow-white  hairs  on  the  back  have  a  length  of  3  or  4  inches. 

In  eastern  South  Africa  the  northern  range  of  the  springbok  extends  to  about 
latitude  20°,  its  limits  being  marked  by  the  forests  south  of  the  Mababi  River ; 

1  These  markings  are  absent  in  the  Tibetan  gazelle. 


HEAD  OF  GRANT'S  GAZELLE. 

(From  Sir  V.  Brooke,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1878.) 


Springbok. 


ANTELOPES. 


291 


westward  of  Lake  Ngami  it  extends,  however  further  north,  reaching  Benguela  and 
Angola  on  the  west  coast.  According  to  Mr.  Selous,  this  antelope  is  still  found  in 
the  north-west  of  the  Cape  Colony,  and  throughout  the  Transvaal  and  Griqualand 
West ;  while  it  is  abundant  on  the  borders  of  the  Kalahari  desert.  The  springbok 
derives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  suddenly  leaping  in  the  air ;  and  is  remarkable 
both  for  the  vast  numbers  in  which  it  formerly  occurred,  and  for  its  periodical 
migrations.  Writing  of  one  of  these  migrations,  Gordon  Gumming  states  that  "  for 
about  two  hours  before  dawn  I  had  been  lying  awake  in  my  waggon,  listening  to 
the  grunting  of  the  buck  within  200  yards  of  me;  imagining  that  some  large 


THE  SPRINGBOK  (&    nat.  size). 

herd  of  springboks  was  feeding  beside  my  camp,  but,  rising  when  it  was  light  and 
looking  about  me,  I  beheld  the  ground  to  the  northward  of  my  camp  actually 
covered  with  a  dense  living  mass  of  springboks,  marching  slowly  and  steadily  along. 
They  extended  from  an  opening  in  a  long  range  of  hills  on  the  west,  through  which 
they  continued  pouring  like  the  flood  of  some  great  river,  to  a  ridge  about  a  mile 
to  the  north-east,  over  which  they  disappeared — the  breadth  they  covered  might 
have  been  somewhere  about  half  a  mile.  I  stood  upon  the  fore-chest  of  my  waggon 
for  nearly  two  hours,  lost  in  astonishment  at  the  novel  and  wonderful  scene  before 
me,  and  had  some  difficulty  in  convincing  myself  that  it  was  a  reality  which  I 
beheld,  and  not  the  wild  and  exaggerated  picture  of  a  hunter's  dream.  During  this 


292 


UNGULATES. 


time,  these  vast  legions  continued  streaming  through  the  neck  of  the  hills  in  one 
unbroken  phalanx."  Later  on  the  same  writer  continues  that,  "  on  our  climbing  the 
low  range  of  hills  through  which  the  springboks  had  been  pouring,  I  beheld  the 
plains  and  even  the  hillsides  which  stretched  away  on  every  side  of  me  thickly 
covered,  not  with  herds,  but  with  one  vast  mass  of  springboks ;  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  strain,  the  landscape  was  alive  with  them,  until  they  softened  down  into  a 
dim  red  mass  of  living  creatures.  To  endeavour  to  form  any  idea  of  the  amount 
of  antelopes  which  I  had  that  day  beheld  were  vain ;  but  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
saying  that  some  hundreds  of  thousands  were  within  the  compass  of  my  vision." 
Vast,  however,  as  must  have  been  the  numbers  on  this  occasion,  the  Boers  informed 
the  narrator  that  they  were  nothing  to  those  that  had  been  witnessed  in  some 


DORCAS  GAZELLE. 


trekbokken,  when  the  animals  extended  over  a  succession  of  flats,  instead  of  being 
confined  to  one  alone,  and  were  crowded  together  like  sheep  in  a  fold  throughout  a 
long  day's  journey,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  So  dense  are  the  moving  masses 
that  if  a  flock  of  sheep  becomes  intermingled  with  the  herd  they  are  swept  along 
without  hope  of  escape ;  and  it  is  said  that  even  the  lion  may  be  thus  entrapped. 
Livingstone  suggests  that  these  migrations  are  due  to  the  grass  in  the  Kalahari 
desert  becoming  so  tall  as  to  impede  the  springbok  from  obtaining  a  clear  view  of 
the  surrounding  country. 

The  Dorcas  gazelle  (G.  dorcas),  which  is  figured  in  our  coloured 
Plate,  may  be  taken  as  the  representative  of  a  group  in  which  the 
white  of  the  rump  does  not  encroach  on  the  fawn-colour  of  the  haunches,  while 
both  sexes  have  lyrate  or  sublyrate  horns.  This  well-known  species  inhabits  the 
deserts  of  Egypt,  Algeria,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  stands  barely 


Dorcas  Gazelle. 


ANTELOPES. 


293 


Indian  Gazelle. 


24  inches  at  the  shoulder ;  and  the  horns  are  relatively  long  and  slender,  with  their 
tips  incurved,  their  length  being  sometimes  a  little  over  13  inches.  Like  most 
other  gazelles,  this  beautiful  little  animal  is  of  extremely  delicate  build,  and  is  re- 
markable for  its  great  speed.  When  running,  it  appears  to  skim  the  ground  like  a 
bird,  and  often  takes  leaps  of  a  yard  or  more  in  height.  Closely  allied  to  this 
species  is  the  isabelline  gazelle  (G.  isabellina)  of  Kordofan  and  Senaar,  distinguished 
by  the  tail  being  rufous,  instead  of  black,  above.  Other  species  are  the  korin  (G. 
rufifrons)  of  Senegal ;  Sundevall's  gazelle  (G.  Icevipes)  of  Senaar ;  and  the  black- 
tailed  gazelle  (G.  tilonura)  of  Bogosland;  the  latter  being  characterised  by  its 
superior  size,  reaching  29  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  horns  varying  from  7 
to  10|  inches  in  length. 

The  Indian  gazelle  (G.  bennetti),  brings  us  to  a  subgroup  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  by  the  horns  not  being  distinctly 
lyrate,  but  generally  having  a  slight  S-shaped  curvature  when  seen  from  the  side. 
The  general  colour  of  this  well-known  species — the  ravine-deer  of  Indian  sports- 
men— is  light  chestnut  above,  while  the  tail  is  blackish. 
In  height  the  buck  stands  26  inches  at  the  withers ;  and 
the  horns,  which  usually  have  fifteen  or  sixteen  rings, 
average  10  to  12  inches  in  length  along  the  curve.  This 
species  inhabits  the  plains  of  Central  and  North- Western 
India,  whence  it  extends  through  Baluchistan  to  Persia. 
It  is  commonly  found  in  parties  of  from  two  to  six, 
although  occasionally  from  ten  to  twenty  may  be  found 
together.  Its  swiftness  is  such  that  it  can  but  seldom 
be  taken  with  dogs ;  but  it  does  not  leap  in  the  air  like 
the  dorcas.  Mr.  Blanford  writes  that  this  gazelle 
"  keeps  much  to  waste  ground,  especially  where  that  is 
broken  up  by  ravines,  but  it  is  seldom  seen  on  alluvial 
plains,  and  it  haunts  cultivation  less  than  the  [Indian] 
antelope.  It  is  frequently  found  amongst  scattered 
bushes  or  thin  tree-jungle,  and  may  be  met  with  on 
undulating  ground  even  on  the  top  of  hills ;  it  is  com- 
monly found  amongst  sand-hills,  and  is  nowhere  so 
abundant  as  in  parts  of  the  Indian  desert.  It  lives  on 
grass  and  the  leaves  of  bushes,  and  I  believe  never  drinks,  for  it  is  common  in 
tracts  where  there  is  ho  water  except  from  deep  wells."  Other  members  of  this 
group  are  the  mountain-gazelle  (G.  cuvieri)  of  Morocco  and  Algeria,  which  reaches 
a  height  of  27  J  inches;  the  small-horned  gazelle  (G,  leptoceros)  of  the  Sudan; 
the  well-known  Arabian  gazelle  (G.  arabica);  and  Speke's  gazelle  (G.  spekei)  of 
the  plateau  of  Somaliland.  The  latter  species  is  of  very  small  size,  and  remark- 
able for  the  loose  flabby  skin  of  the  nose,  and  is  further  distinguished  by  the 
length  of  its  hair  and  dull  coloration.  The  length  of  the  horns  ranges  from  9|  to 
11£  inches. 

Another  group  is  formed  by  three  Asiatic  gazelles,  which  differ  from  all  other 

Persian  Gazelle  mem^ers  °*  tne  genus  by  the  females  being  hornless.     Of  these,  the 

'  Persian  gazelle  (G.  subgutturosa)  inhabits  the  highlands  of  Persia  and 


SKULL  OF  INDIAN  GAZELLE. 


294  UNGULATES. 

a  large  area  in  Central  Asia,  extending  as  far  the  Gobi  Desert.  This  species  has 
lyrate  horns,  with  incurved  tips,  which  may  have  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  rings ; 
and  the  tail  is  not  surrounded  by  a  white  disc.  The  longest  pair  of  horns  known 
measure  14£  inches.  In  Mongolia,  this  species  is  replaced  by  the  larger  Mongolian 
gazelle  (G.  gutturosa),  characterised  by  its  extremely  pale-coloured  horns.  The 
third  member  of  the  group  is  the  goa  or  Tibetan  gazelle  (G.  picticaudata),  dis- 
tinguished by  the  white  disc  round  the  tail,  the  long  winter-coat,  short  ears  and 
tail,  the  greatly  curved  horns,  and  the  uniform  colour  of  the  face.  The  height 
of  the  animal  is  24  inches ;  and  the  largest  recorded  horns  measured  15f  inches 
in  length;  the  number  of  rings  varying  from  twenty  to  thirty.  This  gazelle 
inhabits  the  Tibetan  plateau  at  elevations  of  from  13,000  to  18,000  feet,  and  goes 
in  small  parties  of  from  two  or  three  to  a  dozen.  It  is  less  shy  than  other  species. 

The  last  group  of  the  true  gazelles  is  characterised  by  the  white 
Grant's  Gazelle.  r  fe.  J 

ot  the  rump  extending  forwards  in  an  angle  into  the  lawn-colour  or 

the  haunches ;  both  sexes  having  horns,  which  are  frequently  longer  than  in  the 
other  groups;  the  animals  themselves  being  also  relatively  large.  Perhaps  the 
handsomest  member  of  the  whole  genus  is  the  East  African  Grant's  gazelle  (G. 
granti),  from  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Zanzibar,  of  which 
the  head  is  figured  in  the  woodcut  on  p.  290. 

Grant's  gazelle  has  longer  and  finer  horns  than  any  other  species  of  the  genus ; 
their  length  being  frequently  as  much  as  26  inches,  while  in  one  instance  a  length 
of  30  inches  has  been  recorded.  The  general  colour  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  fawn,  and  there  is  no  dark  band  on  the  flanks  dividing  the 
fawn-colour  from  the  white  of  the  under-parts.  On  the  neck 
and  back  the  hair  has  a  kind  of  wavy  appearance,  somewhat 
like  the  pattern  on  watered  silk.  This  gazelle  is  common  on  the 
open  plains  of  East  Africa,  and  is  generally  found  in  small 
parties  comprising  from  ten  to  fifteen  does  and  fawns,  accom- 
panied by  a  single  adult  buck.  Sir  J.  Willoughby  states  that  in 
the  Kilima-Njaro  district  these  gazelles  "  were  in  extraordinary 
profusion,  though  extremely  wild,  and  among  the  herds  we 
noticed  many  fine  bucks.  It  may  be  worthy  of  record  that  they 
would  often  allow  us  to  crawl  towards  them  without  showing 
any  sign  of  alarm,  until  we  were  within  a  fair  rifle  range ; 
whereas,  if  we  attempted  to  walk  towards  them,  even  in  a  stooping 
position,  they  would  invariably  start  off  before  we  had  approached 
within  400  yards." 

Thomson's  In  Masailand,  on  the  east  coast  to  the  north  of 

HORNS  OF  THOMSON'S          Gazelle.       Zanzibar,  Grant's  gazelle  is  replaced  by  the  allied 
Gunther!)          *  but  smaller  Thomson's  gazelle  (G.  thomsoni),  of  which  the  horns 
are  figured  in  the  woodcut.    In  this  species  the  horns  are  relatively 
smaller  and  thinner  than  in  the  last,  not  exceeding  15  inches  in  length.     This  gazelle 
is  also  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  broad  dark  brown  band  on  the 
flanks,  dividing  the  fawn-colour  of  the  body  from  the  white  of  the  belly. 
Other  species  ^e  largest  of  all  the  group  is  the  swift  gazelle  (G.  mohr),  which 

is   a  West  African  species   from   Senegal,   standing   upwards  of  32 


ANTELOPES. 


295 


inches  at  the  withers,  and  still  higher  at  the  rump.  Allied  to  this  is  the  dama 
gazelle  (G.  dama),  from  the  Sudan,  with  relatively  short  lyrate  horns,  and  no  dark 
band  on  the  flanks.  Another  fine  species  is  the  aoul  (G.  soemmerringi),  inhabiting 
the  lowlands  of  Somaliland,  and  also  found  in  Abyssinia  and  the  Sudan.  In  the 
swift  gazelle  the  length  of  the  horns  may  be  12  inches ;  while  in  the  aoul  or 
Soemmerring's  gazelle  this  varies  from  about  12  to  upwards  of  19  £  inches.  The 
height  of  the  latter  species  at  the  shoulder  is  about  30  inches.  It  is  characterised 
by  its  very  massive  lyrate  horns,  marked  with  about  eighteen  rings,  and  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  dama  by  its  longer  ears,  bordered  with  black  externally, 
and  the  more  strongly-defined  and  nearly  black  markings  on  the  face.  This  is 
the  finest  of  the  Somaliland  gazelles ;  and  was  formerly  found  in  small  herds  close 
to  the  shore. 

CLARKE'S  ANTELOPE. 
Genus  Ammodorcas. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  true  gazelles  is  a  remarkable  antelope  (Ammodorcas 
clarkei),  recently  discovered  in  Somaliland, 
which  serves  to  connect  the  preceding  with  the 
following  species.  Clarke's  antelope,  while 
having  the  facial  markings  of  the  gazelles,  is 
distinguished  by  the  regular  upward  and  for- 
ward curvature  of  the  rather  short  horns,  which 
are  ringed  in  front  at  the  base.  The  females 
are  hornless ;  and  the  skull  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  gazelles  and  the  under- 
mentioned gerenuk.  The  neck  is  very  long, 
and  the  tail  thin  and  long.  The  number  of 
rings  on  the  horn  varies  from  five  to  ten. 
The  general  colour  is  a  deep  cinnamon,  darker 
than  in  any  of  the  true  gazelles.  These  ante- 
lopes appear  to  be  local  in  Somaliland,  but  are 
said  to  be  common  in  parts  of  the  interior.  Mr. 
Clarke  states  that  when  running  they  throw 
the  tail  upwards  and  forwards,  and  at  the 
same  time  incline  the  long  neck  backwards,  so 
that  the  two  look  as  if  they  would  touch  each 
other.  It  is  locally  known  as  the  dibatag.  HEAD  OF  CLARKE'S  ANTELOPE.— After  Thomas. 


THE  GERENUK. 
Genus  Lithocranius. 

Still  more  remarkable  than  the  preceding  is  the  gerenuk,  or  Waller's  gazelle 
(Lithocranius  walleri),  which  is  also  an  East  African  species,  ranging  from 
Somaliland  to  the  Kilima-Njaro  district.  The  most  peculiar  external  feature  about 


296 


UNGULATES. 


Habits. 


this  animal  is  the  excessively  long  neck  (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure), 
which  has  led  to  its  being  likened  to  a  miniature  giraffe.  The  horns  of  the  bucks 
curve  forwards  at  the  tips  in  a  peculiar  hook-like  manner,  and  are  usually  about 

13  inches  in  length,  although  they  may  reach  14 
inches.  The  skin  of  this  antelope  is  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  very  broad  dark-brown  band 
running  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  which  in  its 
widest  part  measures  some  7  or  8  inches  across,  and 
stands  out  in  striking  contrast  to  the  rufous  fawn  of 
the  flanks  and  limbs. 

The  skull  differs  from  those  of  the  true  gazelles 
by  its  extremely  dense  and  solid  structure,  as  well 
by  the  relative  shortness  of  its  facial  portion,  its 
remarkable  straightness,  and  the  unusually  small 
size  of  the  cheek-teeth. 

Captain  Swayne  says  that  "the 
gerenuk  is  found  all  over  the  Somali 
country  in  small  families,  never  in  large  herds,  and 
generally  in  scattered  bush,  ravines,  and  rocky 
ground.  I  have  never  seen  it  in  the  cedar-forests, 
nor  in  the  treeless  plains.  Gerenuk  are  not  neces- 
sarily found  near  water;  in  fact/generally  in  stony 
ground  with  a  sprinkling  of  thorn-jungle.  The  gait 
of  this  antelope  is  peculiar.  When  .first  seen,  a  buck 
gerenuk  will  generally  be  standing  motionless,  head 
well  up,  looking  at  the  intruder,  and  trusting  to  its 
invisibility.  Then  the  head  dives  under-  the  bushes, 
and  the  animal  goes  off  at  a  long,  crouching  trot, 
stopping  now  and  again  behind  some  bush  to  gaze. 
The  trot  is  awkward-looking,  a»d  very  like  that  of 
a  camel ;  the  gerenuk  seldom  gallops,  and  its  pace  is 
never  very  fast.  In  the  whole  shape  of  the  head 
and  neck,  and  in  the  slender  lower  jaw,  there  is  a  marked  resemblance  between  the 
gerenuk  and  the  dibatag."  This  antelope  subsists  more  by  browsing  than  by 
grazing,  and  it  may  not  unfrequently  be  observed  standing  up  on  its  hind-legs, 
with  outstretched  neck,  and  its  fore-feet  resting  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  in 
order  to  pluck  the  foliage. 


HEAD  AND  NECK  OF  THE  GERENUK. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1892.) 


THE  CHIRU,  OR  TIBETAN  ANTELOPE. 
Genus  Pantholops. 

In  addition  to  possessing  a  peculiar  species  of  gazelle,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made,  the  elevated  and  barren  plateau  of  Tibet  is  further  characterised 
by  an  antelope  remarkable  for  the  swollen  nose  and  long  elegant  horns  of  the  bucks. 
This  antelope  is  the  chiru  (Pantholops  hodgsoni),  the  sole  representative  of  the 


ANTELOPES. 


297 


genus  to  which  it  belongs.      In  many  respects  the  chiru  is  allied  to  the  saiga, 

mentioned  next,  but  the  nose  is  less  convex,  and  the  nostrils  open  anteriorly  instead 

of  downwards.     The  horns  (which,  as  in 

all  the  following  members  of  this  group 

are  present  only  in  the  bucks)  are  black, 

long,  erect,  laterally  compressed,  and  sub- 

lyrate,  with  rings  in  front  for  the  lower 

two-thirds  of  their  length.     There  is  no 

gland  below  the  eye  ;  and  the  skull  lacks 

the  pits  between  the  eyes  found  in  the 

other  members  of  the  group.     In  height 

the  male  chiru  stands  32  inches  at  the 

shoulder;   and   it   is   covered  with  very 

thick,  close  fur,  becoming  woolly  near  the 

skinj^  The  colour  is  pale  fawn  above  and 

white  below ;  the  whole  face  and  a  stripe 

down  the  front  of  each  leg  being  black 

or  dark  brown  in  the  bucks.     The  horns 

frequently   reach   24   and   26   inches   in 

length,  and  one  pair  has  been  recorded  of 

27£  inches.     The  chiru  probably  inhabits 

the  whole  of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  at  the 

same  elevations  as  the  Tibetan  gazelle. 

In  summer  the  sexes 
live  apart;  and  these  ante- 
lopes are  often  found  in  parties  of  from 
three  to  four  individuals,  but  sometimes 
in  large  herds.  They  frequent  the  open 
rolling  plains,  or  broad  river- valleys,  and 
generally  feed  at  morning  and  evening. 
Although  usually  difficult  to  approach,  a 
solitary  buck  will  sometimes  start  up 
from  a  ravine  close  to  the  traveller's  feet, 
as  once  happened  to  the  present  writer.  General  Kinloch  states  that  the  chiru  is  in 
the  habit  of  excavating  hollows  in  the  sand,  in  which  it  will  lie  concealed  during 
the  day.  The  young  are  born  in  summer ;  one  only  being  produced  at  a  birth. 


Habits. 


HEAD   OP   CHIRU. 


THE  SAIGA. 
Genus  Saiga. 

From  the  peculiarly  bloated  appearance  of  the  nose  of  the  male,  the  saiga 
(Saiga  tartarica)  of  the  steppes  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia  is  one  of  the 
most  ungainly  of  the  antelopes,  and  thereby  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
gazelles.  In  size  this  animal  may  be  compared  to  a  sheep,  and  its  whole  build  is 
clumsy.  The  nose  is  very  large,  convex,  and  inflated,  with  the  nostrils  opening 


298 


UNGULATES. 


downwards ;  and  the  face  has  a  small  gland  below  the  eye.  The  ears  are  small 
and  rounded ;  and  the  tail  is  of  moderate  length.  The  lyrate  horns  are  rather  short, 
completely  ringed,  and  of  an  amber-yellow  colour.  In  summer  the  general  colour 
of  the  upper-parts  is  tawny  yellow ;  but  in  winter,  when  the  hair  increases  in 
length,  the  tint  is  greyish,  and,  in  fact,  externally  nearly  white ;  the  face,  under- 
parts,  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  are  always  white.  The  horns  usually  attain 
a  length  of  from  10  to  12  inches  along  the  curve,  but  may  be  over  14  inches. 

The  saiga  is  found  in  large  herds,  sometimes  comprising  several 
hundred  individuals  during  the  summer,  but  these  split  up  into  small 
parties  in  the  winter  ;  the  old  males  always  remaining  with  the  herds.    According  to 


Habits. 


THE  SAIGA  (-fa  nat.  size). 

Pallas,  some  members  of  the  herd  keep  watch  while  the  others  sleep.  Although  the 
saiga,  when  first  started,  can  run  swiftly  for  a  short  distance,  it  soon  becomes 
blown.  When  caught  young,  these  animals  can  be  easily  tamed,  and  will  follow 
their  owners  about  like  a  dog. 

At  the  present  day  the  range  of  the  saiga  embraces  Southern 
Russia  and  South  -  Western  Siberia ;  its  headquarters  being  the 
Kirghiz  Steppes.  A  century  ago  the  saiga  extended,  however,  as  far  as  the  confines 
of  Poland ;  and  it  is  now  gradually  retreating  towards  the  east  of  the  Volga.  In 
summer  the  saiga  wanders  as  far  north  as  the  districts  inhabited  by  the  reindeer ; 
while  in  winter  it  migrates  south,  and  thus  comes  in  contact  with  the  Persian 


Distribution. 


ANTELOPES. 


299 


gazelle.  When  we  pass  back  to  the  Pleistocene  period,  the  saiga  had  a  much  more 
extensive  range  to  the  westward,  its  fossilised  remains  having  been  obtained  from 
the  caverns  and  superficial  deposits  of  Hungary,  Belgium,  and  the  south  of  France. 
Moreover,  from  the  frontlet  of  a  male  having  been  discovered  in  the  gravels  of 
Twickenham,  it  is  evident  that  the  animal  occasionally  wandered  as  far  as  Britain. 
In  Moravia  there  have  been  found  the  remains  of  a  saiga  differing  from  the  living 
species  by  having  six,  in  place  of  five,  lower  cheek-teeth.  From  the  occurrence  of 
saiga  remains,  together  with  those  of  other  mammals  now  characteristic  of  the 
steppes,  in  Western  Europe,  it  has  been  inferred  that  steppe-like  conditions  and 
climate  must  formerly  have  prevailed  over  portions  of  that  area. 

PALAS. 
Genus  ^Epyceros. 

The  South  African  antelope,  known  by  the  name  of  pala  or  impala  (^Epyceros 
melampus),  is  a  rather  large  animal,  standing  a  little  over  3  feet  in  height,  and 
of  a  dark-red  colour  above,  gradually  shading  into  white  below.     There  is  no  gland 
on  the  face  below  the  eye  ;  and  the  feet  are  distinguished 
by  the  total  absence  of  the  lateral  hoofs.     The  horns  of 
the  males  are  lyrate,  widely  divergent,  and  somewhat 
spiral,  with  about  a  dozen  complete  and  widely-separated 
rings.      The  ordinary  length  of   pala   horns   does   not 
exceed  16  inches;   but  Mr.  Selous  records  specimens  of 
20  and  21  inches,  measured  in  a  straight  line.     The  pala 
is  found  throughout  Southern  and  South-Eastern  Africa. 
Mr.  Selous  states  that  these  antelopes  are  nowhere  more 
plentiful  than  along  the  Chobi,  and  may  often  be  seen 
in  herds  of  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  together.    "  There 
are  very  few  males  in  comparison  with  the  number  of 
females,  though  I  have  sometimes  seen  a  herd  composed 
entirely  of  rams,  ten  or  fifteen  in  number.     They  are     HEAD  op  PALA._After  Selous. 
like  thick  corn  along  the  river's  bank,  and  are  seldom 

seen  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  mile  from  water ;  and  there  is  no  more  certain 
sign  of  the  proximity  of  water  than  the  presence  of  impala  antelopes."  In 
Nyasaland,  Mr.  Crawshay  states  that  they  frequent  sandy  plains  covered  with 
mimosas  and  low  scrub  near  the  rivers.  The  same  writer  observes  that  "  no 
antelope  I  have  seen  can  compare  with  the  impala  in  fleetness  of  foot,  and  cer- 
tainly no  other  can  display  such  wonderful  leaping  power ;  they  go  off  like  the 
proverbial  arrow  from  the  bow,  and,  with  most  beautiful  gliding  bounds,  cover 
the  ground,  without  apparently  the  least  effort.  When  alarmed  they  often  give 
utterance  to  a  sharp  bark."  From  its  red  colour,  the  pala  is  known  to  the  Dutch 
Boers  as  the  roybok. 

Gordon  Gumming  relates  that  on  one  occasion  near  his  camp  "  a  loud  rushing 
noise  was  heard  coming  on  like  a  hurricane ;  this  was  a  large  troop  of  pala  pursued 
by  a  pack  of  about  twenty  wild  dogs.  They  passed  our  camp  in  fine  style  within 


300 


UNGULATES. 


a  hundred  yards  of  us,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  dogs  had  fastened  upon  two  of 
the  palas,  which  my  Bechuanas  ran  up  and  secured.  One  of  these  animals  cleared 
a  distance  of  fifty  feet  in  two  successive  bounds,  and  this  on  unfavourable  ground, 
it  being  very  soft  and  slippery." 

The  lesser  pala  is  a  smaller  variety  inhabiting  part  of  Nyasaland, 

in  the  very  heart  of  the  distributional  area  of  the  typical  form  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  more  slender  skull  and  smaller  horns. 

On   the   west   coast,  in  Angola  and  Hasholand,   the   genus   is 

represented  by  the  Angola  pala  (JE.  petersi).  This  pala  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of  a  black  streak  down  the  middle  of  the  face,  from  the 
eyes  to  the  upper  part  of  the  nose,  and  also  by  a  black  patch  below  each  eye. 


Lesser  Pala. 


Angola  Pala. 


THE  BLACK-BUCK. 
Genus  Antilope. 

The  handsomely-coloured  black-buck  or  Indian  antelope  (Antilope  cervicapra) 
is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  and  at  the  same  time  the  last  member  of  the 


MALE  AND  FEMALE  OF  THE  BLACK-BUCK  (^  nat.  size). 


present  group.     The  black-buck  stands  about  32  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  has  a 
short  and  compressed  tail,  large  glands,  with  a  linear  aperture  below  the  eyes,  tufts 


ANTELOPES. 


301 


Habits. 


of  hair  on  the  knees,  and  small  but  distinct  lateral  hoofs.  The  horns  of  the  bucks 
rise  close  together,  and  are  cylindrical,  divergent,  and  spiral,  with  complete  blunt 
rings  throughout  their  length.  The  number  of  turns  in  the  spiral  of  the  horns 
varies  from  less  than  three  to  as  many  as  five;  and  there  is  great  individual 
variation  in  regard  to  the  degree  of  divergence  of  the  horns.  The  usual  length  of 
horns  varies  from  16  to  20  inches  in  a  straight  line,  and  in  Peninsular  India  the 
length  seldom  exceeds  22  inches ;  but  in  Rajputana  and  Harriana  the  horns  are 
longer,  and  have  been  known  to  attain  a  length  of  28f  inches.  Does  and  young 
bucks  are  yellowish  fawn-colour  above  and 
on  the  outer  sides  of  the  limbs,  and  white  on 
the  under-parts ;  the  two  colours  are  sharply 
defined,  and  just  above  the  line  of  division 
there  is  a  distinct  pale  streak.  Save  for  a 
rufous  patch  on  the  nape  of  the  neck,  the  old 
bucks  are  blackish  brown  above,  and  also  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  the  whole  of  the 
face,  with  the  exception  of  a  white  ring  round 
each  eye.  In  very  old  individuals  the  black- 
ish brown  becomes  almost  completely  black. 
Occasionally  does  are  met  with  having  small 
recurved  horns. 

The  black-buck  is  an  in- 
habitant of  open  plains  from  the 
foot  of  the  Himalaya  nearly  to  Cape  Comorin, 
and  from  the  Punjab  to  Lower  Assam ;  and  is 
most  abundant  in  the  North- West  Provinces, 
Rajputana,  and  portions  of  the  Deccan.  It 
frequents  either  grassy  districts  or  cultivated 
lands,  and  is  generally  found  in  herds,  which 
may  comprise  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of 
individuals,  but  more  usually  number  from 
ten  to  thirty,  or  even  fifty  does,  accompanied 
by  a  single  old  buck.  Mr.  Blanford  states 
that  frequently  "  two  or  three  younger  bucks, 
coloured  like  the  does,  remain  with  the  latter, 

but  these  young  males  are  sometimes  driven  away  by  older  bucks,  and  form 
separate  herds.  This  antelope  never  enters  forest  nor  high  grass,  and  is  but 
rarely  seen  amongst  bushes.  When  not  much  pursued  or  fired  at,  it  will  often 
allow  men  to  come  in  the  open  within  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards,  some- 
times nearer."  Carts  and  natives  can  approach  still  closer.  The  black-buck  feeds 
at  all  hours,  although  it  generally  rests  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  certain 
districts,  where  there  is  no  fresh  water  except  in  deep  wells,  it  is  certain  that  these 
animals  never  drink ;  but  several  observers  have  proved  that  in  other  places  they, 
at  least  occasionally,  drink  freely.  Like  the  springbok,  the  black-buck  frequently 
leaps  high  in  the  air  when  running.  The  speed  and  endurance  of  these  animals 
are  well  known ;  and  it  is  but  very  seldom  that  they  are  pulled  down  on  good 


SKULL  OF  BLACK-BUCK. 


302 


UNGULATES. 


ground  by  greyhounds.  In  heavy  sand,  or  on  soft  ground  during  the  rains,  they 
are,  however,  easily  overtaken  by  good  dogs ;  and  wounded  buck  may  be  ridden 
down.  An  account  of  black-buck  coursing  with  the  hunting-leopard  will  be  found 
on  p.  445  of  the  first  volume ;  and  antelope-stalking  is  a  favourite  Indian  sport. 

Young  fawns  are  generally  concealed  by  the  does  in  long  grass.  The  bucks 
utter  a  short  grunt,  and  the  does  a  kind  of  hissing  sound  when  alarmed.  During 
the  pairing-season  the  bucks  engage  in  frequent  combats  among  themselves. 
When  taken  young,  the  black-buck  can  be  easily  tamed,  but  the  males  are  apt  to 
be  dangerous  at  certain  seasons. 

THE  EEITBOK. 
Genus  Cervicapra. 

The  reitbok,  or  reedbuck  (Cervicapra  arundineum),  introduces  us  to  a  totally 
different  group  of  large  or  small  antelopes  confined  to  Africa.  These  animals  have 
horns  only  in  the  males ;  narrow,  goat-like,  upper  molar  teeth ;  and  either  a  hairy 
or  a  naked  muzzle.  There  is  generally  a  gland  below  the  eye,  which  may, 
however,  be  very  small ;  and  the  skull  usually  has  a  large  unossified  space  below 
the  eye,  and  distinct  pits  in  the  forehead.  The  horns  may  be  either  large,  lyrate, 
widely  spreading,  and  thickly  ringed,  or  small  and  upright.  The  tail  is  either  of 
medium  length,  or  very  short. 

The  reitbok  is  characterised  by  its  comparatively  small  horns,  which  bend 
forwards  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  those  of  Clarke's  antelope.  The  tail  is 
bushy  and  comparatively  short,  not  reaching  to  within  some  distance  of  the  hocks, 
and  the  lateral  hoofs  are  very  small.  In  height  this  antelope  stands  nearly  3  feet ; 
and  the  short,  smooth,  and  almost  woolly  fur  is  of  a  pale  brownish  fawn  on 
the  upper-parts,  with  a  tinge  of  orange  on  the  head ;  the  under-parts  and  inner 
sides  of  the  limbs  being  dirty  white.  Very  old  does  become  much  paler,  in  fact 
almost  white.  The  ordinary  length  of  the  horns  is  from  12  to  13  inches  along  the 
curves,  although  they  occasionally  reach  15  and  16  inches. 
Distribution  and  Formerly  reitbok  were  to  be  met  with  throughout  Central  South 

Habits.  Africa,  wherever  there  are  open  grassy  or  reedy  valleys  traversed  by 
streams,  but  they  are  now  practically  exterminated  in  Bechuanaland,  and  rare  in 
the  Transvaal,  although  still  common  in  many  districts,  such  as  the  Chobi  region, 
They  generally  associate  in  pairs,  and  it  is  seldom  that  more  than  three  or  four 
individuals  (of  which  one  or  two  will  be  young)  are  seen  together,  although  some- 
times as  many  as  eigh^  may  be  observed  feeding  within  a  short  distance  of  one 
another.  Mr.  Selous  mentions  that  "although  the  reedbuck  is  never  found  far 
from  water,  it  always  keeps  on  dry  ground,  and  when  chased  I  have  never  seen 
one  take  to  boggy  ground,  but  have  noticed  that  rather  than  cross  a  narrow 
stream  of  water  they  will  make  a  long  detour."  Indeed,  when  hunted  these 
antelope  will  invariably  seek  refuge  in  bush,  or  by  flight  into  the  open  dry 
country.  The  males,  if  suddenly  frightened,  sometimes  utter  a  whistling  sound. 
In  pace  this  species  is  slow,  and  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  African  antelopes 
to  stalk. 


ANTELOPES. 


303 


The  South  African  antelope  known  as  the  roi  rhebok  (C.  lalandi), 
which,  by  the  way,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  or  vaal 
rhebok,  is  a  smaller  but  nearly-allied  species,  standing  only  about  28  inches  at  the 
shoulder.  It  has  long  and  coarse  reddish-brown  hair  on  the  upper-parts,  while 
beneath  it  is  white.  The  horns  are  seldom  more  than  8  or  9  inches  in  length,  and 
bend  forwards  in  a  sharp  sweep,  without  any  outward  inclination.  The  West 
African  nagor  (C.  redunca)  is  closely  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  this  species ; 
the  coloration  being  similar,  and  the  small  horns  not  usually  exceeding  6  inches  in 
length.  The  other  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  bohor  (C.  bohor),  extending 
in  East  Africa  from  Abyssinia  to  Masailand ;  it  is  a  larger  and  brighter-coloured 
animal  than  the  last,  from  which  it  is  also  distinguished  by  certain  characters  of 
the  skull. 

WATER-BUCK,  LICHI,  ETC. 
Genus  Cobus. 

The  antelopes  included  in  the  genus  Cobus  are  water-loving  animals,  generally 
of  larger  size  than  the  reitbok,  and  associating  in  herds.     Their  horns  are  long, 
sublyrate,  and  ringed  nearly  throughout ;  the  tail  is  longer  than  the  reitbok,  and 
tufted  at  the  end.     As  in  the  latter,  the   gland  below 
the  eye  is  rudimentary ;  and  the  colour,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  patches  on  the  rump  and  the  head  is  uniform. 
The  muzzle  is  naked.     The  skull  may  be  distinguished 
from    that    of   Cervicapra  by   the   premaxillary   bones 
reaching  upwards  to  join  the  nasals. 

The  water -buck  (C.  ellipsiprymnus) 
stands  upwards  of  4  feet  or  more  at  the 
withers,  and  is  characterised  by  its  long  and  very  coarse 
hair,  which  varies  in  colour  from  reddish  brown  to  dark 
grey,  with  an  oval  ring  of  white  on  the  buttocks,  extend- 
ing above  the  tail,  a  white  gorget  on  the  throat,  a  streak 
of  the  same  colour  on  part  of  each  eye,  and  some  white 
near  the  muzzle.  Good  horns  average  about  28  inches 
along  the  curve,  but  they  may  measure  30,  31,  or  even 
33  J  inches;  their  colour  is  pale.  Water-buck  inhabit 
Southern  and  Eastern  Africa  to  some  distance  north  of 
the  Zambesi ;  and  they  are  never  found  in  herds  of  more 
than  twenty  individuals.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the 
water-buck  is  most  partial  to  steep  stony  hills,  and  is 
often  found  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  mile  from  the 
nearest  river,  for  which,  however,  it  always  makes  when 

pursued.  Though  a  heavy-looking  beast,  it  can  clamber  with  wonderful  speed  and 
sureness  of  foot  up  and  down  the  steepest  hillsides.  In  Nyasaland  Mr.  Crawshay 
writes,  that  water-buck  are  always  found  in  greatest  numbers  on  large  swampy 
plains  overgrown  with  coarse  grass,  tall  reeds,  and  papyrus,  where  in  the  wet 
season  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  at  them ;  unlike  other  antelopes,  except  the 


Water-Buck. 


HEAD  OF  WATER-BUCK.— After 

Selous. 


3°4 


UNGULATES. 


sin  -sin 


Other  Species. 


reedbuck,  they  do  not  appear  to  leave  the  lowlands  in  the  rains,  but  keep  to  the 
plains  all  the  year  round.  The  water-buck  is  less  difficult  to  stalk  than  the 
reitbok,  but  its  flesh  is  so  coarse  and  stringy  as  to  be  almost  uneatable. 

Tne  sinS'sing  (^  defassa),  from  Western  and  Central  Africa, 
which  stands  3  feet  10  inches  at  the  shoulder,  differs  from  the 
water-buck  by  its  fine  and  soft  hair,  and  the  presence  of  a  continuous  whitish 
patch  on  the  buttocks,  which  does  not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  rest  of  the  tail  ; 
while  there  is  no  white  gorget.  The  horns  do  not  exceed  2  7  3-  inches  in  length,  or 
a  fraction  over.  The  sunu  (C.  leucotis),  from  Uganda,  is  another  large  species, 
distinguished  by  the  blackish  colour  of  its  fur,  and  the  white  ears,  rings  round  the 
eyes,  and  under-parts.  The  horns  are  relatively  long  and  thin,  reaching  from  17 
to  nearly  20  inches  in  length. 

The  remaining  species  are  of  smaller  size,  and  distinguished  by 
their  more  reddish  or  foxy-coloured  hair.     It  is  probably  to  one  of 
these  smaller  species  that  the  species  of  Cdbus  found  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of 

Northern  India  is  allied.  The  West 
and  East  African  sequitun  (C.  cob) 
is  a  much  smaller  animal  than  the 
under  -  mentioned  lichi,  and  has 
shorter  horns,  coming  more  for- 
wards. It  has  a  relatively  shorter 
tail  than  the  water-buck,  and  is  of 
a  general  pale  reddish-brown  colour, 
with  white  on  the  inner  sides  of 
the  ears,  the  under-parts,  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  limbs,  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  a  ring  round  each  fetlock. 
Good  horns  vary  in  length  from  17 
to  18  inches.  This  is  one  of  the  few 
antelopes  that  range  across  Africa, 
occurring  both  in  Uganda  and  in 
Gambia. 

The  lichi  (C.  leche)  and  the 
puku  (C.  vardoni),  are  two  a^'r  i 
species  from  South  Central  Africa, 
both  of  which  were  discovered  by 
Livingstone.  The  puku  is  about 
the  size  of  the  pala,  standing  some 
3  feet  3  inches  at  the  shoulder  ;  its  hair  is  of  a  uniform  foxy-red  colour,  with 
the  tips  of  the  ears  black,  and  black  markings  down  the  front  of  the  fore-legs. 
The  horns  are  rather  small,  without  much  forward  curvature,  and  with  the  rings 
not  extending  so  high  up  as  in  the  lichi  ;  their  length  varying  from  13  to  16,  and 
in  one  instance  reaching  19  inches.  The  puku  is  a  plumply-built  animal,  with 
a  very  erect  carriage;  and  its  horns  may  attain  a  length  of  16  inches  along  the 
curve.  The  lichi  is  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  less  erect  carriage,  and  the 
completely  fawn-coloured  ears  of  the  adult  ;  the  general  colour  being  pale  brown, 


THE  PUKU. — After  Livingstone. 


ANTELOPES.  305 

with  the  under-parts  and  rings  round  the  eyes  whitish.  The  horns  seldom 
exceed  24  inches  in  length,  although  they  have  been  recorded  of  27^  inches.  The 
lichi  is  strictly  a  swamp-dwelling  animal ;  and,  when  undisturbed,  can  be  approached 
very  easily.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  when  these  antelopes  "  first  make  up  their 
minds  to  run,  they  stretch  out  their  noses,  the  males  laying  their  horns  flat  along 
their  sides,  and  trot ;  but  on  being  pressed  they  break  into  a  springing  gallop,  now 
and  then  bounding  high  into  the  air.  Even  when  in  water  up  to  their  necks  they 
do  not  swim,  but  get  along  by  a  succession  of  bounds,  making  a  tremendous 
splashing.  Of  course,  when  the  water  becomes  too  deep  for  them  to  bottom  they 
are  forced  to  swim,  which  they  do  well  and  strongly,  though  not  so  fast  as  the 
natives  can  paddle ;  and  when  the  country  is  flooded,  great  numbers  are  driven 
into  deep  water  and  speared."  Generally  these  animals  are  to  be  seen  standing 
knee  or  belly-deep  in  the  water,  lazily  cropping  the  aquatic  plants ;  or  reposing 
close  to  the  water's  edge.  Puku  are  usually  met  with  in  herds  of  from  three  to 
twelve  in  number,  although  occasionally  as  many  as  fifty  may  be  seen  together. 
They  are  generally  found  on  dry  ground  close  to  the  edges  of  the  rivers,  but  when 
pursued  will  take  readily  to  the  water.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  puku  and  lichi  are 
never  found  together,  although  the  latter  may  associate  with  pala. 


THE  RHEBOK. 
Genus  Pelea. 

The  rhebok,  or  vaal  rhebok  (Pelea  capreola),  is  the  first  representative  of  the 
second  division  of  the  Cervicaprine  group,  in  which  the  species  are  mostly  of  small 
size,  and  characterised  by  their  short  and  nearly  upright  horns.  Of  this  subgroup 
the  rhebok,  which  stands  about  30  inches  at  the  withers,  is  the  largest  species. 
The  horns  are  placed  wide  apart  over  the  eyes,  and  are  sharp,  slender,  and  well 
ringed,  rising  nearly  vertically  with  a  slight  forward  bend,  but  with  little 
divergence.  Their  cross-section  is  elliptical ;  and  their  length  from  5|  to  8£ 
inches.  The  gland  below  the  eye  and  the  corresponding  depression  in  the  skull 
are  wanting.  The  muzzle  is  naked ;  the  tail  short,  broad,  fan-like,  and  bushy ; 
and  the  hair  thick  and  rather  woolly.  The  colour  is  a  light  greyish  brown,  passing 
in '  -"rhite  beneath. 

This  antelope  is  an  inhabitant  of  hilly  and  mountainous  districts 
Habits.          . 

in  Southern  and  Eastern  Africa ;  and  its  habits  much  resemble  those 

of  the  chamois.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  rhebok  "  are  never  found  but  on  the 
bare  hills  among  rocks  and  stones,  and  their  habits  of  springing  are  wonderful. 
It  seems  extraordinary  how  their  delicate  limbs  escape  injury,  when  they  take 
bound  after  bound,  like  an  india-rubber  ball,  in  places  that  a  cat  would  shudder  at. 
T  do  not  suppose  that  they  are  really  more  shy  than  some  of  the  other  antelopes  ; 
but  the  nature  of  the  ground  which  they  inhabit  makes  it  appear  so.  That  it  is 
hard  to  get  at  them  no  one  will  deny,  and  it  is  equally  difficult  to  drive  them, 
unless,  indeed,  you  happen  to  know  the  particular  troop,  have  often  seen  it,  and 
been  accustomed  to  notice  the  direction  they  usually  take  when  disturbed." 
Rhebok  only  descend  from  the  mountain-tops  and  ridges  at  night  for  the  purpose 

VOL.  II. — 2O 


306 


UNGULATES. 


of  drinking.  They  are  usually  found  in  parties  of  from  six  or  seven  to  as  many 
as  a  dozen.  From  their  wary  nature,  the  best  way  of  shooting  rhebok  is  by 
driving.  At  the  present  time,  although  widely  distributed,  these  antelopes  are 
nowhere  abundant. 

THE  KLIPSPRINGER. 
Genus  Oreotragus. 

Even  more  active  than  the  rhebok  is  the  diminutive  klipspringer  (Oreotragus 
saltator),  which  derives  its  name — meaning  "  rock  -jumper  " — from  its  unrivalled 


MALE   AKD   FEMALE   KL1PSPBINGER  (^  Bat.  size). 


power  of  leaping  from  crag  to  crag.     This  little  antelope  stands  about  22  inches  in 
height,  and  is  characterised  by  its  peculiarly  thick  and  brittle  hairs,  which  are 


ANTELOPES.  307 

hollow  internally.  The  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  uniform  olive.  The  small 
straight  horns  of  the  male  rise  vertically  from  the  head  and  incline  slightly 
forwards  at  their  tips ;  their  length  averaging  only  about  4  inches,  so  that  they 
are  overtopped  by  the  large  ears.  The  hoofs,  although  somewhat  clumsily 
shaped,  are  so  small  that  all  the  four  feet  could  easily  stand  upon  a  penny-piece. 
The  range  of  the  klipspringer  extends  from  the  Cape  through 
Eastern  Africa  as  far  north  as  Abyssinia ;  and  in  the  latter  country 
these  pretty  little  animals  are  found  as  high  up  as  eight  or  nine  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  small  size  of  their  hoofs  enables  the  klipspringers  to  obtain  foothold  on 
the  smallest  projections,  and  they  are  consequently  enabled  to  bound  up  the  sides  of 
the  steepest  cliffs ;  needless  to  say,  these  antelopes  are  exclusively  confined  to  hilly 
districts.  They  were  formerly  abundant  at  the  Cape,  but  have  now  become  com- 
paratively scarce.  Mr.  Crawshay  writes  that  "  I  have  never  seen  more  than  a  pair 
together,  though  in  places  where  they  are  numerous,  one  occasionally  sees  as  many 
as  three  or  four  on  the  move  at  the  same  time."  The  flesh  is  tender  and  well- 
flavoured. 

THE  STEINBOKS. 
Genus  Nanotragus. 

Although  the  name  steinbok  is  properly  restricted  to  a  single  species  of  ante- 
lope, it  will  be  found  convenient  in  zoology  to  apply  it  to  all  the  members  of  a 
small  group  of  these  animals  forming  the  genus  Nanotragus.  These  pretty 
antelopes  are  all  of  small  size,  with  short  horns  in  the  males,  no  tuft  of  hair  on  the 
crown  of  the  head,  a  naked  muzzle,  and  a  distinct  gland  below  the  eye,  of  which 
the  aperture  is  circular.  The  steinboks  may  be  divided  into  three  sections, 
of  which  the  first  is  represented  by  the  true  steinbok  (N.  campestris).  This 
antelope  stands  about  23  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  is  usually  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour,  white  below ;  but  while  in  one  variety  the  hue  of  the  fur  tends  to  rufous, 
in  another  it  is  more  or  less  silvery.  Together  with  the  other  members  of  the 
section  to  which  it  belongs,  the  steinbok  has  neither  lateral  hoofs  nor  tufts  of  hair 
at  the  knees.  The  horns  usually  attain  a  length  of  about  4  inches,  but  rarely 
may  be  5 ;  and  the  tail  is  of  moderate  length,  and  of  the  same  colour  as  the  back. 
This  little  antelope  frequents  either  open  country  or  thin  forest,  but  avoids 
mountainous  districts,  and  is  common  throughout  South  and  East  Africa  as  far 
north  as  the  Zambesi.  Although  abundant,  these  animals  are  difficult  to  find,  owing 
to  the  careful  manner  in  which  they  conceal  themselves.  On  the  east  coast  this 
species  is  replaced  by  the  larger  Zanzibar  steinbok  (N.  moschatus).  The  third 
member  of  the  section  is  the  royal  antelope  (N.  pygmmus)  of  the  Guinea  coast, 
which  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  Ruminants,  standing' only  12  inches  at  the  shoulder. 
It  is  of  a  bright  chestnut  colour,  darker  on  the  back  than  the  flanks,  with  the  under- 
parts  glistening  white. 

The  oribi  (N.  scoparia),  which  is  the  species  represented  in  our 

figure,  differs  from  the  preceding  forms  by  the  presence  of  lateral 

hoofs,  and  tufts  of  hair  on  the  knees.     It  stands  24  inches  in  height,  and  is  of  a 

tawny -yellow  above  and  white  beneath,  the  horns  being  about  5  inches  in  length. 


3o8 


UNGULATES. 


These  antelopes  range  in  South  Africa  to  some  distance  north  of  the  Zambesi,  and 
are  found  in  parties  of  two  or  three  on  open  ground,  but  are  very  local.  Their 
colour  harmonises  closely  with  the  ground,  and  their  speed  is  very  great.  The  flesh 
forms  excellent  venison.  There  are  three  other  species  of  this  section,  among  which 
is  the  Abyssinian  steinbok  (N.  montanus). 


THE  OEIBI  (T's  nat.  size). 

The  grysbok  (N.  melanotis),  which  is  met  with  only  to  the  north 
of  the  Limpopo,  differs  from  the  oribi  by  the  absence  of  the  tufts  of 
hair  on  the  knees.  It  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  steinbok,  and  of  a  chocolate- 
red  colour.  It  is  fairly  numerous  in  hilly  districts  and  extends  far  into  the  interior. 


Grysbok. 


SALT'S  ANTELOPE. 
Genus  Neotragus. 

The  Beni-Israel  or  Salt's  antelope  (Neotragus  saltianus)  of  the  Red  Sea  littoral 
and  Abyssinia,  which  is  only  slightly  larger  than  the  royal  antelope,  is  the  best- 
known  representative  of  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  presence 
of  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  by  the  hairy  muzzle,  as  well  as  by  the 
horns  of  the  males  sloping  backwards  in  the  plane  of  the  face.  Moreover,  the 
skull  is  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of  the  aperture  for  the  nose  and  the  short- 
ness of  the  nasal  bones,  while  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  being 
composed,  as  in  other  Ruminants,  of  three  distinct  lobes,  has  either  only  two  such 


ANTELOPES. 


3°9 


lobes,  or  two  with  a  mere  rudiment  of  the  third.  The  female  of  the  Beni-Israel  is 
only  16  inches  in  height.  In  central  Somaliland,  Kilima-Njaro,  and  Damaraland 
this  species  is  replaced  by  Kirk's  antelope  (N.  kirki),  differing  from  the  first  by 
having  a  rudiment  of  the  third  lobe  in  the  last  lower  molar.  Kirk's  antelope 
also  has  a  more  puffy  nose  than  the  Beni-Israel,  while  its  horns  are  cylindrical 
instead  of  being  flattened  on  the  inner  side.  So  common  is  Kirk's  antelope  in  parts 
of  Somaliland,  that  two  or  three  may  be  killed  at  a  shot.  When  disturbed,  they 
start  up  with  great  bounds,  uttering  a  shrill  cry;  the  flesh  has  an  unpleasant 
musky  flavour. 

DUIKERBOK. 
Genus  Cephalophus. 

The  elegant  little  South  African  duikerbok  brings  us  to  an  assemblage  of  small 
or  medium-sized  antelopes,  differing  in  many  important  respects  from  the  preceding, 
or  Cervicaprine  group,  which  includes  all  the  species  from  the  reitbok  to  the  Beni- 


THE  DUIKERBOK  (-fa  nat.  size). 

Israel.  The  name  duikerbok  properly  applies,  of  course,  only  to  the  typical  species, 
but  it  may  be  conveniently  extended  to  include  the  whole  group.  These  antelopes, 
which  are  exclusively  African,  are  mainly  inhabitants  of  thick  forest,  although  the 
typical  form  frequents  brush-covered  or  open  country.  They  are  characterised  by 
their  small  straight  horns,  which  are  generally  present  in  both  sexes,  being  placed 
far  back  on  the  skull  and  separated  by  a  long  tuft  of  hair.  The  gland  below  the 


3io 


UNGULATES. 


eye  is  small,  and  is  peculiar  in  opening  either  in  the  form  of  a  slit  (as  in  the  species 
figured)  or  as  a  row  of  small  pores.  The  muzzle  has  a  large  naked  portion,  and  the 
tail  is  very  short.  The  upper  molar  teeth  have  broad  and  square  crowns  (as  in  the 
figure  on  p.  158),  and  thereby  differ  markedly  from  those  of  the  preceding  group. 
The  majority  of  the  duikers  are  light  and  elegantly-built  animals,  of  a  more  or  less, 
uniform  colour,  and  are  all  very  similar  in  structure.  From  their  generally  inhabit- 
ing jungly  or  forest  country,  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  bush-bucks,  but  since 
that  name  is  also  employed  for  the  guib  (p.  277),  its  use  is  best  avoided. 

The  common  or  true  duiker  (Cephalophus  grimmi)  is  found  in  bush-covered 
districts  from  the  Cape  to  the  Zambesi  and  Nyasaland,  and  on  the  west  coast 
ranges  as  far  north  as  Angola.  It  stands  about  26  inches  in  height,  and  belongs 
to  a  group  of  three  species  characterised  by  the  general  absence  of  horns  in  the 
female,  and  by  those  of  the  male  rising  upwards  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the  plane  of 
the  nose.  The  ears  are  very  long  and  narrow,  and  the  colour  typically  yellowish 
brown,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  grey  tinge ;  but  there  is  great  variation  in  this 
respect,  some  skins  tending  to  reddish  and  others  to  greenish,  while  the  amount  of 
white  on  the  under-parts  is  also  variable.  The  length  of  the  horns  is  usually  from 
3  to  4  inches,  although  they  may  reach  5  inches.  The  name  duiker,  it  may  be 
mentioned,  signifies  diver  or  ducker,  in  allusion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  creature's 
movements  when  in  cover.  The  madoqua  (C.  abyssinicus)  is  a  smaller  but  allied 
species  from  Abyssinia,  distinguished  by  its  grizzled  greyish  brown  colour. 

The  red  buck  or  Natal  duiker  (C.  natalensis),  which  stands  about 
24  inches  at  the  shoulder,  differs  by  its  horns  (present  in  both  sexes) 
inclining  backwards  in  the  plane  of  the  nose,  as  in  the  majority  of  the  genus.  It 
is  also  distinguished  by  its  bright  reddish-bay  colour,  shorter  and  broader  ears, 
smaller  horns,  and  larger  head-tuft.  Owing  to  the  sudden  rushes  they  make  when 
disturbed,  these  antelopes  are  difficult  to  shoot,  and  their  flesh  is  unpalatable. 
There  are  many  other  more  or  less  nearly -allied  species,  such  as  the  philantomba 
(C.  maxwelli)  of  Sierra  Leone,  to  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  refer. 

The  little  South  African  blue  buck  or  pigmy  antelope  (C.  monti- 
cola)  must,  however,  claim  attention  as  being  the  smallest  member  of 
the  genus.  These  tiny  creatures,  which  swarm  in  the  Natal  jungles,  and  stand  only 
13  inches  at  the  shoulder,  are  smaller  and  lighter  in  build  than  a  hare,  and  are  of  a 
bluish  mouse-colour,  with  the  tiny  straight  horns  scarcely  showing  above  the  tuft 
of  hair.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  these  antelopes  feed  principally  on  certain 
berries  and  shrubs  found  growing  in  the  jungles,  and  seem  to  be  on  the  move,  more 
or  less,  the  whole  day,  though  they  are  most  often  to  be  seen  at  early  morning  and 
evening.  "  Perhaps  the  most  enjoyable  way  of  shooting  them  is  to  steal  about 
in  the  dense  jungle,  and  shoot  them  as  they  patter  about  among  the  dead  leaves 
which  strew  the  game-paths,  or  catch  them  while  feeding  on  some  favourite 
bush." 

Another  member  of  the  group  is  the  much  larger  zebra-antelope 

(C.  dorice)  of  West  Africa,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  eight  or  nine 

black  transverse  bands  crossing  the  back  and  loins,  and  gradually  narrowing  to  a 

point  on  the  flanks ;  the  ground-colour  being  a  golden-brown.     This  coloration  is 

quite  unique  among  Ruminants,  and  rivals  that  of  the  marsupial  thylacine. 


Wood-Antelope. 


ANTELOPES.  311 

Two  species  of  this  genus  from  West  Africa  also  call  for  mention 
on  account  of  their  great  superiority  in  size  over  its  other  representa- 
tives. One  of  these  is  the  wood-antelope  (G.  sylvicultor)  of  Sierra  Leone  and  the 
Gabun,  and  the  other  the  black  wood-antelope  (C.  jentinki)  from  Liberia.  The 
former  stands  about  2  feet  10  J  inches  in  height,  and  is  of  a  blackish  colour,  with 
the  hinder  part  of  the  middle  of  the  back  marked  by  a  yellowish  white  line.  The 
second  species  is  rather  smaller,  and  is  of  a  greyish  colour  on  the  body,  with  the 
head  and  neck  black,  and  the  legs,  lips,  and  inner  sides  of  the  ears  whitish.  The 
tuft  of  hair  on  the  head  is  small  and  inconspicuous.  Altogether  nineteen  species  of 
these  antelopes  are  recognised  by  Mr.  O.  Thomas. 


FOUR-HORNED  ANTELOPE. 
Genus  Tetraceros. 

The  chousingha,  or  four -horned  antelope  (T.  quadricornis}  is  the  Indian 
representative  of  the  duikerboks,  and  differs  from  all  other  living  Ruminants  in 


r 


MALE  AND   FEMALE  FOUR-HORNED  ANTELOPES  (A  nat.  size). 

that  the  male  generally  has  two  pairs  of  horns,  of  which  the  larger  are  placed  as  in 
the  duikers,  while  the  smaller  pair  are  situated  immediately  over  the  eyes.  The 
gland  below  the  eye  has  nearly  the  same  elongated  aperture  as  in  the  duikers ; 
but  there  is  no  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth 


3I2  UNGULATES. 

have  no  additional  column  on  the  inner  side.     All  the  horns  of  the  male  are  short, 
conical,  and  smooth  ;  the  front  pair  being  often  reduced  to  mere  knobs,  and  not 

unfrequently  absent.  In  height  the  male  chousingha 
stands  25  \  inches  at  the  withers,  but  an  inch  and  a  half 
higher  over  the  haunches.  The  fur  is  thin,  harsh,  and 
short,  and  longer  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  than 
elsewhere.  The  general  colour  is  dull  pale  brown,  with  a 
more  or  less  marked  rufous  tinge  above,  passing  gradually 
into  white  on  the  under-parts  and  inner  sides  and  lower 
portions  of  the  limbs.  There  is  a  dark  streak  down  the 
front  of  each  leg,  which  is  larger  in  the  fore  than  in  the 
hind  pair.  The  second  pair  of  horns  usually  vary  from 
3i  to  4  inches  in  length,  and  do  not  appear  to  exceed  4| 


SKULL  OF  FOUR-HORNED         fo^es.     The  front  pair  are  generally  not  more  than  H 

ANTELOPE 

inches  in  length,  but  may  reach  2£  inches  ;  they  are  fre- 
quently absent  in  specimens  from  Madras. 

The  chousinp;ha  is  found  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya  from  the 
Distribution.     -.,_..  XT.  ,,  £   r>      •        i        T     v      • 

Punjab  to  ISipal,  and  over  the  greater  part  or  Peninsular  India  in 

wooded  and  hilly  country,  although  it  avoids  dense  jungle.     It  is  unknown  in  the 
plain  of  the  Ganges,  on  the  Malabar  coast  in  Madras,  and  likewise  in  Ceylon. 

Mr.  Blanforcl  writes  that  the  chousingha  "  differs  from  all  other 
Indian  antelopes  in  habits  as  much  as  in  structure.  It  is  not  gregari- 
ous, very  rarely  are  more  than  two  seen  together  ;  it  haunts  thin  forest  and  bush, 
and  keeps  chiefly  to  undulating  or  hilly  ground.  It  drinks  daily,  and  is  never  seen 
far  from  water.  It  is  a  shy  animal,  and  moves  with  a  peculiar  jerky  action  whether 
walking  or  running  The  rutting  season  is  in  the  rains,  and  the  young,  one  or  two 
in  number,  are  born  about  January  or  February."  General  Kinloch  writes  that 
these  animals  "  conceal  themselves  in  long  grass  or  among  low  bushes,  and  some- 
what resemble  hares  in  their  habits.  They  are  seldom  to  be  seen  out  feeding,  but 
usually  jump  up  at  the  feet  of  the  hunter  and  bound  away  at  a  great  pace."  Fossil 
remains  of  the  existing  species  have  been  discovered  in  a  cave  in  Madras  ;  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  genus  is  represented  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Siwalik  Hills 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya. 

WILDEBEESTS. 
Genus  Connochcetes. 

The  last  group  of  the  antelopes  is  represented  by  the  wildebeests  and  their 
allies  the  hartebeests  and  blessbok  ;  and  is  mainly  confined  to  Africa,  although  one 
species  of  hartebeest  ranges  into  Syria.  All  these  antelopes  are  of  large  size,  and 
are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  as  well  as  by  the  circum- 
stance that  the  withers  are  more  or  less  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  haunches. 
The  muzzle  is  naked  ;  and  there  is  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  marked  by  a  tuft 
of  hairs.  The  tail  is  long,  and  the  general  colour  mostly  uniform.  The  horns  are 
more  or  less  lyrate  or  recurved,  and  at  their  origin  are  placed  more  or  less  closely 
together.  Unlike  those  of  other  antelopes,  the  bony  cores  of  the  horns  are  honey- 


ANTELOPES. 


combed  with  cavities,  as  in  the  oxen ;  but  the  upper  molar  teeth  differ  entirely 
from  those  of  the  latter  animals,  having  very  narrow  crowns,  without  any  additional 
column  on  the  inner  side. 

The  wildebeests,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  gnus,  are  ungainly-looking 
creatures,  distinguished  by  their  broad  and  short  heads,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  of 
great  width,  and  fringed  with  long  bristles,  so  that  the  nostrils  are  separated  from 
one  another  by  a  considerable  interval.  The  neck  is  furnished  with  an  erect  mane 
of  stiff'  hairs ;  and  the  long  tail  is  thickly  haired  throughout  its  length.  The  nearly 
smooth,  cylindrical  horns  are  situated  on  the  highest  point  of  the  skull,  and  curve 


THE  WHITE-TAILED  WILDEBEEST  (J  Hat.  size). 

outwards,  or  outwards  and  downwards,  and  then  bend  upwards  near  the  tips.  In 
the  young  wildebeest  the  horns  are,  however,  straight  and  diverging,  placed  at 
some  distance  below  the  highest  point  of  the  skull,  and  separated  from  one  another 
by  a  wide  space  at  the  base  covered  with  hair.  These  straight  horns  persist  as  the 
tips  of  those  of  the  adult,  the  curved  basal  portion  of  the  latter  being  a  subsequent 
development.  In  very  aged  bulls  the  two  horns  approximate  at  their  bases,  so  as 
to  form  a  helmet-shaped  mass  completely  covering  the  part  of  the  skull,  as  in 
the  Cape  buffalo. 

There  are  two  well-marked  species  of  wildebeest,  confined  to  South  and  East 
Africa,  both  of  which  are  represented  in  our  illustrations.     Of  these  the  common, 


UNGULATES. 

or  white-tailed  wildebeest  (Connochoetes  gnu),  is  strictly  South  African  ;  while  the 
blue,  or  brindled  wildebeest  (C.  taurina),  is  not  found  to  the  south  of  the  Orange 
River,  and  on  the  east  side  of  the  continent  extends  in  the  Uganda  district  some 
distance  to  the  north  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  former  species,  which  stands 
about  4£  feet  at  the  shoulder,  is  distinguished  by  the  long  hair  fringing  the  chest, 
the  long  white  tail,  and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  body.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  blue  wildebeest  has  no  long  hair  on  the  chest,  the  tail  is  black  and  shorter,  the 
sides  of  the  withers  are  marked  with  dark  transverse  stripes,  and  the  hair  on  the 
face  lies  more  smoothly.  In  the  ordinary  form  of  this  species,  the  fringe  of  long 


THE   BLUE   WILDEBEEST  (^  Iiat.  Size). 

hair  on  the  throat  is  black  ;  but  it  is  white  in  a  variety  from  Uganda.  The  horns 
of  the  males  of  this  species  have  a  spread  of  from  2  feet  to  2  feet  2  inches ;  and  in 
a  specimen  in  which  the  spread  was  2  feet  If  inches,  the  greatest  length  of  each 
horn  along  the  hinder  curve  was  19£  inches,  and  the  basal  girth  18£  inches.  Mr. 
Selous  states  that  the  blue  wildebeest  is  met  with  on  the  western  borders  of 
Griqualand  West  and  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Kalahari  Desert,  and  from  Mashona- 
land  to  Lake  Ngami  in  suitable  districts.  Near  Kilima-Njaro  it  is  found  in  large 
herds,  as  is  likewise  the  case  in  some  other  districts. 

Wildebeest  are  found  in  open  country,  and  never,  according  to 
Livingstone,  wander  far   away  from  the  neighbourhood  of  water. 
When  quagga  were  abundant,  both  these  animals  were  frequently  found  together ; 


Habits. 


ANTELOPES. 


3*5 


and  Mr.  Selous  states  that  at  the  present  day  a  solitary  wildebeest  may  frequently 
be  observed  feeding  among  a  herd  of  sassabi  or  zebra.  Both  species  of  wildebeest 
are  characterised  by  their  speed  and  endurance.  Describing  the  habits  and  appear- 
ance of  the  white-tailed  species,  Gordon  Gumming  writes  as  follows : — "  The  black 
wildebeests,  which  also  cover  the  entire  length  and  breadth  of  the  blessbok  country, 
in  herds  averaging  from  twenty  to  fifty,  have  no  regular  course,  like  the  blessboks. 
Unless  driven  by  a  large  field  of  hunters,  they  do  not  leave  their  ground,  although 
disturbed.  Wheeling  about  in  endless  circles,  and  performing  the  most  extraordinary 
varieties  of  intricate  evolutions,  the  shaggy  herds  of  these  eccentric  and  fierce- 


WHITE-TAILED  WILDEBEESTS  CURVETING   ROUND  A  WAGGON. 

looking  animals  caper  and  gambol  round  the  hunter  on  every  side.  While  he  is 
riding  hard  to  obtain  a  shot  at  a  herd  in  front  of  him,  other  herds  are  charging 
down  wind  on  his  right  and  left,  and,  having  described  a  number  of  circular  move- 
ments, they  take  up  positions  upon  the  very  ground  across  which  he  rode  only  a 
few  minutes  before.  Singly,  and  in  small  troops  of  four  or  five  individuals,  the 
old  bull  wildebeests  may  be  seen  stationed  at  intervals  throughout  the  plains, 
standing  motionless  during  a  whole  forenoon,  coolly  watching  with  a  philosophic 
eye  the  movements  of  the  other  game,  uttering  a  loud  snorting  noise,  and  also  a 
short  sharp  cry  which  is  peculiar  to  them.  When  the  hunter  approaches  these 
old  bulls,  they  commence  whisking  their  long  white  tails  in  a  most  eccentric 
manner ;  then,  springing  into  the  air,  begin  prancing  and  capering,  and  pursue  each 
other  in  circles  at  their  utmost  speed.  Suddenly  they  all  pull  up  together  to  over- 


3I6  UNGULATES. 

haul  the  intruder,  when  the  bulls  will  often  commence  fighting  in  the  most  violent 
manner,  dropping  on  their  knees  at  every  shock ;  then,  quickly  wheeling  about, 
they  kick  up  their  heels,  whirl  their  tails  with  a  fantastic  flourish,  and  scour  across 
the  plain  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  dust."  In  addition  to  their  speed,  wildebeest  are 
remarkable  for  their  extreme  tenacity  of  life ;  and,  owing  to  the  vigorous  use  they 
make  of  their  horns,  are  awkward  creatures  to  hunt  with  dogs.  Mr.  Drummond 
states  wildebeest  are  "  so  extremely  wary  that  fewer  are  killed  by  native  hunters 
than  of  any  other  species.  Europeans,  however,  find  them  good  practice  in  rifle- 
shooting,  as  they  will  stand  in  herds  at  a  distance  which  they  think  secure,  say 
three  hundred  or  four  hundred  yards,  and  watch  the  passer-by."  Only  occasionally 
can  they  be  approached  within  easy  range  by  fair  stalking ;  although  they  may  be 
killed  by  watching  at  their  drinking-holes  at  night.  Mr.  Drummond  writes  that, 
during  a  thunderstorm  of  unusual  intensity,  "  I  walked,  hardly  knowing  where  I  was 
going,  right  into  a  herd  of  gnu.  I  did  not  see  them  until  I  was  almost  among  them  ; 
but  even  had  my  gun  not  been  hopelessly  soaked,  the  fearful  storm  made  self-preser- 
vation, and  not  destruction,  one's  chief  thought.  They  were  standing  huddled  in  a 
mass,  their  heads  together,  and  their  sterns  outwards,  and  they  positively  only  just 
moved  out  of  my  way,  much  the  same  as  a  herd  of  cattle  might  have  done  " 

HARTEBEESTS,  BLESSBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK. 
Genus  Bubalis. 

The  well-known  hartebeest  of  South  Africa  (so  called  on  account  of  a  fancied 
resemblance  to  a  stag)  is  the  type  of  a  genus  which  may  be  taken  to  include  several 
nearly-allied  species,  and  likewise  the  aberrant  blessbok  and  bontebok. 

All  these  animals  differ  from  wildebeests  by  their  long  and  pointed  heads, 
terminating  in  a  narrow  muzzle ;  their  ringed  and  often  lyrate  horns,  the  absence 
of  a  mane  on  the  neck  or  throat,  and  their  shorter  and  less  thickly-haired  tail.  In 
consequence  of  the  narrowness  of  the  muzzle,  the  nostrils  are  closely  approximated. 
The  horns  are  compressed,  and  ringed  for  a  considerable  portion  of  their  length; 
and  in  form  are  more  or  less  lyrate,  with  their  tips  frequently  bent  suddenly  back- 
wards. In  the  typical  forms  the  withers  are  much  higher  than  the  haunches,  and 
this  feature,  together  with  the  great  length  of  the  face,  communicates  an  ugly  and 
ungainly  appearance  to  the  whole  animal.  These  characters  are,  however,  far  less 
strongly  marked  in  the  blessbok  and  bontebok,  and  some  of  the  intermediate 
species.  The  cows  of  this  genus  differ  from  those  of  the  wildebeests  in  the  presence 
of  only  two,  in  place  of  four,  teats. 

The  titel,  or  bubaline  antelope  (Bubalis  mauritanica),  of  North 
Africa,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  is  the  only  member  of  the  genus  not 
confined  to  the  African  continent.  It  is  the  smallest  representative  of  the  group, 
standing  only  3  feet  7  inches  at  the  shoulder ;  and  is  of  a  uniform  bright  bay 
colour  throughout.  The  face  is  extremely  elongated,  and  the  horns  are  perched  on 
a  crest  situated  on  the  very  summit  of  the  skull.  The  horns  are  comparatively 
short  and  thick,  of  a  deep  black  colour,  with  the  rings  extending  nearly  to  their 
tips.  They  diverge  from  one  another  in  a  U-shaped  form ;  and  have  their  tips 


ANTELOPES. 


Their  length 


mt  suddenly  backwards,  nearly,  but  not  quite,  at  a  right  angle, 
varies  from  13  to  14£  inches. 

The  Tunisian  hartebeest  (B.  major),  of  west  North  Africa,  is  a  much  larger 
but  closely-allied  species,  with  enormously  massive  horns,  which  may  be  just  over 
20  inches  in  length,  with  a  girth  of  10£  inches. 

The  true  hartebeest  (B.  cama)  is  a  South  African  species,  not 
ranging  as  far  north  as  Matabililand  and  Mashonaland.     This  fine 


Hartebeest. 


animal  stands  about  4  feet  at  the  withers ;  its  general  colour  being  greyish  brown, 
with  a  pale  yellowish  patch  on  each  side  of  the  haunches,  and  black  markings  on 
the  forehead  and  nose.  The  hair  of  the  face  is  reversed  as  high  up  as  the  eyes,  or 
even  to  the  horns;  whereas  in  the  preceding  species  it  is  reversed  only  for  a 
distance  of  one  or  two  inches  above  the  muzzle.  The  horns  are  long,  and  boldly 
ringed,  diverging  from  one  another  in  the  form  of  a  V,  with  their  tips  directed 
backwards  at  a  right  angle,  and  the  bases  curved  away  behind  the  plane  of  the 
forehead.  Their  length  varies  in  good  specimens  from  20  to  24  inches. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza  the  preceding  species  is  re- 


320 


UNGULATES. 


Habits. 


placed  by  Jackson's  hartebeest  (B.  jacksoni),  distinguished  by  the  uniform  pale 
colour  of  the  face ;  the  hair  being  reversed  for  a  distance  of  only  about  4  inches 
above  the  muzzle.  The  horns  are  of  about  the  same  dimensions  as  those  of  the 
hartebeest ;  in  the  typical  specimen  their  length  being  20f  inches  along  the  front 
curves,  with  a  basal  girth  of  12  inches;  but  in  a  second  example  the  length  was 
inches. 

Writing  of  the  common  hartebeest,  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  it 
is  one  of  the  fastest  antelopes  in  Africa,  and  possesses  such  strength 

as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  for 
anything  under  a  whole  pack  of 
strong  and  swift  hounds  to  bring  it 
to  bay.  "  It  is  common  in  the  great 
level  grass-plains  to  the  north-west 
of  Zululand,  and  on  several  occasions 
I  tried  coursing  them  there  with  two 
very  fast  crossed  Amaponda  grey- 
hounds ;  but  although  the  latter 
could  run  up  to  them  when  they  had 
a  fair  start,  they  never  once  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  one  to  bay,  or 
even  in  causing  one  to  separate  from 
the  herd."  In  such  districts  it  appears 
that  the  only  way  to  obtain  a  suc- 
cessful shot  is  for  the  hunter  to 
conceal  himself  in  a  ravine,  and 
have  the  antelope  driven  in  his 
direction. 

Cooke's  Cooke's  hartebeest  (B.  cookei),  of  British  and  German  East  Africa, 

Hartebeest.  brings  us  to  a  group  of  three  species,  readily  distinguished  from  all 
the  preceding  forms  by  the  wide  expansion  of  their  horns,  as  shown  in  the  figure 
of  the  skull.  The  other  two  members  of  this  group  are  the  tora  antelope  (B.  tora), 
of  Upper  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  which  is  represented  on  the  left  side  of  our  illustra- 
tion on  p.  317;  and  Swayne's  hartebeest  (B.  swaynei),  of  Somaliland,  of  which  the 
head  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  woodcut  and  the  skull  on  p.  159.  In  all  these 
species  the  hair  of  the  face  is  reversed  only  for  a  distance  of  2  inches  or  less  above 
the  muzzle.  In  Swayne's  hartebeest — the  sig  of  the  Sornalis — the  general  colour  is 
reddish  chestnut,  the  face  being  marked  by  a  broad  purplish  streak  extending  from  a 
little  distance  below  the  eyes.  The  horns  expand  very  widely,  rising  at  first  nearly 
in  the  plane  of  the  face,  and  then  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  middle  line  of  the 
forehead;  their  smooth 'tips  being  bent  at  right  angles  to  the  base,  and  directed 
immediately  backwards.  Their  length  varies  from  15  to  18£  inches.  In  regard  to 
the  habitat  of  this  species,  Captain  Swayne  writes,  that  to  the  "  south  of  the 
highest  ranges  of  Somaliland,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles  from 
the  coast,  are  open  plains,  some  four  thousand  or  five  thousand  feet  above  sea-level, 
alternating  with  broken  ground  covered  with  thorn -jungle,  with  an  undergrowth 
of  aloes  growing  sometimes  to  a  height  of  six  feet.  This  elevated  country,  called 


UPPER  PART  OF  SKULL  AND  HORNS  OF  COOKE'S 

HARTEBEEST.     (From  Giinther.) 


ANTELOPES. 


321 


the  Hand,  is  waterless  for  three  months,  from  January  to  March.  Much  of  it  is 
bush-covered  wilderness,  or  open  semi-desert,  but  some  of  the  higher  plains  are,  at 
the  proper  season,  in  early  season,  covered  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  a 
beautiful  carpet  of  green  grass, 
like  English  pasture  -  land.  At 
this  time  of  the  year  pools  of 
water  may  be  found,  as  the 
rainfall  is  abundant.  This  kind 
of  open  grass  -  country  is  called 
the  Ban.  Not  a  bush  is  to  be 
seen,  and  some  of  these  plains 
are  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  extent 
each  way.  There  is  not  always 
much  game  to  be  got  in  the  Hand, 
but  a  year  ago,  coming  on  to 
ground  which  Jiad  not  been 
visited  by  Europeans,  I  found  one 
of  these  plains  covered  with  herds 
of  hartebeests,  there  being  perhaps 
a  dozen  herds  in  sight  at  one  time, 
each  herd  containing  three  or  four 
hundred  individuals.  Hundreds 
of  bulls  were  scattered  singly  on 
the  outskirts,  and  in  the  spaces 
between  the  herds,  grazing,  fight- 
ing, or  lying  down.  The  scene  I 
describe  was  at  a  distance  of  over  a  hundred  miles  from  Berbera,  and  the  game 
has  probably  been  driven  far  beyond  that  point  by  now." 

Cooke's  hartebeest  is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour  on  the  upper-parts  and  greyish 
brown  beneath,  the  head  being  dark  rufous  in  front  and  fulvous  on  the  sides,  and 
thus  very  different  from  that  of  the  sig.  The  horns  are  also  shorter  and  less  widely 
expanded  than  in  the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tora  antelope  has  the  whole 
face  of  a  uniform  pale  isabelline  tint,  like  that  of  the  body ;  the  horns  being  fully 
as  long  as  in  the  sig,  but  rising  much  more  rapidly  from  the  base,  then  coming 
farther  forwards,  and  projecting  much  more  in  the  backward  direction.  Tora  horns 
vary  from  12  to  19i  inches  in  length. 

The  konzi  (B.  lichtensteini)  is  a  very  distinct  species,  inhabiting 
all  the  Zambesi  region  and  Nyasaland,  characterised  by  its  small 
horns,  which  are  much  expanded  and  flattened  at  their  bases.  These  horns  incline 
at  first  upwards  and  outwards,  and  then  inwards,  with  their  tips  directed  backwards 
and  upwards,  so  as  to  enclose  a  kind  of  vase-shaped  space,  their  length  ranging 
from  14  to  20  inches.  The  skull  is  also  shorter  than  in  any  of  the  foregoing  species. 
The  general  colour  is  a  little  lighter  than  that  of  the  hartebeest ;  the  tail,  knees,  and 
the  front  of  the  legs  being  black,  while  the  face  is  without  any  dark  markings,  but 
the  buttocks  usually  have  a  pale  yellow  patch,  and  the  under-parts  are  likewise 
yellowish.  In  Nyasaland  this  species,  according  to  Mr.  Crawshay,  is  very  generally 

VOL.   II. 21 


HEAD  OF  SWAYNE'S  HARTEBEEST. — After  Rowland  Ward. 


Konzi. 


322 


UNGULATES. 


Herota. 


met  with  in  the  hills,  if  not  too  steep  and  rocky,  and  in  the  plains,  but  it  appears  to 
prefer  a  flat  or  undulating  country,  well- wooded  and  with  intervening  open  glades. 
It  is  frequently  found  feeding  with  water-buck  or  zebras,  and  generally  goes  in 
small  herds  of  from  five  or  six  to  fifteen  or  twenty.  Its  vitality  appears  to  be 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  water-buck. 

Perhaps  the  handsomest  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  herota, 
or  Hunter's  hartebeest  (B.  hunteri) — from  the  southern  borders  of 
Somaliland,  on  the  great  river  Tana — which  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  white 

chevron  on  the  forehead,  and  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  long  horns.  This  fine  antelope 
stands  about  4  feet  at  the  withers,  and  is  of 
a  uniform  chestnut  -  brown  colour,  with  a 
rather  long  white  tail,  and  white  under-parts. 
The  chevron  on  the  forehead  has  its  angle 
directed  upwards,  and  terminates  in  rings 
surrounding  the  eyes.  The  horns,  after  in- 
clining upwards  and  outwards  for  a  short 
distance,  run  vertically  upwards  for  a  much 
greater  length,  with  long  smooth  tips.  Their 
length  is  about  22  inches  in  the  males.  The 
face  is  still  of  considerable  length,  but  the 
hind-quarters  do  not  slope  away  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  true  hartebeest.  This 
antelope  is  found  on  the  plains  and  in  thick 
bush  on  the  Tana  River.  Mr.  Hunter  says 
that  his  party  first  met  with  this  antelope 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  up  the 
Tana  Kiver.  "It  is  only  found  for  certain 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river.  It  frequents 
the  grassy  plains  principally,  but  is  also 
found  in  thick  bush.  It  is  generally  met 
with  in  herds  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
individuals.  At  the  time  of  year  when  I 
came  across  them  (October  and  November) 
I  saw  several  young  ones  in  the  herds.  The 
banks  of  the  Tana  River  are  fringed  with  a 
thin  belt  of  forest;  then  the  ground  rises 
slightly,  and  one  sees  extensive  plains,  dotted 
here  and  there  with  large  patches  of  bush, 
composed  principally  of  euphorbias  and  aloes. 
The  lesser  kudu  (see  p.  274)  lives  principally 
in  these  patches,  and  feeds  outside  of  them 

in  the  early  mornings  and  evenings.  When  I  first  saw  the  new  antelope  I  was 
stalking  two  examples  of  Waller's  gazelle,  and  though  I  saw  the  Hunter's  antelope 
in  the  distance  I  mistook  them  for  impalas,  which,  however,  are  not  found  on  the 
Tana  on  either  bank.  It  was  only  when  I  fired  at  the  gazelles  and  the  Hunter's 


HEAD  OF  HUNTER'S  HARTEBEEST. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1890.) 


ANTELOPES. 


323 


Korigum. 


antelope  ran  away,  that  I  noticed  they  were  new  to  me.  They  ran  with  rather 
a  heavy  gallop,  like  a  hartebeest.  We  did  not  come  across  these  antelopes  again 
for  some  days,  but  then  met  with  them  in  large  numbers  and  got  several  specimens. 
They  seemed  to  me  to  have  more  vitality  than  any  other  antelope  I  ever  killed. 
This  species  certainly  does  not  extend  down  to  the  coast,  but  we  saw  them  as  far 
as  the  farthest  point  we  reached  (about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles)  up  the  river, 
at  a  place  called  Mussa." 

Ranging  across  Central 

Africa,  from  Senegal  on  the 
west  to  Southern  Somaliland  on  the  east, 
is  the  korigum  or  Senegal  antelope  (B. 
senegalensis),  in  which  the  comparatively 
short  horns  are  regularly  lyrate,  ringed 
nearly  to  their  tips,  and  curving  back- 
wards without  any  distinct  angulation. 
This  species  is  represented  in  the  right 
upper  corner  of  the  illustration  on  p.  317. 
The  face  is  only  of  moderate  length,  and 
the  withers  (as  in  the  sassabi)  are  not 
greatly  higher  than  the  rump.  The  face 
has  a  broad  black  band,  extending  from 
the  root  of  the  horns  to  the  nose. 

Better  known  than  the 

last  is  the  nearly  -  allied 
sassabi  or  bastard  hartebeest  (B.  lunata), 
widely  distributed  in  South  Africa  as  far 
north  as  the  Zambesi.  The  horns,  which 
seldom  exceed  12  inches  in  length,  diverge 
widely  from  their  bases,  arid  are  then 
inclined  inwards  and  upwards,  without 
any  angulation.  The  general  colour  of 
the  coarse  fur  is  dark  purplish  red,  becom- 
ing almost  black  along  the  back,  and  with 

a  broad  blackish  mark  down  the  face.  In  height  the  animal  stands  about  3  feet 
10  inches,  and  has  horns  ranging  from  13  to  15|  inches  in  length.  Mr.  Selous 
states  that  the  sassabi  "  is  never  found  in  hilly  country  or  in  thick  jungle,  but 
frequents  the  open  downs  that  are  quite  free  from  bush,  or  else  open  forest-country 
in  which  treeless  glades  are  to  be  met  with.  On  the  Mababi  flat  at  the  end  of  the 
dry  season  large  herds  of  these  animals  congregate  together,  and  I  have  often  seen, 
I  am  sure,  several  hundreds  of  them  at  once.  They  are  without  exception  the 
fleetest  and  most  enduring  antelope  in  South  Africa."  In  regard  to  sassabi-hunting, 
Mr.  Drummond  observes  that "  I  do  not  consider  them  a  difficult  animal  to  shoot 
for  a  good  rifle-shot,  as  standing  chances  at  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  yards  are  easy  to  obtain,  and  they  will  often  allow  one  to  walk  up  to 
within  that  distance  in  full  view  before  even  attempting  to  take  to  flight,  while, 


Sassabi. 


HEAD  OP  THE  KORIGUM  OB  SENEGAL  ANTELOPE. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1890.) 


324-  UNGULATES, 

when  wounded,  I  have  found; them  unable  to  go  far,  and  easy  to  finish,;  and  their 
flesh  may  be  classed  with  that  of  the  best  of  the  choicer  antelopes." 

The  blessbok  (B.  albifrons)  and  the  closely -allied  bontebok 
(B.  pygargus),  which  are  represented  in  the  right  lower  corner  of 
the.  illustration  on  p.  317,  are  smaller  South  African  antelopes,  which  are  ^the  last 
representatives  of  the  genus.  In  both  species  the  horns  are  compressed  and 
regularly  lyrate,  with  the  rings  strongly  marked,  and  extending  nearly  to  the  tips; 
for  a  short  distance  they  run  almost  parallel,  and  then  curve  backwards.  Their 
usual  length  is  about  15  inches,  but  a  pair  of  18£  inches  is  on  record.  Both  species 
are  characterised  by  their  brilliant  purple-red  colour,  and  the  broad  white  "blaze" 
down  the  face,  from  which  the  blessbok  takes  its  name.  The  bontebok  (the 
animal  standing  in  front  of  the  two  on  the  right  side  of  the  illustration)  is  distin- 
guished by  the  white  blaze  on  the  face  continuing  without  interruption  right  up  to 
the  root  of  the  horns,  the  white  patch  on  the  buttocks  surrounding  the  -tail,  and 
the  white  legs.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  blessbok  (shown  in  the  hinder  of  the 
two  animals  standing  on  the  right  side  of  the  plate)  the  blaze  on  the  face  is  divided 
by  a  transverse  dark  line  just  above  the  eyes;  there  is  no  white  on  the  rump  above 
the  tail,  but  a  dark  stripe  runs  down  the  outer  side  of  the  legs.  In  height  the 
blessbok  stands  about  3  feet  2  inches  or  rather  more  at  the  withers,  but  th6  bontebok 
may  reach  from  3  feet  2  inches  to  3  feet  11  inches. 

After  mentioning;  that  blessboks  resemble  the  smaller  springbok 
Habits 

in  manners  and  habits,  Gordon  Gumming  goes  on  to  observe  that  they 

differ  from  the  latter  "  in  the  determined  and  invariable  way  in  which  they  scour 
the  plains,  right  in  the  wind's  eye,  and  also  in  the  manner  in  which  they  carry 
their  noses  close  to  the  ground.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year  they  are 
very  wary  and  difficult  of  approach,  but  more  especially  when  the  does  have  young 
ones.  At  that  season,  when  a  herd  is  disturbed  and  takes  away  up  the  wind,  every 
other  herd  in  view  follows  it,  and  the  alarm  extending  for  miles  and  miles  down 
the  wind,  to  endless  herds  beyond  the  vision  of  the  hunter,  a  continued  stream  of 
blessboks  may  often  be  seen  scouring  up  wind  for  upwards  of  an  hour,  and  covering 
the  landscape  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see."  On  one  occasion  when  on  the  Vet  River 
the  same  writer  states :  "  On  my  right  and  left  the  plain  exhibited  one  purple  mass 
of  graceful  blessboks,  which  extended  without  a  break  as  far  as  my  eye  could 
strain.  The  depth  of  their  vast  legions  covered  a  breadth  of  about  six  hundred 
yards." 

We  may  conclude  this  notice  of  the  hartebeests  and  their  allies 
by  mentioning  that  a  member  of  the  group  occurs  fossil  in  the  Pliocene 
strata  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya ;  and  it  may  be  inferred  from  this  and  the  facts 
above  mentioned  that  the  essentially  African  groups  of  sable  antelope,  water-buck, 
and  hartebeests,  and  probably  also  kudus,  were  once  represented  on  the  plains  of 
India. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

UNGULATES, — continued. 

THE  PRONGBUCK,  Family  ANTILOCAPRID^E  ;  and 

THE  GIRAFFE,  Family  GIRAFFID^E. 

THE  prongbuck  of  North  America  and  the  giraffe  of  Africa  differ  so  much  from  all 
other  living  Ruminants,  and  likewise  from  one  another,  that  they  are  referred  by 
common  consent  to  two  distinct  families,  namely,  the  Antilocapridce  and  the 
Giraffidce.  Whereas,  however,  the  former  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding  family 
of  the  Oxen,  the  affinities  of  the  latter  are  rather  with  the  Deer  family,  to  be 
described  in  the  next  chapter. 

THE  PRONGBUCK. 
Family  ANTILOCAPRID& 

The  prongbuck  or  prong-horned  antelope  (Antilocapra  americand)  much 
resembles  an  antelope  in  general  appearance,  but  differs  from  all  members  of  the 
family  Bovidce  in  that  the  sheaths  of  the  horns  give  off  a  short  branch  about  the 
middle  of  their  length  from  their  front  edge,  while  the  sheaths  themselves  are 
periodically  shed  and  afterwards  replaced  by  a  new  growth. 

The  prongbuck  stands  about  2  feet  10  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and 
some  3  inches  more  at  the  rump,  and  is  of  a  light  and  graceful  build,  with  the  head 
carried  very  high.  The  head  is  of  moderate  length,  with  the  muzzle  hairy  except 
for  a  narrow  line  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  lip,  and  large  and  pointed  ears.  The 
horns,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes,  rise  vertically  above  the  eyes ;  they  are 
much  compressed  from  side  to  side,  and  curved  slightly  backwards  at  the  tips, 
while  the  anterior  process  is  inclined  upwards  and  forwards  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  with  the  main  axis.  The  bony  cores  of  the  horns  are  dagger-shaped, 
without  any  branching.  The  tail  is  extremely  short,  not  exceeding  3  inches  in 
length,  and  the  feet  have  small  hoofs  and  no  traces  of  the  lateral  hoofs  so  commonly 
present  in  the  Bovidce.  There  is  no  gland  on  the  face  below  the  eye,  neither  are 
there  any  tufts  of  hair  on  the  knees. 

The  coloration  of  the  prongbuck  is  decidedly  handsome  and  striking;  the 
general  hair  of  the  upper-parts  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  limbs  being  chestnut.  The 
hair  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  which  is  of  the  general  chestnut  tint,  is  lengthened 
into  a  kind  of  mane.  The  face  is  brownish  black ;  but  the  summit  of  the  head 
above  the  eyes,  and  likewise  the  ears,  cheeks,  and  chin  are  white.  White  also 


326 


UNGULATES. 


prevails  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  throat,  the  under-parts,  and  the  inferior  half 
of  the  flanks,  and  extends  upwards  to  form  a  large  patch  on  the  rump  which 
includes  the  tail.  Usually  the  throat  is  crossed  by  three  russet-yellow  transverse 
bars,  of  which  the  uppermost  is  continuous  with  the  dark  area  of  the  lower  jaw. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  limbs  is  white.  The  horns  are  black,  save  at  the  tips, 
where  they  become  yellowish;  and  their  usual  length  is  about  12  inches,  but  Mr. 
Otho  Shaw  has  a  pair  measuring  17  inches,  with  a  span  of  20  inches. 


Distribution. 


GROUP  OF  PRONGBUCK  (&  liat.  size). 

The  habitat  of  the  prongbuck  appears  to  be  restricted  to  the 
temperate  regions  of  the  western  portion  of  North  America,  and 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  ever  occurred  to  the  eastward  of  the  Mississippi,  while 
it  only  impinges  on  that  river  in  its  upper  reaches.  According  to  Mr.  Caton,  these 
animals  originally  inhabited  all  the  regions,  except  wooded  districts  and  high 
mountain  ranges,  lying  to  the  westward  of  the  Mississippi  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States.  Up  to  the  year  1855  they  were  abundant  in  California,  and  were 
not  uncommon  in  the  open  parts  of  Oregon ;  but  they  have  now  almost  if  not  com- 


PRONGBUCK,  327 

pletely  disappeared  from  both  these  states.  In  latitude  their  range  extended  from 
the  tropics  to  the  54th  parallel ;  and  within  these  limits  they  frequent  by  choice  the 
open  prairie  country,  avoiding  thickly-timbered  districts  or  high  naked  mountains. 
That  the  horns  of  the  prongbuck  were  shed  annually  was  long 
and  persistently  urged  by  the  hunters  of  Fort  Union;  but  these 
statements  were  received  with  incredulity  by  naturalists,  who  scouted  the  idea. 
Eventually,  however,  it  was  proved  to  their  satisfaction  that  the  hunters  were  right 
and  they  themselves  in  error.  In  fully  adult  individuals,  the  annual  shedding  of 
the  horns  usually  takes  place  during  October,  but  in  the  young  the  horns  are 
retained  till  January.  In  the  males  the  horns  can  be  felt  as  prominences  beneath 
the  skin  even  at  birth,  and  at  about  four  months  old  they  burst  through  the 
skin.  They  are  later  in  making  their  appearance  in  the  females,  and  cannot  be 
detected  at  birth.  One  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  shedding  and  replacement 
of  the  horns  is  given  by  Mr.  Caton,  from  which  the  following  summary  is  taken. 
On  looking  into  the  hollow  of  a  shed  horn,  it  will  be  found  that  the  cavity  does 
not  extend  much  above  the  point  of  bifurcation ;  while  it  will  be  also  noticed  that 
the  interior  of  the  horn  contains  a  number  of  coarse  light-coloured  hairs,  all  of 
which  are  firmly  attached  to  its  substance,  while  in  the  lower  part  many  pass 
completely  through  it.  The  core  from  which  the  sheath  was  cast  will  also  be 
found  to  be  covered  with  similar  hairs  growing  from  an  investing  skin ;  and  it 
will  thus  be  evident  that  the  sheath  was  more  or  less  completely  penetrated  by  a 
number  of  the  subjacent  hairs,  which  were  of  course  torn  asunder  at  the  time  of 
shedding.  Indeed  the  horn  of  the  prongbuck  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than 
a  mass  of  agglomerated  hairs,  and  thereby  differs  markedly  from  the  bovine  horn. 

On  examining  the  head  of  a  prongbuck  from  which  the  horns  have  been  freshly 
shed,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  summits  of  the  cores  are  already  capped  with 
small  new  horns,  which  have  evidently  commenced  their  growth  considerably  before 
the  period  of  casting,  as  they  reach  for  several  inches  above  the  tips  of  the  cores. 
The  summits  of  these  new  horns  are  perfectly  hardened,  but  lower  down  they 
gradually  become  softer  and  softer,  until  they  pass  into  the  skin  investing  the 
greater  part  of  the  core.  The  condition  presented  by  an  animal  with  newly-growing 
horns  is  shown  in  the  woodcut  on  the  following  page. 

It  is  thus  clear  that  as  the  new  horn  gradually  increased  in  length  above  the 
summit  of  the  core,  it  must  have  loosened  and  carried  with  it  the  old  sheath,  which 
eventually  became  completely  detached  from  the  core  by  the  breaking  and  tearing 
away  of  the  hairs  passing  from  the  skin  into  its  substance.  When  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  hairs  were  detached  or  broken,  any  sudden  motion  of  the  animal  would 
doubtless  lead  to  the  loss  of  the  horns ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that,  at  least  as  a 
rule,  the  process  is  assisted  by  the  animal  rubbing  its  horns  against  neighbouring 
objects.  In  regard  to  the  renovating  process,  Mr.  Caton  writes  that  "  when  the  old 
horn  was  cast  off,  the  new  one,  as  we  have  already  seen,  had  made  a  considerable 
growth  above  the  core,  which  was  already  tipped  with  perfected  horn,  while  a  section 
below  it  was  more  or  less  hardened,  or  partially  converted  into  horn.  This  inter- 
vening section  gradually  moved  down  the  horn,  constantly  invading  the  soft  skin 
below,  and  followed  above  with  perfected  horn.  All  this  time  the  horn  was  growing 
in  length  above  the  core,  and  assuming  that  posterior  curvature  near  its  upper  part 


328 


UNGULATES. 


which  so  much  resembles  the  curvature  of  the  horns  of  the  chamois.  After  the 
horn  is  perfected  clown  to  the  top  of  the  cores,  it  ceases  to  increase  in  length,  while 
the  apparently  converting  process  steadily  progresses  downward  along  or  around 
the  core.  The  cores  being  laterally  compressed,  the  horn  assumes  the  same  form  ; 

not,  however,  conform- 
ing precisely  to  the 
shape  of  the  core,  but 
extending  considerably 
in  front  of  it,  where  it 
is  thinner  than  the 
posterior  part.  At  the 
upper  extremity  of  the 
wide  flattened  part  the 
snag  or  prong  is  thrown 
out,  which  consists  of 
little  more  than  an 
abrupt  termination  of 
the  wide  part,  with  an 
elevated  exterior  point. 
By  the  latter  part  of 
winter,  in  the  adult,  the 
horn  has  attained  about 
this  stage  of  growth. 
From  this  it  presses  on, 
hardening  in  its  down- 
ward growth  till  the 
latter  part  of  summer, 
by  which  time  '  the 
growth  is  perfected 

down  to  the  base,  and  is  a  complete  weapon  for  warfare.  In  this  state  it  con- 
tinues until  the  new  horn  has  commenced  its  growth  and  begun  to  displace  the  old 
one  from  its  position,  in  the  manner  described  above." 

As  regards  habits,  the  prongbuck  is  a  shy  and  timid  creature, 
avoiding  its  enemies  with  great  intelligence,  although  sometimes 
betrayed  into  danger  by  its  extreme  curiosity.  It  is  swifter  than  any  other  native 
North  American  Ungulate ;  but  is  somewhat  short-winded  and  cannot  maintain  its 
speed  for  any  length  of  time.  Prongbucks  are  essentially  gregarious ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Canfield,  individuals  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages  congregate  in  herds 
from  the  beginning  of  September  to  the  end  of  February.  By  the  beginning  of 
March,  the  same  writer  states,  "  the  does  separate  themselves  from  the  band  one  by 
one  to  drop  their  kids.  They  produce  two  at  a  birth.  After  a  little  time  the  does 
collect  together  with  their  young,  probably  for  mutual  protection  against  coyotes ; 
the  old  bucks  in  the  meantime  go  off  alone,  each  by  himself  or  at  most  two  together, 
leaving  the  young  bucks  and  young  does  together  in  small  bands.  The  old  bucks 
now  for  a  month  or  two  wander  a  great  deal,  and  are  seen  in  the  timber-lands,  and 
in  other  places  where  they  never  go  at  any  other  season  of  the  year,  evidently  '  tired 


HEAD   OF  PRONGBUCK,   WITH   NEWLY-GROWING  HORNS. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool  Soc*,  1880,  p.  540.) 


Habits. 


PRONGBUCK.  329 


of  the  world '  and  fleeing  from  society.  After  two  or  three  months,  the  young  bucks 
ami  does  join  the  old  does  and  their  kids,  and  finally,  by  the  first  of  September,  all 
are  together  once  more  in  bands  of  hundreds  or  thousands.  Any  particular  band 
of  antelopes  does  not  leave  the  locality  where  they  grow  up,  and  never  ranges  more 
than  a  few  miles  in  different  directions." 

At  the  present  day  prongbuck  are  seldom,  however,  met  with  in  numbers  any- 
thing like  those  just  mentioned.  During  the  pairing-season  the  bucks  are  comba- 
tive and  frequently  engage  in  fierce  contests  among  themselves.  In  defence  of  her 
young  the  female  prongbuck  is  said  to  exhibit  great  boldness,  sometimes  even 
beating  off  the  attacks  of  the  coyote  by  the  vigorous  use  of  both  horns  and  hoofs. 
Audubon  and  Backman,  in  describing  the  contests  between  the  bucks,  state  that, 
"  when  a  male  sees  another  approaching,  or  accidentally  comes  upon  one  of  his  rivals, 
both  parties  run  at  each  other  with  their  heads  lowered  and  their  eyes  flashing 
angrily,  and  while  they  strike  with  their  horns  they  wheel  and  bound  with  prodigious 
rapidity,  giving  and  receiving  severe  wounds ;  sometimes,  like  fencers,  getting  within 
each  others' '  points,'  and  each  hooking  his  antagonist  with  the  recurved  branches  of 
his  horns." 

In  spite  of  their  extreme  speed,  prongbuck  are  but  poor  jumpers,  and  appear 
unable  to  leap  over  any  large  object  that  may  be  in  their  path ;  this  incapacity 
being  attributed  to  the  open  nature  of  the  country  which  these  animals  generally 
frequent.  Mr.  Caton  states  that  "  this  inability  to  leap  over  high  objects  may  no 
doubt  be  attributable  to  the  fact  that  they  live  upon  the  plains,  where  they  rarely 
meet  with  such  obstructions,  and  so  they  and  their  ancestors  for  untold  generations 
have  had  no  occasion  to  overleap  high  obstructions,  and  thus  from  disuse  they  do 
not  know  how  to  do  it,  and  never  attempt  it  when  they  do  meet  them."  The  same 
writer  also  states  that  if  a  prongbuck  on  the  plains  desires  to  cross  the  railroad 
track,  when  alarmed  by  the  cars,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  he  will  strain  every  muscle 
to  outrun  the  train  and  cross  ahead  of  it,  as  if  he  suspected  a  purpose  to  cut  him  off 
from  crossing ;  and  thus  many  an  exciting  race  has  been  witnessed  between  muscle 
and  steam.  When  excited  during  its  gambols  with  its  fellows,  or  by  the  emotions 
of  rage  or  fear,  the  appearance  of  the  prongbuck  alters  considerably.  On  such 
occasions,  writes  Mr.  Caton,  "  the  hair  of  the  white  patch  on  the  rump  rises  up,  and 
assumes  a  more  or  less  curved  radial  position  from  a  central  point  on  each  side  of 
the  vertebrae.  From  these  points  the  hairs  radiate  in  every  direction,  only  they  are 
as  nearly  erect  as  their  curved  radial  position  will  permit.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
a  just  idea  of  this  appearance  by  words." 

The  prongbuck  is  readily  tamed  when  in  captivity;  and  all  who  have  eaten  it  bear 
testimony  as  to  the  excellence  of  its  flesh.  The  brittle  nature  of  the  hairs  renders 
the  fur  of  but  little  value ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  skins  are  much  used  as 
leather.  As  might  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  its  habit,  the  prongbuck  is 
exclusively  a  grazing  animal ;  and  in  captivity  avoids  browsing  on  leaves,  except 
when  no  other  food  is  available. 

There  are  two  chief  methods  of  hunting  the  prongbuck ;  one  by 
stalking  or  "still-hunting,"   and  the  other  by  coursing  with  grey- 
hounds.    In  the  north-western  portion  of  its  habitat,  the  proper  season  for  hunting 
embraces  the  months  of  September,  October,  and  November ;  but  in  the  south-west 


33° 


UNGULATES, 


the  period  may  be  extended  to  the  end  of  the  year.  In  localities  where  they  have 
not  been  much  disturbed,  prongbuck  are  comparatively  tame  and  not  very 
difficult  to  approach  within  range.  The  case  is,  however,  very  different  in  districts 
where  they  are  frequently  hunted.  Thus  Mr.  Du  Bray  writes,  that  "  the  ostrich, 
with  his  vaunted  power  of  vision,  is  comparatively  near-sighted  when  compared 
with  the  antelope.1  The  giraffe  may  excel  him,  not  from  having  superior  eyes,  but 
from  their  greater  elevation,  and  therefore  greater  scope.  The  deer  is  simply 
nowhere  in  this  respect.  Even  when  in  the  habit  of  roaming  on  the  prairie,  he 
has  not  the  knack  of  detecting  an  intruder  as  an  antelope  has.  I  never  had  any 
trouble  in  getting  within  200  yards  of  an  ostrich,  in  any  decent  place  ;  yet,  with 
years  of  experience  on  these,  and  a  great  deal  of  other  prairie-shooting,  I  at  first 
found  it  difficult  to  get  within  600  yards  of  an  antelope,  and  then  it  was  invariably 
a  wide-awake  one,  fully  able  to  take  care  of  himself." 

For  coursing  the  prongbuck,  only  the  very  best  bred  and  toughest  greyhounds 
are  of  any  use,  while  it  is  equally  essential  that  the  horse  on  which  the  hunter  is 
mounted  should  be  of  the  swiftest.  With  such  dogs  it  appears,  however,  that  the 
prongbuck  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  pull  down,  and  it  may  accordingly  be 
inferred  that  the  speed  of  the  animal  is  considerably  inferior  to  that  of  the  Indian 
black-buck,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  cannot  be  captured  by  greyhounds  on 
good  ground. 

Fossilised  remains  of  the  prongbuck  occur  in  some  of  the 
superficial  Pleistocene  deposits  of  North  America,  but  palaeontology 
has  not  hitherto  revealed  to  us  the  existence  of  any  nearly-allied  extinct  forms. 
It  is  suggested,  however,  that  a  small  deer-like  animal  (Cosoryx),  with  short 
antlers,  may  have  given  rise  to  the  prongbuck  by  the  loss  of  the  fork  in  the 
antlers,  and  the  development  of  a  superficial  horny  sheath. 

THE  GIRAFFE. 
Family 


As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  giraffe  (Giraffa  camelo- 
pardalis),  like  the  prongbuck,  is  the  sole  existing  representative  of  the  family  to 
which  it  belongs.  Whereas,  however,  the  latter  animal  stands  apparently  alone 
among  Ruminants,  species  of  giraffes  were  widely  distributed  in  former  epochs, 
while  there  were  also  several  more  or  less  closely-allied  types  now  extinct. 

Owing  to  the  great  length  of  its  neck  and  limbs,  coupled  with  its  large  bodily 
size,  the  giraffe  is  by  far  the  tallest  of  all  Mammals.  In  addition  to  its  elongated 
neck  and  limbs,  it  is  characterised  by  the  depth  and  shortness  of  the  body,  the 
great  elevation  of  the  withers  as  compared  with  the  hind-quarters,  and  the  long 
and  delicately-formed  head,  with  its  large,  full,  and  clear  eyes,  and  the  pair  of 
horn-like  appendages  covered  with  skin  which  surmount  the  occiput. 

As  it  is  largely  owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  these  horn-like  appendages 
that  the  giraffe  is  referred  to  a  distinct  family,  they  require  somewhat  fuller  notice. 
These  horns,  as  they  may  be  conveniently  called,  are  only  a  few  inches  in  length,  and 

1  In  America  the  prongbuck  is  often  termed  the  antelope,  pure  and  simple. 


GIRAFFE. 


are  present  in  both  sexes,  making  their  appearance  even  before  birth.  They  are 
erect,  subconical  processes  of  bone,  which  at  first  are  entirely  separate  from  the 
bones  of  the  skull,  although  in  later  life  completely  uniting  with  them.  They  are 
thus  essentially  different  from  the  horn-cores  of  the  oxen  and  their  allies,  from 
which  they  are  likewise  distinguished  by  being  invested  with  skin  instead  of 
horn ;  while,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  they  are  equally  distinct  from 
the  antlers  of  the  deer.  With 
the  exception  that  they  are 
at  first  separate  bones,  in- 
stead of  part  and  parcel  of 
the  skull,  they  appear  on  the 
whole  to  come  nearest  to 
the  horn-cores  of  the  prong- 
buck,  which,  as  already 
mentioned,  are  coated  with 
a  hairy  skin  beneath  the 
deciduous  horny  sheath.  In 
addition  to  these  paired 
horns,  there  is  a  dome-like 
bony  protuberance  occupy- 
ing the  middle  line  of  the 
skull  between  the  eyes, 
which  is  frequently  referred 
to  as  the  third  horn.  The 
position  and  relations  of 
these  three  appendages  of 
the  skull  are  well  indicated 
in  our  figure  of  the  giraffe's 
skeleton. 

The  skull  of  the  giraffe 
is  further  characterised  by 
the  great  elevation  of  the 
forehead  and  face  above  the 
level  of  the  eyes,  this  being 
due  to  the  development  of  a 
number  of  air-cells  in  the 
bones.  There  is  also  a  large 
unossified  space  immediately 
below  the  eye.  As  regards 
the  teeth,  those  of  the  upper 
cheek-series  are  remarkable 
for  the  lowness  and  breadth  of  their  crowns,  and  the  roughness  of  the  enamel  with 
which  they  are  invested ;  while  there  are  no  canines  in  the  upper  jaw. 

Reverting  to  the  consideration  of  the  external  characteristics  of  the  giraffe,  we 
note  that  the  ears  are  large  and  pointed,  and  that  the  large  and  slit-like  nostrils 
can  be  completely  closed  at  the  will  of  their  owner.  Moreover,  the  tongue  is 


GIRAFFES  AT  A  POOL. 


UNGULATES. 


remarkable  for  its  great  length,  and  the  distance  it  can  be  protruded  beyond  the 
lips;; i thus  acting  as  a  grasping  organ  of  considerable  power.  From  the  nape  of 
the  neck  to  the  withers  runs  a  relatively  short  and  erect  mane;  and  the  tail  is  of 
considerable  length,  and  terminates  in  a  large  tuft  of  long  hair.  The  feet  of  the 
giraffe  are  large  and  heavy,  and  have  no  trace  of  lateral  hoofs. 

The  coloration  of  the  South- 
African  giraffe  takes  the  form  of  a 
number  of  large  blotches  or  patches 
of  some  shade  of  chestnut  or  brown, 
irregularly  distributed  over  a  paler 
tawny  ground-colour ;  the  face  being 
uniformly  brownish,  while  the  under- 
parts,  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs, 
and  the  lower  portion  of  the  limbs,  are 
whitish  and  devoid  of  darker  blotches. 
The  mane  is  chestnut-coloured,  but 
the  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  tail  is 
blackish.  It  is  this  variety  which  is 
represented  in  our  coloured  Plate,  and 
in  the  woodcut  on  p.  334.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  North- African  giraffe 
may  be  described  as  a  chestnut- 
coloured  animal,  marked  by  a  net- 
work of  fine  tawny  lines.  A 
full-grown  bull  giraffe  may  measure 
as  much  as  18  or  even  19  feet  from 
the  soles  of  the  feet  to  the  summit 
of  the  head,  while  females  are  a  foot 
or  two  lower.  We  must  not  omit 
to  mention  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
liver  of  the  giraffe  is  unprovided  with 
a  gall-bladder;  the  animal  agreeing 
in  this  respect  with  the  deer,  and 
differing  from  the  prongbuck  and 
the  hollow-horned  Ruminants. 

The  giraffe  is  con- 
Distribution.  °  .  £ 
fined  to  Africa  south  or 

the  Sahara,  and  was  formerly  dis- 
tributed in  open  districts  throughout 
the  greater  portion  of  that  continent, 

although  absent  from  the  thickly-wooded  regions  of  the  West  Coast,  its  range 
extending  from  the  Cape  in  the  south  to  Abyssinia  and  Nubia  in  the  north.  Like 
the  gemsbok  and  eland,  the  giraffe  frequents  more  or  less  desert-like  regions; 
but  of  late  years  its  range  has  been  greatly  restricted,  more  especially  in  South 
and  Central  Africa,  where  Mr.  Bryden  considers  that  it  will  be  almost  exterminated 
within  the  next  twenty  years. 


SKELETON   OF  GIRAFFE. 


SOUTH  AFRICAN    GIRAFFES. 


GIRAFFE.  333 


Writing  in  the  year  1881,  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  giraffe  was  at  that  time 
"still  to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers,  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  the 
sc  h  of  the  Zambesi  River.  In  parts  of  the  Kalahari  Desert  it  is  said  to  abound, 
and  in  all  the  dry  sandy  district  between  Bawangwalo  and  Lake  Ngami,  and 
thence  to  the  Mabebi,  Chobi,  and  Zambesi  Rivers,  it  is  also  very  numerous.  Along 
portions  of  the  Botlebi  River,  and  in  the  waterless  but  forest-clad  sand-belts  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Chobi,  it  is  particularly  plentiful.  In  the  country  between 
the  Chobi  and  the  Zambesi,  the  giraffe  is  also  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Linyanti ;  but  is  not  nearly  so  numerous  there  as  on  the  other  side  of  the  former 
river.  Immediately  north  of  the  Zambesi  it  is  unknown,  although  it  appears  to 
be  plentiful  in  parts  of  Central  and  Eastern  Africa.  In  some  parts  of  the  Matabili 
country  it  is  also  common,  but  till  within  the  last  few  years  was  never  found 
eastwards  of  the  river  Gwelo  (a  tributary  of  the  Zambesi  north  of  Matabililand), 
though  it  was  always  very  plentiful  in  the  sand-belts  to  the  westward  of  that 
river.  This  fact  is  the  more  curious  since  the  soil,  vegetation,  and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  country  are  precisely  similar  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which,  during 
a  great  portion  of  the  year,  is  only  a  succession  of  pools,  and  therefore  does  not 
offer  the  slightest  obstacle  to  any  animal  desirous  of  crossing  it.  During  the  last 
three  or  four  years  a  few  giraffes  have  extended  their  range  further  eastwards." 

Since  the  above  was  written,  Mr.  Bryden  states  that  giraffes  have  practically 
disappeared  from  large  areas  to  the  south  of  the  Zambesi ;  and  their  headquarters 
are  now  the  parched  desert  country  forming  the  North  Kalahari.  Probably 
giraffes  are  most  abundant  in  the  districts  lying  immediately  south  of  the  Botlebi 
River,  on  the  northern  border  of  the  Kalahari  Desert.  Most  of  this  district  is  quite 
waterless  for  a  great  portion  of  the  year,  and  cannot  be  hunted  without  water-carts 
accompanying  the  party.  Here  giraffes  may  frequently  be  seen  in  parties  of 
fifteen  or  twenty,  while  it  is  stated  that  as  many  as  seventy  or  eighty  have  been 
observed  together.  To  the  east  of  the  Kalahari,  in  Khama's  country,  giraffe  are 
not  uncommon ;  as  is  also  the  case  in  parts  of  the  Chobi  Valley ;  while  in  Matabili- 
land and  Mashonaland  they  are  scarce.  Southward  of  the  Limpopo,  these  animals 
have  been  completely  exterminated. 

The  circumstance  that  the  hide  of  a  bull-giraffe  now  fetches  from  four  to  five 
pounds  in  the  market  has  been  the  main  cause  of  the  incessant  persecution  to  which 
these  splendid  animals  have  been  subjected.  It  is  probable  that  in  Southern  Africa 
they  will  linger  longest  in  the  more  inaccessible  portions  of  the  Kalahari ;  while 
they  are  likewise  likely  to  persist  in  the  deserts  of  Kordofan  and  the  Sudan. 

The  giraffes  inhabiting  the  North  Kalahari  Desert  cannot,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Bryden,  touch  water  for  some  seven  or  eight  months  of  the 
year ;  and  the  same  is  true  with  regard  to  those  found  in  other  waterless  districts. 
Hence  the  bushmen  state  that  these  animals  never  drink  at  all.  This,  however,  is 
disproved  by  the  following  quotation  from  Mr.  Selous,  who  writes  that  on  a  certain 
occasion  he  reached  camp  "  a  little  before  sundown,  just  in  time  to  see  three  tall, 
graceful  giraffes  issue  from  the  forest  a  little  distance  beyond,  and  stalk  across  the 
intervening  flat,  swishing  their  long  tails  to  and  fro,  on  their  way  down  to  the 
water.  It  is  a  curious  sight  to  watch  these  long-legged  animals  drinking,  and  one 
that  I  have  had  several  opportunities  of  enjoying.  Though  their  necks  are  long, 


334 


UNGULATES. 


they  are  not  sufficiently  so  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  water  without  straddling 
their  legs  wide  apart.  In  doing  this,  they  sometimes  place  one  foot  in  front, 
and  the  other  as  far  back  as  possible,  and  then  by  a  series  of  little  jerks  widen  the 
distance  between  the  two,  until  they  succeed  in  getting  their  mouths  down  to  the 
water ;  sometimes  they  sprawl  their  legs  out  sideways  in  a  similar  manner."  A 
giraffe  in  the  latter  posture  is  depicted  on  the  right  side  of  the  Plate ;  this  position 
having  to  be  assumed,  not  only  when  drinking,  but  likewise  when  the  animal  desires 
to  pick  up  a  leaf  from  the  ground,  or  on  the  rare  occasions  when  it  grazes. 

Writing  at  a  time  when  giraffes  were  still  abundant  in  South  Africa,  Gordon 

Gumming  gives  the  following 
graphic  account  of  their  habits  and 
appearance.  He  says  that,  "in 
countries  unmolested  by  the  in- 
trusive foot  of  man,  the  giraffe  is 
found  generally  in  herds  varying 
from  twelve  to  sixteen ;  but  I 
have  not  unfrequently  met  with 
thirty,  and  on  one  occasion  I 
counted  forty  individuals  together ; 
this,  however,  was  a  chance,  and 
sixteen  may  be  reckoned  as  the 
average  number  of  a  herd.  These 
herds  are  composed  of  giraffes  of 
various  sizes,  from  the  young  one  of 
9  or  10  feet  in  height  to  the  dark 
chestnut-coloured  old  bull  of  the 
herd,  whose  exalted  head  towers 
above  his  companions,  generally 
attaining  a  height  of  upwards  of 
18  feet.  The  females  are  of  lower 
stature,  and  more  delicately  formed 
than  the  males,  their  height  av- 
eraging from  16  to  17  feet. 
Some  writers  have  discovered 
ugliness  and  a  want  of  grace  in 
the  giraffe,  but  I  consider  that 
he  is  one  of  the  most  strikingly 
beautiful  animals  in  the  creation ; 
and  when  a  herd  is  seen  scattered 
through  a  grove  of  the  picturesque 
parasol-topped  acacias  which  adorn 

their  native  plains,  and  on  whose  uppermost  shoots  they  are  enabled  to  browse 
through  the  colossal  height  with  which  nature  has  so  admirably  endowed  them,  he 
must  indeed  be  slow  of  conception  who  fails  to  discover  both  grace  and  dignity  in 
all  their  movements."  Referring  to  the  admirable  protective  resemblance  of  many 
animals  to  their  natural  surroundings,  the  same  author  goes  on  to  observe  that  "  in 


SOUTH  AFRICAN   GIRAFFE. 


GIRAFFE.  335 

the  case  of  the  giraffe,  which  is  invariably  met  with  among  venerable  forests,  where 
innumerable  blasted  and  weather-beaten  trunks  and  stems  occur,  I  have  repeatedly 
been  in  doubt  as  to  the  presence  of  a  troop,  until  I  had  recourse  to  my  telescope, 
and  on  referring  to  my  savage  attendants  I  have  known  even  their  practised  eyes 
deceived,  at  one  time  mistaking  these  dilapidated  trunks  for  camelopards,  and 
again  confounding  real  camelopards  with  these  aged  veterans  of  the  forest."  It 
may  be  added  that  the  dappled  hide  of  the  giraffe  blends  harmoniously  with  the 
splashes  of  light  and  shade  formed  by  the  sun  glinting  through  the  foliage  of  the 
trees  beneath  which  the  animals  are  wont  to  take  their  stand,  and  thus  intensifies 
the  illusion.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  foregoing  account  the  maximum  number 
of  individuals  observed  in  a  single  herd  was  forty.  Larger  numbers  have,  however, 
been  seen  together  by  other  observers  in  Southern  Africa,  while  in  the  Sudan  Sir 
S.  Baker  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  counted  seventy-three,  on  another  one 
hundred  and  three,  and  on  a  third  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  individuals 
in  a  herd. 

The  food  of  the  giraffe  consists  almost  exclusively  of  leaves,  carefully  plucked 
one  by  one  from  the  trees  by  the  aid  of  the  long  flexible  tongue.  The  senses  of 
both  sight  and  hearing  are  highly  developed ;  and  the  lofty  position  of  the  head 
gives  to  the  soft  and  liquid  eyes  a  wide  field  of  view.  The  animal's  only  means 
of  defence  is  by  kicking  out  with  its  legs ;  and  the  blows  thus  delivered  are  of 
terrific  force  and  power.  This  mode  of  attack  is  employed  by  the  cow  in  defending 
her  young  against  Carnivores,  and  likewise  in  the  contests  which  take  place  among 
the  males  during  the  pairing-season. 

From  observations  made  on  individuals  in  menageries,  it  appears  that  the 
pairing-time  is  either  during  March  or  in  the  early  part  of  April,  and  that  the 
young  are  born  in  May  or  June  of  the  following  year ;  the  duration  of  the  period 
of  gestation  thus  being  as  much  as  from  four  hundred  and  thirty-one  to  four  hundred 
and  forty-four  days,  or  fourteen  and  a  half  months,  or  a  little  less.  But  a  single 
young  is  produced  at  a  birth,  and  the  little  creature  in  three  days  after  its 
appearance  in  the  world  is  able  to  trot  by  the  side  of  its  dam. 

The  speed  and  endurance  of  giraffes  are  alike  considerable.  When  running, 
the  tail  is  carried  twisted  in  a  corkscrew-like  manner  over  the  back,  and  the  neck 
inclined  somewhat  forwards.  Their  gait  is  peculiar,  and  takes  the  form  of  a  kind 
of  awkward  gallop,  "  their  hind-legs,"  writes  Mr.  Selous,  "  being  straddled  out  at 
each  step  and  coming  (one  on  each  side)  in  front  of  the  fore-legs.  If  you  only  look 
at  their  bodies  and  necks  from  behind,  they  appear  to  be  sailing  or  gliding  along 
without  making  any  movement  at  all.  They  get  over  the  ground,  however,  at  a 
great  rate,  and  it  requires  a  good  horse  to  run  one  down.  The  great  thing  is  to 
press  them  to  their  utmost  speed  at  first,  when,  if  fat,  they  soon  get  blown  and 
can  be  ridden  into,  and,  if  the  wind  is  favourable,  driven  for  miles  right  up  to  one's 
waggons,  just  like  an  ox  or  an  eland.  At  a  hard  gallop  they  can,  however,  spin 
along  for  miles." 

Giraffe-hunting  seems  to  be  generally  undertaken  on  horseback, 

and  all  who  have  partaken  of  it  speak  of  the  excitement  of  galloping 

behind  a  line  of  these  magnificent  animals  scouring  across  the  plains.     There  are, 

however,  but  few  who  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  pathetic  and  half-reproachful 


336  UNGULATES. 

expression  of  a  fallen  giraffe,  and  whose  hearts  are  so  hardened  as  not  feel  some 
compunction  at  thus  ruthlessly  destroying  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of 
nature's  handiwork. 

Mr.  Selous  expresses  his  admiration  at  the  sight  of  a  herd  of  giraffes  galloping 
before  the  hunter  in  the  following  words.  On  the  occasion  to  which  he  refers,  his 
horse  was  not  a  particularly  good  one,  and  the  pace  consequently  not  very  great. 
Eventually  he  got,  however,  within  one  hundred  yards  of  his  quarry,  and  he  then 
writes  that  "  even  in  the  ardour  of  the  chase  it  struck  me  as  a  glorious  sight  to  see 
these  huge  beasts  dashing  along  in  front,  clattering  over  the  stones,  or  bursting  a 
passage  through  opposing  bushes,  their  long,  graceful  necks  stretched  forwards, 
sometimes  bent  almost  to  the  earth  to  avoid  horizontal  branches,  and  their  bushy 
black  tails  twisted  up  over  their  backs.  And  how  easily  and  with  what  little 
exertion  they  seemed  to  get  over  the  ground,  with  that  long,  sweeping  stride  of 
theirs !  Yet  they  were  going  at  a  great  rate,  for  I  felt  that  my  old  nag  was  doing 
his  best,  and  I  could  not  lessen  the  distance  between  us  by  an  inch." 

All  who  have  eaten  of  it,  testify  to  the  excellence  of  the  flesh  of  the  giraffe ; 
and  we  have  already  made  mention  of  the  value  attached  to  its  hide. 

The  giraffe  thrives  well  in  captivity,  where  it  breeds  readily. 
On  the  morning  of  May  24th,  1836,  those  Londoners  who  happened  to 
be  passing  along  what  was  then  called  the  New  Road,  were  startled  by  the  appear- 
ance of  four  giraffes,  with  their  Nubian  attendants,  on  their  way  from  the  docks  to 
the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park.  Of  these  four  individuals 
three  were  males  and  one  a  female ;  and  they  respectively  lived  till  the  years  1837, 
1846, 1849,  and  1852.  Between  1836  and  1892  the  Zoological  Society  had  upwards 
of  thirty  giraffes  in  their  menagerie,  no  less  than  seventeen  of  which  were  bred  and 
born  there.  One  of  the  latter  which  was  born  in  the  spring  of  1846  lived  till 
January  1867,  or  close  upon  twenty-one  years.  The  last  of  this  series  of  giraffes 
died  in  March  1892,  and  owing  to  the  inaccessible  condition  of  the  Sudan  at  the 
present  time,  it  has  hitherto  been  found  impossible  to  replace  its  loss. 

tj  Fossil  giraffes  are  found  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  Greece,  Persia, 

Extinct  Giraffes.  to 

the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  and  China.     All  these 

extinct  forms  appear  to  have  been  closely  allied  to  the  living  African  species, 
although  in  some  instances  the  length  of  the  limbs  seems  to  have  been  proportion- 
ately somewhat  less. 

EXTINCT  MAMMALS  ALLIED  TO  THE  GIRAFFE. 

In  addition  to  the  fossil  giraffes  just  mentioned,  there  are  other  extinct 
Mammals  from  the  Pliocene  formations  of  Europe  and  Asia  which,  while  evi- 
dently referable  to  the  same  group  of  Ruminants,  must  be  assigned  to  distinct 
genera. 

One  of  the  most  giraffe-like  of  these  creatures  is  the  helladothere  of  Greece,  a 
hornless  animal,  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  giraffe,  but  with  a  shorter  neck  and 
limbs.  The  limbs  agree,  however,  with  those  of  the  latter  in  the  great  proportionate 
length  of  the  front  pair,  and  the  skull  has  a  considerable  general  resemblance, 
although  with  a  smaller  development  of  cells  in  the  bones  of  the  forehead,  and 


ALLIES  OF  THE   GIRAFFE, 


337 


SKULL  OF  THE  SAMOTHERE  (about  \  nat.  size). 


without  an  unossified  space  in  front  of  the  eye.     An  allied  animal,  known  as  the 
libythere,  has  left  its  remains  in  the  Pliocene  strata  of  Algeria. 

In  the  samothere 
of  the  Isle  of  Samos 
and  Persia,  of  which 
the  skull  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying 
woodcut,  the  fore  and 
hind-limbs  are  of  nearly 
equal  length,  and  the 
forehead,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  cells,  is 
nearly  flat,  while  there 
is  no  unossified  space 
in  front  of  the  eye. 
The  eyes  were  sur- 
mounted by  a  pair  of  flattened  bony  processes,  which  there  is  some  reason  to  believe 
were  detached  from  the  bones  of  the  forehead  in  the  young  state,  and  which  may 
have  been  clothed  either  with  skin  or  with  horny  sheaths  in  the  living  condition. 
In  many  respects  the  skull  of  this  animal  approximates  to  that  of  the  elk. 

By  far  the  largest  of  all  Ruminants  was  the  gigantic  Indian  sivathere,  whose 
skull  and  limb-bones  rival 
in  magnitude  those  of 
the  biggest  rhinoceroses. 
The  skull  of  this 
enormous  creature  was 
very  short  and  wide,  and, 
in  the  male  at  any  rate, 
carried  a  pair  of  large 
antler  -  like  appendages, 
situated  immediately  over 
the  occiput,  in  addition 
to  which  there  was  a 
pair  of  simple  spike-like 
horns  above  the  eyes. 
Although  the  branched 
appendages  of  the  skull 
recall  the  antlers  of  the 

elk,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  never  shed ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  probable  that 
they  were  covered  during  life  either  with  hairy  skin  or  with  horn.  In  any  case, 
they  were  to  a  considerable  extent  intermediate  in  their  nature  between  the  horns 
of  the  oxen  and  the  antlers  of  the  deer.  Other  kindred  types  were  the  hydaspi- 
there  and  the  bramathere  of  India,  in  both  of  which  the  appendages  of  the  skull 
take  origin  from  an  elevated  common  base  rising  above  the  forehead.  In  the 
former  of  these  animals  there  was  a  large  unossified  space  in  front  of  the  eye, 
.similar  to  that  occurring  in  the  giraffe  and  the  deer. 

VOL.  II. 22 


SKULL  OP  THE  SIVATHERE  (about  \  nat.  size). 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

UNGULATES, — continued. 
THE  DEER-TRIBE. 
Family  GERVID^. 

THE  last  representatives  of  the  true  Ruminants,  or,  as  they  are  technically  called, 
Pecora,  include  the  typical  deer,  the  elk,  the  reindeer,  the  musk-deer,  etc.     The 


SKELETON  OF  MALE   RED  DEER. 


great  and  distinctive  feature  of  this  group  is  the  general  presence  in  the  male  sex 
of  the  peculiar  branched  appendages  on  the  skull,  which  are  now  generally  known 


DEER. 


339 


Antlers. 


by  the  name  of  antlers.  Unfortunately,  so  far  as  simplicity  of  classification  is  con- 
cerned, these  appendages  are  not  present  in  all  the  members  of  the  family,  and  the 
zoologist  has,  therefore,  to  rely  partly  on  other  characters  in  defining  the  group. 
Still,  however,  as  these  antlers  are  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  deer-tribe 
as  a  whole,  their  importance  cannot  be  overrated,  and  we  accordingly  take  them 
first  into  consideration. 

With  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  antler,  it  appears  that 
the  word  is  derived  from  the  old  French  antoiller, — a  corruption  of 
the  late  Latin  antoculorum  (before  the  eyes), — which  was  originally  applied  to  that 
branch  of  the  antler  which  descends  over  the  forehead,  and  is  now  designated  the 
brow-tine.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  word  antler  seems  to  have  been  employed 
indifferently  for  all  the  branches  of  these  appendages,  while  still  later  it  was  used 
to  designate  the  entire  appendages  themselves.  It  is  in  the  latter  sense  that  it  is 
now  employed,  the  various  branches  of  the  antlers  being  termed  tines. 

In  addition  to  being  generally  more  or  less  branched,  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  an  antler  when  fully  developed  is  that  its  outer  surface  is  rugged  and 
devoid  of  any  covering  of  skin  or  horn.  In  fact,  for  all  practical  purposes,  an 
antler  may  be  regarded  as  a  mass  of  dead  bone  borne  for  a  certain  period  by  a 
living  animal.  Except  occasionally,  as  an  individual  peculiarity,  antlers  are  shed 
once  every  year,  and,  save  in 
the  reindeer,  are  present  only 
in  the  male  sex.  They  arise 
from  a  pair  of  longer  or 
shorter  bony  pedicles  situated 
on  the  skull  above  and  behind 
the  eyes,  and  forming  part  of 
the  skull  itself. 

When  the  antlers  of  a 
stag  have  been  recently  shed 
the  above  -  mentioned  bony 
pedicles  are  completely 
covered  with  skin,  and  merely 
form  small  prominences  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  fore- 
head. In  a  short  time,  how- 
ever, there  appear  on  the 
summits  of  these  pedicles 
small  velvety  knobs,  which 
are  highly  sensitive  and 
tender,  and  are  supplied  by 
an  unusual  number  of  blood- 
vessels. These  knobs  are  formed  by  a  deposition  of  bony  matter,  and  increase  very 
rapidly  in  size.  In  young  deer  and  a  few  of  the  smaller  forms  their  growth  is 
limited  to  the  formation  of  a  simple  spike,  or  a  spike  with  one  fork,  but  in  the 
adults  of  the  more  typical  kinds  of  deer  they  branch  into  a  smaller  or  larger 
number  of  tines,  until  they  finally  assume  the  form  of  the  complete  antler.  The 


HEAD  OF  RED  DEER  WITH  NEW  ANTLERS   IN  THE    "VELVET." 


34° 


UNGULATES. 


whole  antler  is  then  completely  invested  with  a  soft  and  vascular  skin  clothed 
with  exceedingly  fine  hair,  hence  termed  the  "  velvet."  When,  however,  the  growth 
of  the  antler  is  completed  in  its  upper  part,  a  deposition  of  bony  matter  takes  place 
at  its  base,  just  above  the  point  of  union  with  the  pedicle  of  the  skull,  in  the  form 
of  a  prominent  ring.  This  ring,  of  course,  constricts  the  blood-vessels  supplying 
the  velvet,  and  ultimately  causes  them  to  dry  up.  In  consequence  of  this  cutting 
off  of  the  supply  of  blood  by  the  ring  or  "  burr,"  the  velvet  itself  likewise  dries 
up,  and  is  eventually  removed  by  the  animal  rubbing  its  newly-formed  antlers 
against  the  stems  of  trees  or  other  convenient  objects.  The  antlers  are  then  com- 
plete. They  attain  their  full  development  shortly  before  the  commencement  of 
the  pairing-season,  and  during  that  period  they  are  employed  as  most  efficient 
weapons  in  the  contests  which  then  take  place  between  the  males  of  all  the  species 
of  the  deer-tribe.  Subsequently  the  living  bone  beneath  the  skin  below  the  burr 
of  the  antlers  is  absorbed,  when  the  antler  itself  is  shed,  to  be  renewed  in  the 
following  season  in  the  same  manner  as  before. 

In  the  fawns  the  antler  takes  the  form  merely  of  a  simple  conical  spike,  and 
this  type  is  retained  in  certain  South  American  species  throughout  life.  In  the 
following  year  the  antler  gives  off  a  branch  near  the  base,  and  this  form  also 
constitutes  the  highest  development  attained  by  some  of  the  smaller  species.  In 
the  more  typical  deer  the  antlers,  however,  become  more  and  more  branched  with 
each  succeeding  year,  till  in  the  red  deer  they  may  occasionally  have  as  many  as 
forty  points.  The  amount  of  bony  matter  annually  secreted  to  form  the  antlers  of 
the  larger  deer  is  enormous,  antlers  of  the  red  deer  having  been  obtained  which 
weighed  upwards  of  74  Ibs.,  while  those  of  the  extinct  Irish  deer  must  have 
probably  scaled  100  Ibs.  during  life. 

The  different  tines  borne  by  the  antlers  of  the  red  deer  and  other  allied  species 

have  received  distinct 

~"^  J  names,  and,  as  it  is  of 

the  highest  import- 
ance that  these  should 
be  clearly  understood, 
they  may  be  referred 
to  at  once.  In  the  red 
deer  group  (A  of  the 
accompanying  figure) 
the  shaft  or  beam  of 
each  antler  carries 
three  tines  on  its 
lower  front  edge,  of 
which  the  lowest  (a) 
is  termed  the  brow- 
tine,  the  second  (6)  the 
bez-tine,  and  the  third 
(c)  the  trez-tine,  or 

A.  Hangul,  or  Kashmir  deer;  B.  sambar ;  C.  spotted  deer;  D.  swamp-deer;  E.    SOTnp+impq    tliP     rnval 
Eld's  deer  ;  a,  brow-tine  ;  b,  bez-tine  ;  c,  trez-tine  ;  d,  e,  anterior  and  posterior 
surroyals.— After  Blanford  and  Forsyth.  tine.      The   summit  of 


LEFT  ANTLERS   OF  ASIATIC  DEER. 


A    FAMILY    OP    RED    DEER. 


DEER.  343 

the  beam  may  either  be  divided  into  two  or  three  tines  (as  in  the  figure  on  p. 
340),  or  may  be  split  up  into  an  almost  indefinite  number  of  snags,  radiating  out- 
wards from  a  kind  of  cup ;  but  in  any  case  these  terminal  snags,  irrespective  of 
their  number,  are  collectively  spoken  of  as  the  surroyals,  or  the  crown  of  the  antler. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  figure  that  in  many  deer  the  bez-tine  of  the  antler  is 
wanting ;  but  of  this  and  other  variations  in  form  more  will  be  said  later  on. 

Having  thus  noticed  that  the  deer  are  more  satisfactorily  dis- 
Ottier  Characters.  „        , ,          .      , ,  ,  , 

tinguished  by  the  presence  or  antlers  in  the  males,  we  have  now  to 

mention  certain  characters  which  will  aid  in  distinguishing  from  other  Ruminants 
those  members  of  the  family  in  which  the  antlers  are  wanting.  In  the  first  place, 
all  deer  have  a  very  large  unossified  space  in  the  skull  in  advance  of  the  orbit, 
this  space  being  so  extensive  as  to  prevent  the  lachrymal  bone  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  nasal  bone,  as  it  does  in  the  Ox  family.  Of  less  importance  is  the 
circumstance  that  the  first  molar  tooth  in  each  jaw  has  a  short  crown.  As  a  rule, 
tusks  or  canine  teeth  are  usually  present  in  the  upper  jaw ;  and  since  these  are 
always  developed  in  those  forms  unprovided  with  antlers  we  have  a  ready  means 
of  distinction  from  the  Ox  family,  in  which  there  are  never  upper  tusks.  Moreover, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  musk-deer,  no  member  of  the  family  has  the  gall- 
bladder, so  constantly  present  in  the  Bovidce.  From  both  the  prongbuck  and  the 
giraffe  the  deer  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  well-developed  lateral  hoofs 
in  both  feet.  It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  whereas  in  the  Bovidce  these  lateral 
toes  are  represented  merely  by  the  bones  of  the  toes  themselves  and  the  terminal 
hoofs,  a  large  number  of  deer  have  remnants  of  the  lower  extremities  of  their 
supporting  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  lying  alongside  of  the  cannon-bone. 
In  all  deer  the  end  of  the  muzzle  is  naked,  and  there  is  a  gland  in  front  of  the  eye. 

Although  numerically  far  inferior  to  the  Bovidce,  the  deer-tribe 
Distribution.     .  J  . 

includes  a  large  assemblage  or  species,  which  may  be  grouped  under 

several  generic  headings,  and  have  a  wide  geographical  distribution.  In  the  Old 
World  deer  are  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  are  quite 
unknown  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara — the  Ethiopian  region  of  zoologists.  Three 
of  the  Old  World  species,  representing  as  many  genera,  extend  into  North  America ; 
but  the  other  New  World  forms,  which  range  as  far  south  as  Chili,  belong  to  quite 
a  different  type  from  any  of  those  inhabiting  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Deer  are  for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  forests  or  grass-jungles, 

and  are  never  found  in  desert  districts.    They  are  an  older  group  than 

any  of  the  other  typical  Ruminants,  making  their  appearance  in  the  lower  portion 

of  the  Miocene  period,  where  the  species  were  of  small  size,  and  for  the  most  part 

unprovided  with  antlers. 

THE  RED  DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  elaphus,  etc.). 

The  well-known  red  deer  of  Europe  is  the  typical  representative  of  the  genus 
Cervus,  and  belongs  to  a  group  containing  several  species  or  varieties,  which  is 
distributed  over  Europe,  Asia  (north  of  the  Himalaya),  Northern  Africa,  and  North 
America,  and  is  mainly  characterised  by  the  conformation  of  the  antlers.  These 
(as  shown  in  the  illustration  and  in  A  of  the  figure  on  p.  340)  have  both  a  brow  and 


344 


UNGULATES. 


Red  Deer. 


a  bez-tine,  and  a  nearly  cylindrical  beam,  splitting  up  into  two  or  more  points  at  the 
summit.  The  tail  is  short,  and  the  buttocks  are  marked  by  a  light-coloured  disc- 
like  patch,  which  includes  the  tail,  while  the  rest  of  the  hair  is  uniformly  coloured. 
All  the  members  of  the  group  are  of  large  size,  and  their  young  are  spotted. 

The  red  deer  is  characterised  by  the  surroyals  of  the  antlers  of 
the  adult  having  at  least  three  points,  and  thus  forming  a  cup  in  the 
middle  of  the  crown ;  the  total  number  of  points  being  not  less  than  twelve.    Such 
a  stag  is  called  in  Scotland  a  Royal  Hart.    The  number  of  points  in  the  crown  may, 

however,  be  greatly  increased,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  of  an  antler  dug  up  many 
years  ago  in  an  Irish  bog.  In  the  stag  to  which 
this  antler  belonged,  the  total  number  of  points,  if 
the  two  antlers  were  symmetrical,  would  have  been 
thirty ;  but  instances  are  recorded  where  there  are 
as  many  as  forty-five  and  even  sixty-six  points. 
The  latter  number  must,  however,  be  regarded  as 
abnormal.  At  the  present  day  no  Scotch  stag  ever 
has  antlers  of  the  complexity  of  the  one  shown  in 
the  woodcut,  and  it  would  indeed  be  very  doubtful 
if  that  specimen  could  even  be  matched  among  the 
living  deer  of  Eastern  Europe,  where  the  heads 
are  considerably  finer  than  in  Scotland.  Such 
antlers,  and  even  larger  ones,  were,  however,  not 
uncommon  on  the  Continent  a  few  centuries  ago ; 
many  magnificent  examples  are  preserved  in  some 
of  the  old  German  castles,  the  collection  at  Moritz- 
burg  being  especially  rich. 

A  fine  specimen  of  the  red  deer  will  stand  fully 

4  feet  at  the  shoulder.  The  hair  on  the  throat  forms  a  long  fringe,  most  developed 
in  the  pairing -season.  During  summer  the  general  colour  of  the  pelage  is  a 
bright  reddish  brown,  the  head  and  legs  being  somewhat  greyer,  the  throat  pale 
grey,  and  the  patch  on  the  buttocks  yellowish  white.  In  winter,  when  the  fur 
becomes  longer  and  softer,  the  colour  tends  to  a  brownish  grey.  Wild  stags  are 
occasionally  found  white ;  the  tendency  to  albinism  increasing  in  the  domesticated 
state.  A  fine  Scotch  stag  will  weigh  some  280  Ibs.  (20  stone),  but  they  range  up 
to  420  Ibs.  (30  stone),  and  a  stag  was  killed  at  Woburn,  in  1836,  which  weighed 
476  Ibs.  (34  stone)  as  it  stood.  These  weights  are,  however,  exceeded  by  the  stags 
of  Eastern  Europe  and  Northern  Asia.  The  large  pair  of  antlers  mentioned  above 
have  a  total  length  of  68  inches,  and  examples  have  been  obtained  from  Eastern 
Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  varying  from  46  to  48|  inches  in  length.  The  antlers  of 
Scotch  and  Irish  stags  rarely,  however,  exceed  33  inches,  although  some  of  the 
latter  may  reach  35  inches.  A  Devonshire  stag  with  antlers  of  over  38  inches 
is  on  record. 

The  red  deer  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  temperate  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  its  eastward  extension  in  the  latter  continent  is 
not  yet  fully  ascertained.     Formerly  it  was  probably  found  throughout  the  forest- 


THE   RIGHT  ANTLER  OF  A  RED  DEER, 
FROM  AN  IRISH  BOG. 


Distribution. 


DEER.  345 

regions  of  Central  Europe,  but  it  has  now  been  exterminated  in  many  districts. 
In  Scandinavia,  it  is  found  only  in  a  few  forests  in  Sweden,  and  in  some  of  the 
Norwegian  islands.  It  also  remains  in  the  larger  forests  of  France  and  Germany, 
while  it  is  more  abundant  in  Hungary,  Servia,  Transylvania,  Poland,  and  the 
Danubian  States.  In  parts  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain,  as  well  as  the  islands  of 
Corsica  and  Sardinia,  it  is  less  plentifully  represented.  In  the  British  Islands  it 
is  only  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  to  the  north  of  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth  that 
wild  red  deer  are  met  with  abundantly,  and  then  only  by  the  aid  of  protection. 
They  are,  however,  also  found  on  the  moors  of  Devon  and  Somerset,  in  certain 
districts  of  Ireland,  such  as  Killarney  and  Connemara,  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrides. 
As  late  as  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  wild  deer  were,  however,  common  in  Wolmer 
Forest,  Hampshire,  while  a  few  lingered  on  in  Epping  Forest  till  the  early  part  of 
the  present  century. 

In  European  Russia  the  red  deer  is  reported  to  be  restricted  to  the  Caucasus. 
Eastwards  a  large  deer  ranges  through  Siberia  to  Amurland  and  Northern  China, 
which  is  probably  only  a  variety  of  this  species,  although  on  account  of  the  larger 
size  of  the  light-coloured  patch  on  the  buttocks,  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct 
form  under  the  name  of  C.  xanthopygus.  The  red  deer  is  again  met  with  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  it  attains  large  dimensions,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  enter  Persia,  or 
at  least  only  infringes  on  the  western  borders  of  that  country.  The  so-called 
Barbary  deer  of  Morocco  and  Algiers,  now  regarded  merely  as  a  variety  of  the 
present  species,  is  distinguished  by  the  frequent  absence  of  the  bez-tine  of  the  antlers. 

Fossil  remains  of  the  red  deer  are  found  abundantly  in  the  caverns  and  super- 
ficial deposits  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe ;  these  fossil  antlers  being  far  larger 
than  those  of  any  modern  representatives  of  the  species,  some  of  them  measuring 
upwards  of  40  inches  in  length. 

Like  most  of  the  tribe,  the  red  deer  is  gregarious ;  but,  except 
during  the  pairing -season,  the  full-grown  stags  remain  apart  from 
the  other  members  of  the  herd,  and  generally  frequent  higher  ground.  On  the 
Continent  this  species  is  almost  exclusively  a  forest-dweller,  remaining  concealed 
during  the  day  in  the  thickest  cover,  and  only  venturing  out  to  feed  in  the  open 
glades  or  adjacent  cultivated  lands  with  the  falling  shades  of  evening.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Scottish  red  deer  inhabits  the  open  hills,  and  has  for  its  only  con- 
cealment the  intervening  glens  and  valleys. 

The  pairing-season  commences  in  the  later  part  of  September  or  beginning  of 
October,  and  lasts  for  about  three  weeks ;  during  which  period  the  venison  is  rank 
and  unfit  for  table.  At  this  season,  writes  Mr.  Scrope,  "  the  harts  swell  in  their 
necks,  have  a  ruff  of  long  wiry  hair  about  them,  and  are  drawn  up  in  their  bodies 
like  greyhounds.  They  now  roll  restlessly  in  the  peat-pools  till  they  become  almost 
black  with  mire,  and  feed  chiefly  on  a  light-coloured  moss  that  grows  on  the  round 
tops  of  the  hills,  so  that  they  do  not  differ  so  entirely  from  the  reindeer  in  their 
food  as  some  naturalists  have  imagined.  .  .  .  This  is  a  very  wild  and  picturesque 
season.  The  harts  are  heard  roaring  all  over  the  forest,  and  are  engaged  in  savage 
conflicts  with  each  other,  which  sometimes  terminate  fatally.  When  a  master  hart 
has  collected  a  number  of  hinds,  another  will  endeavour  to  take  them  from  him. 
They  will  fight  till  one  of  them,  feeling  himself  worsted,  will  run  in  circles  round 


346 


UNGULATES. 


the  hinds,  being  unwilling  to  leave  them ;  the  other  pursues,  and  when  he  touches 
the  fugitive  with  the  points  of  his  horns,  the  animal  thus  gored  either  bounds 
suddenly  on  one  side,  and  then  turns  and  faces  him,  or  will  dash  off  to  the  right  or 
the  left,  and  at  once  give  up  the  contest.  The  conflict,  however,  generally  continues 
for  a  considerable  time,  and  nothing  can  be  more  entertaining  than  to  witness,  as  I 
have  often  done,  the  varied  success  and  address  of  the  combatants.  It  is  a  sort 
of  wild  joust,  in  the  presence  of  the  dames  who,  as  of  old,  bestow  their  favours 
on  the  most  valiant.  ...  In  solitary  encounters,  there  being  no  hinds  to  take  the 
alarm,  the  harts  are  so  occupied  and  possessed  with  such  fury  that  they  may  be 

occasionally  ap- 
proached in  a  manner 
that  it  would  be  vain 
to  attempt  at  any 
other  time."  One 
instance  has  been 
recorded  where  the 
antlers  of  two  stags 
fighting  in  this 
manner  became  so 
firmly  interlocked 
that  the  victor  was 
unable  to  disengage 
himself  from  his 
dead  antagonist,  and 
was  thus  held  cap- 
tive until  killed  by 
a  forester.  After  an 
interval  of  eight 
months  and  a  few 
days  from  the  pair- 
ing-season— that  is 
to  say,  generally  in 
the  early  part  of 
June — the  fawns  are 
produced;  there 

being  but  rarely  more  than  one  at  a  birth.  The  fawn  is  dropped  in  high  heather, 
and  is  left  concealed  there  during  the  day  by  the  hind,  who  returns  to  visit  it  in 
the  evening.  Mr.  Scrope  states  that  the  dam  makes  her  offspring  "  lie  down  by  a 
pressure  of  her  nose ;  and  it  will  never  stir  or  lift  up  its  head  the  whole  of  the  day, 
unless  you  come  right  upon  it,  as  I  have  often  done.  It  lies  like  a  dog,  with  its 
nose  to  its  tail.  The  hind,  however,  although  she  separates  herself  from  the  young 
fawn,  does  not  lose  sight  of  its  welfare,  but  remains  at  a  distance  to  windward, 
and  goes  to  its  succour  in  case  of  an  attack  of  the  wild  cat  or  fox,  or  any  other 
powerful  vermin." 

The  old  stags  shed  their  antlers  about  February  or  March,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  season,  but  those  of  the  young  bucks  are  retained  for  some  time 


EED  DEEB  AT  A  POOL. 


DEER.  347 

longer.  In  spite  of  traditions  as  to  the  great  age  attained  by  stags,  it  appears 
that  the  ordinary  limit  of  life  is  about  twelve  years,  although  a  few  individuals 
may  survive  to  twenty  years.  Red  deer  are  essentially  shy  and  wary  animals ;  and, 
in  the  open  districts  which  they  frequent  in  Scotland,  can  detect  an  enemy  at  an 
immense  distance.  When  all  the  members  of  a  herd  are  together,  the  chief  duty  of 
watching  appears  to  fall  on  the  hinds,  but  at  other  times  the  stags  have  to  depend 
on  their  own  alertness.  When  their  foes  are  in  sight,  deer  will  watch  them  with  the 
greatest  coolness  and  circumspection,  but  they  become  anxious  and  restless  when 
they  have  reason  to  suspect  the  near  presence  of  a  concealed  enemy. 

In  Scotland,  deer  are  now  killed  only  by  driving  or  stalking ; 
although  wild  red  deer  are  still  hunted  with  hounds  in  Devonshire, 
no  less  than  276  having  been  killed  there  in  the  five  years  ending  1892.  Formerly 
it  was  the  custom  in  Scotland  to  surround  a  large  tract  of  country  with  a  circle  of 
beaters ;  and  deer-driving  on  a  large  scale  is  now  practised  in  Austria  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  continent.  When  hunted,  as  indeed  at  other  times,  red  deer  will 
take  freely  to  the  water ;  and  when  a  wounded  stag  is  hotly  pursued  by  deer- 
hounds,  he  generally  seeks  refuge  in  the  mountain  streams,  where  his  length  of  leg 
gives  him  a  great  advantage  over  his  pursuers.  Sometimes,  writes  Mr.  Scrope,  a 
stag  "  will  stand  upon  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  river,  making  a  most  majestic 
appearance ;  and  in  this  case  it  will  always  be  found  that  the  spot  on  which  he 
stands  is  not  approachable  on  his  rear.  In  this  situation  he  takes  such  a  sweep 
with  his  antlers,  that  he  could  exterminate  a  whole  pack  of  the  most  powerful 
lurchers  that  were  pressing  too  close  upon  him  in  front.  He  is  secure  from  all  but 
man ;  and  the  rifle-shot  must  end  him.  Superior  dogs  may  pull  him  down  when 
running,  but  not  when  he  stands  at  bay."  It  may  be  added  that,  when  disturbed, 
deer  invariably  run  up  wind. 

In  addition  to  the  red  deer,  Asia  possesses  several  closely  allied 
Allied  Species. 

forms,  which   are   generally  regarded   as   distinct  species,  although 

it  may  be  a  question  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  consider  them  all  as 
local  races.  One  of  the  best  known  of  these  Asiatic  deer  is  the  hangul  or 
Kashmir  stag  (C.  kashmirianus).  This  species  stands  about  4  feet  4  inches  at  the 
shoulder,  and  differs  from  the  red  deer  in  that  each  antler  (as  shown  in  A  of  the 
figure  on  p.  340),  usually  has  but  five  tines,  so  that  no  cup  is  formed  at  the 
crown,  which  is  simply  forked.  Moreover,  the  whole  beam  of  the  antler  is  much 
curved,  with  the  main  tine  of  the  surroyals  (e)  greatly  inclined  inwards ;  while 
the  bez-tine  is  generally  longer  than  the  brow-tine,  or  just  the  reverse  of  the 
condition  obtaining  in  the  red  deer.  Occasionally,  six  or  even  seven  points  may 
be  counted  in  the  antlers  of  the  hangul.  In  colour,  this  deer  closely  resembles  the 
European  species.  Whereas,  however,  the  call  of  the  red  deer  during  the  pairing 
season  is  a  loud  squeal,  ending  in  a  more  guttural  tone,  in  the  hangul  it  is 
distinctly  a  roar,  which  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  leopard.  The  antlers  of 
the  Kashmir  stag  average  about  40  inches  in  length,  but  specimens  have  been 
obtained  of  which  the  measurements  were  respectively  52,  53,  and  55  inches. 

The  true  hangul  is  confined  to  the  mountains  surrounding  the  valley  of 
Kashmir  and  some  of  the  adjacent  districts.  There  is,  however,  a  deer  from 
Eastern  Turkestan  known  as  the  Yarkand  stag,  which  appears  to  be  merely  a 


348 


UNGULATES. 


variety  of  this  species,  distinguished  by  its  straighter  antlers  and  the  paler  colour 
of  the  fur.  In  Kashmir  the  hangul,  which  is  essentially  a  forest  animal,  is  found 
in  summer  at  elevations  of  from  9000  to  12,000  feet.  In  winter,  however,  it 
descends  to  the  valleys  during  heavy  falls  of  snow ;  and  at  such  times  it  is  ruthlessly 
attacked  by  the  villagers,  as  many  as  five  hundred  head,  it  is  reported,  having 
been  thus  slaughtered  upon  a  single  occasion.  These  indiscriminate  slaughters, 
together  with  the  more  orthodox  pursuit  by  English  sportsmen,  have  so  thinned 
the  ranks  of  this  fine  deer,  that  it  is  now  becoming  comparatively  rare,  and  unless 
proper  means  are  taken  for  its  preservation,  it  stands  a  good  chance  of  being 
exterminated  at  no  distant  date. 

In  summer,  hangul  are  generally  found  singly  or  in  small  parties,  the  old 
stags  being  usually  solitary ;  but  in  winter  they  collect  in  herds.  The  antlers  of 
the  stags  are  usually  shed  about  March,  and  the  new  ones  do  not  attain  their  full 
development  till  October.  In  that  month  and  through  November  the  males  are 
continually  calling,  and  it  is  this  time  that  is  the  proper  shooting -season.  The 
fawns  are  born  in  April,  so  that  the  period  of  gestation  appears  to  be  only 
about  six  months,  or  considerably  less  than  in  the  red  deer.  Leith  Adams 
states,  that  hangul  "are  seldom  confined  to  one  region,  but  roam  from 
forest  to  forest,  preferring  grassy  glades  alternating  with  dense  forest,  where 
there  is  a  copious  supply  of  water."  I  have  on  one  occasion  seen  a  small  party 
of  these  deer  on  the  Ladak  side  of  the  mountains  bounding  Kashmir  where  there 
is  no  forest. 

Far  to  the  south-east  of  Kashmir,  probably  in  the  districts  lying  between 
Darjiling  and  Lhasa,  there  occurs  a  much  larger  deer,  known  as  the  shou 
(C.  affinis).  In  addition  to  its  superior  dimensions,  this  deer  is  distinguished  from 
the  hangul  by  the  beam  of  the  antlers  being  strongly  bent  forwards  just  above  the 
trez-tine ;  while  the  bez-tine  is  less  constantly  longer  than  the  brow-tine.  Each 
antler  seems  to  have  constantly  but  five  points.  Antlers  have  been  measured  of 
54,  55,  and  55|  inches  in  length ;  anything  like  such  dimensions  being  only  very 
exceptionally  attained  by  those  of  the  Kashmir  stag.  The  height  of  the  animal 
is  from  4£  to  5  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

In  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Persia,  and  probably  also  in  Circassia,  the  red 
deer  group  is  represented  by  the  maral  (C.  maral).  This  is  a  large  species  allied 
to  the  last,  but  distinguished  by  the  much  greater  length  of  the  face,  and  by  the 
crown  of  the  antler  having  apparently  always  more  than  two  tines.  Specimens  of 
this  species  in  confinement  kept  entirely  apart  from  some  red  deer  inhabiting  the 
same  enclosure.  These  deer  are  said  to  be  abundant  in  the  thick  forests  of  the 
Caspian  provinces  of  Persia ;  but  we  know  very  little  about  their  habits. 

Another  Old  World  deer  of  the  present  group,  is  the  great  Thian  Shan 
stag  (C.  eustephanus),  from  the  forest-regions  of  the  mountain-barrier  on  the 
north-west  frontier  of  Eastern  Turkestan ;  the  so-called  Leudorf's  stag  (C.  leudorfi), 
of  Amurland,  being  in  all  probability  not  specifically  distinct.  The  great 
peculiarity  of  this  deer  is,  that  it  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  American  wapiti,  that 
it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  can  be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety  of  that 
species.  The  antlers  have  the  peculiar  characteristics  (to  be  noticed  immediately) 
of  the  latter ;  one  pair  having  a  length  of  51  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal 


DEER. 


349 


diameter  of  10|  inches  on  one  side,  and  of  11  on  the  other.     The  Thian  Shan  stag 
is  said  to  stand  6  feet  at  the  shoulder,  but  this  requires  confirmation. 

The  New  World  representative  of  the  present  group  is  the  well- 
known  North  American  wapiti  (C.  canadensis),  persistently  misnamed 


Wapiti. 


WAPITI   CHASED   BY   WOLVES. 


elk  in  its  native  country.  The  wapiti  is  distinguished  from  the  hangul  and  the 
shou  (to  which  it  is  more  closely  related  than  it  is  to  the  red  deer)  by  the  form 
and  proportions  of  its  antlers,  which  are  characterised  by  their  general  smoothness, 
and  the  tendency  to  a  flattening  and  expansion  of  the  surroyal  tines,  which,  in 


35o  UNGULATES. 

fully  adult  stags,  are  usually  three  or  more  in  number;  and  also  by  the  well- 
marked  backward  curvature  and  want  of  convergence  in  the  upper-part  of  the 
beam.  In  colour  the  wapiti  is  dark  brown  on  the  head  and  neck,  while  the  back, 
flanks,  and  thighs  are  creamy  grey,  with  the  under-part  of  the  body  blackish. 
The  legs  are  brown,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  light  patch  on  the  buttocks  is 
bordered  with  black.  Mr.  Caton  gives  the  height  of  a  full-grown  stag  as  rather 
more  than  5  feet  4  inches  (16  hands),  but  other  writers  estimate  the  height 
of  the  largest  individuals  at  5  feet  8  inches  (17  hands)  at  the  shoulder.  The 
usual  weight  is  about  700  Ibs.,  but  it  is  said  that  large  males  will  exceed 
1000  Ibs.  in  weight,  although  some  full-grown  females  do  not  scale  more  than 
400  Ibs. 

In  the  fifth  year  the  antlers  develop  five  points;  but  after  that  period  the 
number  increases  irregularly,  and  there  are  frequently  more  snags  on  the  one 
antler  than  on  the  other.  Very  rarely  is  there  any  approach  to  the  cup  in 
the  crown  of  the  antler  distinctive  of  the  red  deer.  Antlers  of  the  wapiti  attain 
very  large  dimensions.  Of  two  fine  pairs  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw,  the 
dimensions  are  as  follows,  in  inches, — No.  1,  length  49 1,  span  54,  basal  girth  8 ; 
No.  2,  length  55|,  span  48 f ,  basal  girth  7|.  In  two  examples  belonging  to  Mr.  E. 
S.  Cameron,  the  total  lengths  are  respectively  53J  and  55|  inches,  the  spans  47| 
'and  44^  inches,  and  the  basal  girths  just  above  the  burr  9J  and  10  inches.  The 
maximum  recorded  lengths  are,  however,  60f,  61|,  62,  and  62^  inches. 

The  range  of  the  wapiti  has  of  late  years  been  greatly  restricted  by  the 
advance  of  civilisation,  while  the  same  cause,  coupled  with  constant  persecution  on 
the  part  of  sportsmen,  has  likewise  reduced  its  numbers  in  a  corresponding  degree. 
Mr.  W.  A.  Perry  states,  that  the  wapiti  was  formerly  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  in  Mexico,  and  in  British  America  as  far  north  as  the  60th 
parallel  of  north  latitude ;  but  it  has  vanished  before  the  approach  of  civilisation, 
and  is  now  found  only  in  the  remotest  mountain  fastnesses  west  of  the  Missouri 
River,  or  in  the  great  forests  of  British  America.  The  largest  herds  now  remaining 
outside  of  the  National  Yellowstone  Park  are  found  in  the  Olympic  Mountains  of 
Washington,  and  among  the  mountains  of  Vancouver  Island.  There  are  still 
many  remaining  in  the  Cascade  and  Rocky  ranges,  but  they  do  not  congregate  there 
in  large  herds  as  they  do  in  the  Coast  ranges.  Another  recent  writer  states,  that 
less  than  ten  years  ago  there  were  many  secluded  districts  in  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
and  Montana,  where,  during  the  late  autumn  and  winter,  wapiti  might  be  seen 
banded  together  in  herds  numbering  many  thousands  of  individuals;  whereas 
now,  it  is  seldom  that  a  hundred  can  be  found  together. 

The  general  habits  of  the  wapiti  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  red 
deer,  the  old  stags  living  apart  from  the  main  herd  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year ;  and  in  the  pairing-season  taking  exclusive  possession  of  a  party  of  hinds, 
after  having  vanquished  their  rivals  in  fight.  The  shedding  of  the  antlers  is  late, 
generally  taking  place  in  the  full-grown  stags  during  the  latter  part  of  December 
or  the  first  half  of  January.  The  new  antlers  begin  to  sprout  in  March  or  April, 
and  are  fully  complete  by  the  middle  of  August.  At  this  time  the  old  stags  begins 
to  call,  the  note  being  a  roar  very  like  that  of  the  hangul.  It  has,  however,  been 
compared  to  the  bray  of  a  donkey ;  and  it  is  suggested  that  it  is  partly  from  this 


DEER.  351 

that  the  wapiti  has  received  the  nickname  of  "jackass  deer,"  bestowed  upon  it  by 
the  traders  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

During  May  Mr.  Perry  states  that  the  wapiti  desert  the  lower  hills  to  take 
refuge  in  the  higher  ranges,  getting  as  near  as  possible  to  the  snow-line  without 
leaving  the  upper  belt  of  forest.  The  hinds  then  leave  the  herds  to  give  birth  to 
their  fawns  in  the  most  secluded  thickets.  Usually  there  is  but  a  single  fawn  pro- 
duced at  a  birth,  although  two  do  not  appear  to  be  very  unfrequent.  The  hind 
will  fight  to  the  death  in  the  defence  of  her  helpless  offspring  against  the  onslaught 
of  puma,  bear,  or  coyote.  At  such  times  she  gives  utterance  to  a  loud  cry,  which  at 
once  brings  to  her  aid  all  the  members  of  the  herd  which  may  be  in  the  vicinity, 
and  all  of  which  unite  in  driving  off  the  foe. 

The  wapiti  is  a  promiscuous,  not  to  say  a  coarse,  feeder.  Mr.  Caton  says  that 
"  all  the  grasses  and  most  of  the  weeds  within  his  reach  are  taken  freely,  and  the 
leaves  and  trees  of  all  the  deciduous  trees  are  alike  enjoyed.  A  considerable  pro- 
portion of  his  daily  food  he  desires  to  be  arboreous,  yet  if  deprived  of  it  he  will 
keep  in  good  condition  on  herbaceous  food  alone.  In  winter  he  will  take  the 
coarsest  food ;  even  that  which  the  ox  and  the  horse  reject,  he  will  eat  freely."  The 
venison,  although  unlike  that  of  other  deer,  is  of  fine  flavour,  and  is  said  to  be  more 
nutritious  than  any  other  meat. 

A  combat  between  two  male  wapiti  during  the  pairing-season  is  described  by 
Mr.  Perry  as  follows :  "  The  challenger,  when  approaching  a  band,  or  harem,  blows 
a  loud  whistle  of  defiance.  (Take  a  half -pint  bottle  and  blow  strongly  into  it,  and 
the  sound  so  produced  will  be  similar  to  the  call  of  the  male  wapiti  during  the 
rutting-season.)  This  whistle  is  at  once  answered  by  the  ruler  of  the  herd,  who 
steps  boldly  forth  to  do  battle  with  the  intruder.  With  heads  lowered  between 
their  fore-feet,  the  two  adversaries  walk  around  waiting  for  an  opening,  and  when 
one  is  thrown  off  his  guard  the  other  makes  a  savage  rush;  but  his  opponent 
instantly  recovers,  counters  the  charge,  and  as  they  rush  together  the  antlers  strike 
each  other  with  such  terrific  force  that  the  report  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance. 
Slowly  retreating,  bellowing,  grumbling,  and  grinding  their  teeth  in  a  paroxysm  of 
rage,  they  again  circle  around,  and  when  an  opportunity  is  afforded,  make  another 
charge,  which  is  countered  as  before,  The  challenging  wapiti  usually  does  most  of 
the  offensive  fighting  until  he  finds  (if  such  be  the  case)  that  he  is  the  weaker ;  then 
he  sullenly  retires,  bellowing  as  he  goes.  These  battles  are  seldom  fatal,  and  during 
the  rutting-season  are  an  everyday  occurrence.  Ugly  wounds  often  result  from 
them,  and  sometimes  a  prong  of  an  antler  is  broken  in  the  affray." 

Wapiti  differ  from  the  majority  of  the  deer  tribe  in  that  they  do  not  feed 
during  the  night,  although  they  are  on  the  move  with  the  first  streak  of  dawn. 
From  that  time  till  about  eight  in  the  morning  they  continue  feeding  almost 
without  interruption,  after  which  they  indulge  in  a  midday  siesta.  During  this 
midday  rest  they  can  be  easily  approached.  About  four  o'clock  in  the  evening 
they  once  more  commence  feeding,  in  which  occupation  they  continue  till  dusk. 
In  winter  they  are  often  pressed  for  food ;  and  when  the  snow  lies  deep  on  the 
ground  each  party  occupies  a  small  area,  over  which  the  snow  is  trampled  down  as 
hard  as  ice,  while  all  the  trees  are  gnawed  bare  both  of  bark  and  leaves  as  high  as 
the  animals  can  reach. 


352 


UNGULATES. 


When  wapiti  were  found  on  the  great  prairies,  the  Indians  were  accustomed 
to  hunt  them  on  horseback  by  forming  a  wide  circle  of  mounted  men,  from  whom 
a  certain  number  were  detached  to  harass  the  unfortunate  animals  until  they  were 
brought  to  a  standstill.  Another  favourite  method  was  by  forming  a  cordon  of 
horsemen  and  driving  a  whole  herd  over  a  precipice.  At  the  present  day  the  more 
sportsman-like  method  of  hunting  is,  however,  almost  exclusively  employed ;  and 
it  appears  that  the  wapiti  is  an  animal  far  less  difficult  to  approach  than  the  red 
deer,  while  it  is  killed  by  a  comparatively  slight  wound. 

THE  JAPANESE  DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  sika,  etc.). 

The  prettily -marked  Japanese  deer  represents  a  group  differing  from  the  last 
by  the  antlers  having  no  bez-tine,  so  that  each  has  usually  but  four  points ;  and 
also  by  the  coat  being  spotted  with  white  in  summer,  although  uniformly  brown 
during  winter.  Moreover,  the  proportionate  length  of  the  tail  is  much  greater  than 
in  the  red  deer  group ;  and  the  large  white  patch  on  the  buttocks  is  completely 
bordered  with  black.  All  the  deer  of  this  group  are  of  medium  dimensions,  and 
for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  Eastern  Asia. 

The  Japanese  deer,  from  Japan  and  North  China,  stands  somewhat  lower  at 
the  shoulder  than  a  fallow  deer,  and  has  the  ground-colour  of  the  fur  dark  or 
yellowish  brown,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  tail  white.  These  deer  are  very 
abundant  in  North  Japan  and  parts  of  China,  where  they  frequent  dense  forest, 
generally  in  hilly  regions.  The  only  way  of  shooting  them  is  by  beating  the  country 
with  a  large  number  of  men.  The  Japanese  deer  has  been  introduced  into  several 
parks  in  Ireland  and  England,  where  it  thrives  well,  sometimes  interbreeding  with 
the  red  deer. 
Mantchurian  The  Mantchurian  deer  (C.  mantchuricus),  of  Northern  China, 

Deer.  may  probably  be  regarded  merely  as  a  larger  variety  of  the  last,  in 
which  the  coat  is  generally  darker  coloured,  with  a  larger  dark  area  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  tail. 

Dybowski's  deer  (C.  dybowsldi),  from  Mantchuria,  appears,  how- 

'  ever,  to  be  a  distinct  species  of  relatively  large  size,  easily  recognised 

by  its  pure  white  muzzle.     The  ordinary  length  of  the  antlers  is  about  22  inches, 

but  a  pair,  having  five  tines  each,  which  have  been  referred  to  this  species,  measure 

upwards  of  35  J  inches. 

Better  known  than  the  last  is  the  Formosan  deer  (C.  taevanus) 
Formosan  Deer. 

from  the  mountains  of  the  island  from  which  it  takes  its  name.     The 

body-colour  is  lighter  than  in  the  other  species,  while  the  spots  have  a  tendency  to 

persist  during  the  winter ;  the  tail  being  white  with  a  black  streak  down  the  middle 

of  the  upper  surface.    These  deer  are  caught  in  traps  by  the  inhabitants  of  Formosa, 

by  whom,  as  well  as  by  the  dwellers  on  the  island  of  Samasana,  they  are  kept  as  pets. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  imperfectly-known  Caspian  deer  (C.  caspicus) 

from  the  Talish  Mountains,  near  the  south-western  extremity  of  the 

Caspian  Sea  in  Northern  Persia,  which  has  been  provisionally  assigned  to  the 

present  group.     If  rightly  thus  placed,  this  species  is  of  interest  as  showing  that 

the  group  is  represented  in  Western,  as  well  as  in  Eastern  Asia.     The  one  skull,  on 


DEER. 


353 


the  evidence  of  which  the  Caspian  deer  was  considered  to  represent  a  distinct 
species,  differs  from  that  of  the  other  members  of  the  group  in  that  the  antlers  have 
only  three  points  when  fully  adult,  namely,  a  brow-tine  and  a  fork  at  the  extremity. 

THE  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER,  OR  CHITAL  (Cervus  axis). 

The  spotted,  or  axis  deer,  of  India  and  Ceylon,  is  our  first  representative  of 
two  very  closely  allied 
groups  of  Indian  deer, 
in  which  the  cylin- 
drical antlers  have  but 
three  tines  on  each  side ; 
the  bez-tine  being 
absent,  and  the  beam 
terminating  in  a  simple 
fork.  In  the  spotted 
deer,  of  which  a  single 
antler  is  shown  in  C  of 
the  figure  on  p.  340  and 
a  pair  in  the  upper 
figure  of  the  accom- 
panying woodcut,  the 
bez-tine  of  the  antlers 
is  given  off  nearly  at 
a  right  angle  with  the 
beam.  The  whole 
length  of  the  antlers  is 
about  three  times  that 
of  the  skull  in  average 
specimens ;  and  the 
hinder  tine  of  the 
terminal  fork  is  con- 
siderably longer  than 
the  one  in  front. 

The  spotted  deer 
or,  as  it  is  called  in 
India,  the  chital  or 
chitra,  varies  consider- 
ably in  height  in  differ- 
ent localities,  buck  from 
Northern  and  Central 
India  standing,  accord- 
ing to  Blanford,  from 
3  feet  to  3  feet  2  inches 
at  the  withers,  whereas  in  Southern  India  the  height  seldom  exceeds  from  2  feet  6 
inches  to  2  feet  8  inches.  The  neck  and  throat  of  this  deer  are  devoid  of  any 

VOL.  ii. — 23 


AXTLERS  OF  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER   (1),   SWAMP-DEER  (2),  AND  SAMBAR  (3). 


354  UNGULATES. 

mane ;  the  tail  is  relatively  long,  pointed,  and  thin ;  and  the  cheek  -  teeth  are 
characterised  by  the  great  height  of  their  crowns.  The  ground-colour  of  the  fur 
is  a  rufous  fawn ;  the  whole  of  the  body  being  marked  by  a  number  of  large  white 
spots,  which  are  present  at  all  ages  of  the  animal  throughout  the  year,  and  tend  to 
arrange  themselves  in  longitudinal  lines.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a  uniform 
brownish  colour,  and  there  is  a  black  line  running  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to 
the  end  of  the  tail.  White  prevails  on  the  inside  of  the  ears,  the  chin,  the  upper 
part  of  the  throat,  the  under-parts  of  the  body,  and  the  insides  of  the  limbs,  as  well 
as  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail.  As  in  the  case  of  the  fallow  deer,  a  blackish 
variety  is  occasionally  met  with,  in  which  the  spots  are  only  very  faintly  indicated. 
An  individual  standing  close  upon  3  feet  in  hejght  weighed  145  Ibs. 

Although  the  antlers  of  the  spotted  deer  are  typically  but  three-tined,  there 
are  not  unfrequently  a  number  of  small  points  or  "  sports  "  at  the  junction  of  the 
brow-tine  with  the  beam ;  but  such  sports  are  rare  higher  up.  The  average  length 
of  the  antlers  of  the  larger  race  of  this  species  may  be  given  as  about  30  inches ; 
but  examples  reaching  38  and  38f  inches  in  length,  with  a  girth  of  5f  inches  above 
the  burr,  have  been  recorded.  Great  difference  exists  in  regard  to  the  degree  of 
divergence  or  span  of  the  antlers ;  thus,  in  two  examples  of  which  the  respective 
lengths  were  34  and  34^  inches,  the  span  in  the  former  case  was  only  24  inches, 
against  30J  inches  in  the  other. 

This  deer  is  found  nearly  throughout  India  and  Ceylon,  but  in 
Distribution.  * 

the  Himalaya  it  only  occurs  on  the  outermost  spurs,  and  it  is  unknown 

on  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  Sind,  a  large  part  of  Rajputana,  Assam,  and  the  whole 
of  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  On  the  hills  of  Southern 
India  it  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  three  to  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  has  been  introduced  by  Sir  E.  G.  Loder  into  his  park  near  Horsham. 

The  native  name  chital  refers  to  the  dappled  hide  of  this  deer, 
Habits.  .  . 

which  is,  perhaps,  the  handsomest  member  of  its  tribe  as  regards 

colour  and  form,  and  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  the  mammals  of 
India.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  it  is  most  generally  found  among  bushes  or  trees 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  in  bamboo-jungles,  while  it  frequents  both  hilly 
tracts  and  plains,  and  never  wanders  far  from  its  drinking  places.  "  So  long," 
writes  the  author  named,  "  as  it  has  a  wild  tract  of  bush  or  ravines  for  shelter,  it 
appears  to  care  little  for  the  neighbourhood  of  man.  Many  of  its  favourite  haunts 
are  in  some  of  the  most  beautiful  wild  scenery  of  the  Indian  plains,  and  lower  hills, 
on  the  margins  of  rippling  streams  with  their  banks  overgrown  by  lofty  trees,  or  in 
the  grassy  glades  that  open  out  amidst  the  exquisite  foliage  of  bamboo  clumps. 
Spotted  deer  are  thoroughly  gregarious  and  associate  at  all  times  of  the  year  in 
herds,  sometimes  of  several  hundreds.  They  are  less  nocturnal  than  sambar,  and 
may  be  found  feeding  for  three  or  four  hours  after  sunrise,  and  again  in  the  after- 
noon for  an  hour  or  two  before  sunset.  They  generally  drink  between  eight  and 
ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  time  varying  with  the  season  of  year,  and  repose 
during  the  day  in  deep  shade.  They  swim  well,  and  take  readily  to  water.  They 
both  graze  and  browse." 

It  appears  that  there  is  a  great  range  of  individual  variation  as  regards  the 
date  of  the  pairing -season  and  the  shedding  of  the  antlers;  bucks  with  fully- 


DEER. 


355 


developed  antlers  being  met  with  at  all  times  of  the  year.  In  Northern  India  the 
pairing-season  seems,  however,  to  be  generally  during  the  winter ;  although  young 
fawns  may  apparently  be  met  with  at  any  season. 

As  regards  its  usual  habits,  General  Kinloch  writes  that  "  the  chital  is  a  shy 
and  retiring  animal,  lying  quiet  in  the  densest  thickets  during  the  heat  of  the  day, 
and  if  disturbed  generally  attempting  to  elude  observation  by  concealment,  or  by 
trying  to  sneak  quietly  away.  I  have  often,  when  beating  for  tigers,  seen  a 
cunning  old  stag  with  his  head  down  silently  creeping  away  through  the  jungle, 
sometimes  passing  almost  under  the  elephants.  When  on  foot,  I  have  known  a 


THE  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER  (^  nat.  Size). 

herd  come  quietly  past  within  two  or  three  yards  of  me  in  thick  cover,  and  even 
at  that  short  distance  have  had  difficulty  in  getting  a  shot.  It  might  be  supposed 
that  such  a  brightly-coloured  animal  would  be  very  conspicuous  in  the  forest,  but 
this  is  far  from  being  the  case ;  unless  it  moves,  few  beasts  are  more  difficult  to 
see ;  the  colour  of  the  skin  harmonises  with  the  dead  leaves  and  grass,  while  the 
white  spots  are  indistinguishable  from  the  little  flecks  of  light  caused  by  the  sunshine 
passing  through  the  leafy  branches.  Chital  generally  assemble  in  herds  of  from  ten 
to  thirty,  among  which  are  probably  two  or  three  stags,  but  occasionally  herds  of 
hundreds  are  met  with.  On  being  disturbed,  and  especially  on  detecting  the 
presence  of  a  beast  of  prey,  the  chital  utters  a  sort  of  shrill  bark,  and  many  a  time 


356  UNGULATES. 

has  this  cry  betrayed  a  tiger  to  the  sportsmen.  The  stag's  cry  is  a  peculiar  moan- 
ing sort  of  bellow,  and  is  generally  to  be  heard  at  night.  Immense  numbers  of 
spotted  deer  are  frequently  met  .with  when  beating  for  tigers,  and  many  are  shot 
off  elephants  in  this  way.  In  long  grass  it  is  of  course  only  possible  to  shoot  them 
from  elephants,  but  however  satisfactory  it  may  be  to  bowl  over  a  stag  in  full 
career  by  a  clever  snap-shot  from  the  howda,  it  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  compare 
with  the  pleasure  of  stalking  and  shooting  the  same  animal  on  foot,  where  the 
nature  of  the  country  renders  it  possible."  The  months  of  March,  April,  and  May 
are  the  best  for  chital-shooting  on  foot  in  the  valleys  and  low  hills  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Himalaya.  Remains  of  deer  apparently  nearly  allied  to  the  chital  are  found 
in  the  Pliocene  formations  of  the  south  of  France. 

THE  SAMBAR  GROUP  (Cervus  unicolor,  etc.). 

Nearly  allied  to  the  chital  is  a  group  of  deer  from  South-Eastern  Asia,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  brow-tine  of  the  three-pronged  antlers  forming  an  acute  angle, 
instead  of  nearly  a  right  angle,  with  the  beam,  as  shown  in  the  figures  on  pp.  340,  353. 
The  majority  of  this  group  are  peculiar  in  that  they  are  uniformly  coloured  at  all 
ages,  although  in  two  forms  the  young  are  spotted,  while  in  one  case  this  type  of 
coloration  persists  in  the  adult. 

The  well-known  Indian  sambar  is  the  largest  member  of  this  group,  as  it  is 
the  largest  of  all  the  true  deer,  next  to  the  representatives  of  the  red  deer  group. 
Externally  the  sambar  is  characterised  by  its  coarse  wiry  hair,  which  on  the  neck 
and  throat  of  the  adult  male  is  elongated  to  form  an  erectile  mane.  The  ears  are 
large  and  broad,  and  the  tail  thick  and  of  moderate  length.  In  colour  the  fur  is  a 
nearly  uniform  dark  brown  throughout,  tending,  however,  in  some  individuals  to  a 
more  or  less  well-marked  yellowish,  and  in  others  to  a  greyish  tinge.  The  chin, 
under-parts,  and  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs,  are  always  yellower,  and  may  be 
yellowish  white.  In  the  ordinary  form  the  young  are  likewise  uniformly  coloured, 
but  there  is  said  to  be  a  variety  in  Cachar  of  which  the  fawns  are  spotted.  The 
height  of  the  buck  varies  from  4  to  5  feet,  and  possibly  rather  more  at  the  withers ; 
and  large  specimens  have  been  killed  weighing  560  Ibs.  (40  stone)  and  700  Ibs. 
(51  stone). 

The  antlers  are  generally  characterised  by  their  rough  external  surface,  and 
their  freedom  from  sports ;  while  in  Indian  examples  the  two  tines  of  the  terminal 
fork  are  nearly  equal  in  length,  although  in  other  districts  there  is  great  variability 
in  this  respect.  In  India  fine  horns  attain  a  length  of  about  36  inches,  but  these 
dimensions  are  seldom  reached  in  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
As  regards  shape  and  girth,  there  is  a  great  amount  of  variation  in  sambar  horns. 
In  a  fine  pair,  of  which  the  extreme  length  was  38 £  inches,  the  span  was  37|  inches, 
and  the  basal  girth  8|  inches ;  whereas  in  another  pair,  while  the  length  was  only 
32J  inches  the  span  was  38  inches  and  the  girth  9  inches.  The  longest  recorded 
pair  measured  48  inches  in  length,  but  their  girth  at  the  middle  of  the  beam 
was  only  6  inches,  against  8|  inches  in  a  pair  measuring  38  inches  in  length. 
Perhaps,  however,  the  finest  known  pair  is  one  in  which  the  length  is  44  inches, 
the  span  45f  inches,  and  the  girth  just  above  the  brow-tine  7f  inches.  There  is 


DEER. 


357 


Distribution. 


likewise  an  equally-marked  difference  in  regard  to  the  degree  of  development  of  the 
ridges  and  furrows  on  the  antlers. 

The  sambar  occurs  typically  in  the  wooded  undulating  or  hilly 
districts  of  India  and  Ceylon ;  but  Mr.  Blanford  concludes  that  the 
smaller  Malayan  and  Burmese  forms,  which  have  been  described  under  the  names  of 
C.  hippelaphus  and  C.  equinus,  are  not  specifically  separate  ;  although  the  front-tine 
of  the  terminal  fork  of  the  antlers  is  much  shorter  than  the  back  one,  instead  of 


THE  SAMBAR  (A  nat.  size). 

the  two  being  subequal.  The  range  of  the  sambar  accordingly  extends  from  India 
to  the  Malayan  Islands,  and  thus  covers  nearly  the  entire  Oriental  region.  In  the 
Himalaya  it  may  range  to  elevations  of  nine  thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet ;  and  it 
is  commonly  found  on  the  highest  mountains  of  Southern  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is 
but  seldom  seen  on  the  alluvial  plains  frequented  by  the  chital,  and  is  absent  from 
the  sandy  plains  of  Sind,  the  Punjab,  and  Rajputana. 

Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  the  sambar  "  is  the  woodland  deer  of 
South-Eastern  Asia  generally,  and  is  more  widely  and  generally  dis- 
tributed than  any  other  species.     Although  it  does  not  shun  the  neighbourhood  of 


Habits. 


358 


UNGULATES. 


man  to  the  same  degree  as  Bos  gaurus  does,  it  is  only  common  in  wild  tracts  of 
country.  It  comes  out  on  the  grass  slopes,  where  such  exist,  as  in  the  Nilgiris  and 
other  hill-ranges,  to  graze,  but  always  takes  refuge  in  the  woods.  It  is  but  rarely 
found  associating  in  any  numbers ;  both  stags  and  hinds  are  often  found  singly, 
but  small  herds  from  four  or  five  to  a  dozen  in  number  are  commonly  met  with. 
Its  habits  are  nocturnal ;  it  may  be  seen  feeding  in  the  morning  and  evening,  but 
it  grazes  chiefly  at  night,  and  at  that  time  often  visits  small  patches  of  cultivation 
in  the  half-cleared  tracts,  returning  for  the  day  to  wilder  parts,  and  often  ascending 
hills  to  make  a  lair  in  grass  amongst  trees,  where  it  generally  selects  a  spot  well 
shaded  from  the  sun's  rays.  It  feeds  on  grass,  especially  the  green  grass  near 
water,  and  various  wild  fruits  of  which  it  is  very  fond,  but  it  also  browses  greatly 
on  shoots  and  leaves  of  trees.  It  drinks,  I  believe,  daily,  though  Mr.  Sterndale 
doubts  this;  it  certainly  travels  long  distances  to  its  drinking-places  at  times." 
As  regards  the  date  of  the  pairing-season  and  the  time  of  shedding  the  antlers, 
there  appears  to  be  even  a  still  greater  amount  of  variation  than  is  the  case  with 
the  chital ;  and  it  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  stags  have  been  known  to  retain 
their  antlers  for  two  or  more  years.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  peninsular  India 
the  pairing-season  usually  takes  place  in  October  and  November,  although  in  the 
Himalaya  it  occurs  in  the  spring.  Similarly,  while  in  the  former  area  the  antlers 
are  most  frequently  shed  in  March,  in  the  latter  the  shedding-time  is  deferred  for  a 
month  later.  Usually  there  is  but  one  fawn  at  a  birth. 

During  the  pairing-season  sambar  assemble  in  large  numbers,  and  at  that  time 
the  old  stags  utter  at  morning  and  evening,  and  sometimes  in  the  night,  loud  roar- 
ings, which  have  been  described  as  a  "  metallic-sounding  bellow." 

Sambar  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  require  a  well-placed  bullet  to  bring 
them  to  the  ground.  They  are  usually  either  stalked  or  driven  by  a  line  of  beaters ; 
but  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  when  in  Ceylon,  was  in  the  habit  of  hunting  them  with 
hounds,  and  giving  the  coup-de-grdce  with  a  knife.  Describing  his  experiences  in 
that  country,  Sir  Samuel  writes  that  "  we  never  drove  the  jungles  with  beaters,  but 
simply  strolled  through  the  most  promising  country,  either  upon  ponies  or  on  foot, 
and  took  our  chance  of  any  game  that  we  might  meet.  I  rarely  met  sambar  in  the 
low  country ;  and  when  living  on  the  mountains  at'  Newera  Ellia,  6200  feet  above 
the  sea,  shooting  was  out  of  the  question.  Although  the  interminable  forests  of 
that  elevated  district  abounded  with  these  animals,  I  have  never  seen  one,  unless 
discovered  by  the  hounds.  The  jungles  are  thick,  and  it  is  impossible  to  get  through 
them  without  noise  and  considerable  exertion.  The  animals  of  course  are  alarmed, 
and  retreat  before  you  are  near  enough  to  hear  their  rush.  I  have  often  taken  my 
rifle  and  sallied  out  before  sunrise  upon  the  wild  patinas  (open  ground),  where 
nature  rested  in  profound  solitude ;  but  I  have  never  seen  a  sambar  in  the 
open." 

The  hunting  was  conducted  with  a  mixed  pack  of  about  fourteen  couple  of 
hounds  of  various  breeds,  which  were  found  better  suited  to  this  kind  of  sport  than 
pure-bred  foxhounds ;  and  the  pack  was  always  directed  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
a  stream,  where  the  scent  would  be  freshest,  as  the  sambar  drinks  before  retiring 
to  the  densest  depths  of  the  jungle,  in  order  to  enjoy  its  day's  repose.  The  speed 
of  the  sambar  is,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  but  very  moderate ;  and  on  the  rare 


DEER.  359 

occasions  when  these  deer  are  found  in  open  country,  any  good  horse  which  is 
not  overweighted  by  its  rider,  ought  to  have  no  difficulty  in  running  them  down. 

In  the  islands  of  the  Malayan  region  there  occur  several  small 
sambar-like  deer,  in  regard  to  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
whether  they  indicate  races  of  the  ordinary  sambar  which  have  been  introduced 
by  the  natives,  and  have  gradually  dwindled  in  size,  or  whether  they  are  entitled 
to  rank  as  distinct  species.  Such  is  the  Timor  deer  (C.  timorensis),  a  small,  thick- 
set animal,  scarcely  half  the  size  of  the  smaller  race  of  the  true  sambar ;  and  also 
the  Moluccan  deer  ((7.  moluccensis),  in  which  the  general  build  is  more  slight  and 
graceful.  In  the  Philippine  and  Ladrone  Islands,  there  occurs  another  of  these  small 
sambar-like  deer  (C.  philippinus),  belonging  to  the  variety  in  which  the  anterior 
tines  of  the  antlers  are  shorter  than  the  posterior.  This  form  is  scarcely  larger 
than  the  under-mentioned  hog-deer,  but  its  build  is  more  slender,  and  the  colour  a 
uniform  dark  brown,  save  for  a  pale  ring  round  each  eye,  and  the  white  on  the 
under-parts  of  the  tail  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  thighs. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  specific  distinctness  of 
Kuhl's  deer  (C.  kuhli),  from  the  Bavian  Islands  between  Borneo  and  Java.  This 
deer,  while  resembling  most  of  the  forms  noticed  above,  in  that  its  fur  has  the  same 
uniform  coloration  throughout  life,  differs  in  having  a  skull  resembling  that  of 
the  hog-deer,  and  displaying  the  same  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw.  The 
colour  of  the  fur  in  this  deer  is  pale  brown ;  but  the  individual  hairs  are 
ringed  wTith  alternate  tints,  instead  of  having  the  uniform  hue  of  those  of  the 
hog-deer. 

Very  different  from  all  the  other  members  of  this  group  is  Prince  Alfred's 
deer  (C.  alfredi),  from  the  Philippines,  which  resembles  the  chital  in  having  at  all 
ages  and  all  seasons  a  spotted  coat.  This  deer  stands  about  2|  feet  at  the  withers ; 
and  its  colour  is  a  dark  chocolate-brown,  with  about  six  longitudinal  rows  of 
somewhat  indistinctly-marked  yellowish  spots.  The  antlers  are  comparatively 
short,  and  have  the  front  tine  of  the  terminal  fork  directed  inwardly,  while  the 
outer  surfaces  of  the  ears  are  nearly  devoid  of  hairs. 

The  last  and  smallest  representative  of  this  group  is  the  hog- 
deer,  or  para  (C.  porcinus),  of  India  and  Burma,  which  stands  only 
some  24  inches  in  height  at  the  withers.  In  build,  this  species  is  characterised  by 
the  relative  shortness  of  its  legs,  while  the  tail  is  rather  long,  and  there  is  no  mane 
on  the  neck  and  throat.  The  comparatively  short  antlers  are  mounted  on  very 
long  bony  pedicles,  and  after  giving  off  the  brow-tine  have  a  nearly  straight  beam 
till  the  small  terminal  fork,  the  front  branch  of  which  is  longer  than  the  hind  one. 
There  are  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw.  In  colour,  the  fur  of  the  para  is  brownish, 
with  a  more  or  less  decided  yellowish  or  reddish  tinge ;  each  hair  being  tipped 
with  white,  so  as  to  produce  a  speckly  appearance.  The  under-parts  are  paler, 
and  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  and  the  insides  of  the  ears  white.  The  fur 
becomes  paler  in  summer,  and  is  then  generally  marked  with  light  brown  or  white 
spots,  which  may  be  limited  to  one  or  two  rows  on  either  side  of  a  dark  streak 
down  the  back.  The  young  have  the  whole  body  spotted,  till  they  attain  the  age 
of  some  six  months.  The  antlers  seldom  exceed  10  or  12  inches  in  length. 

In  India  the  hog-deer  is  confined  to  the  great  Indo-Gangetic  plain,  where  it 


36o  UNGULATES. 

ranges  from  Assam  to  the  Punjab  and  Sind,  and  is  quite  unknown  in  the  peninsula, 
though  a  small  colony  has  "been  introduced  into  Ceylon.  It  occurs  along  the  Terai 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya ;  and  from  Assam  its  range  extends  into  Burma  and 
Tenasserim. 

The  para  swarms  on  many  of  the  low  alluvial  plains  of  India,  to  which 
situations  it  is  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  restricted.  Here  it  frequents  the  grass- 
jungles  of  moderate  height,  avoiding  the  taller  ones  which  give  shelter  to  the 
buffalo  and  rhinoceros.  Sometimes,  however,  they  may  be  met  with  among  trees. 
As  a  rule,  hog-deer  are  solitary  creatures,  and  it  is  but  seldom  that  more  than  two 
or  three  are  found  together,  although  several  may  inhabit  one  patch  of  jungle. 
The  pairing-season  is  said  to  be  in  September  and  October ;  and  the  antlers  are 
generally  shed  in  April 

The  hog-deer  is  an  ungainly  animal  when  moving,  and  General  Kinloch  states 
that  both  "  its  English  and  specific  names  have  been  derived  from  the  hog-like 
manner  in  which  it  rushes  through  the  long  grass  when  disturbed ;  keeping  its 
head  low  down,  and  galloping  without  that  bounding  action  which  characterises 
most  deer."  Hog-deer  are  generally  shot  from  elephants  and  afford  good  sport, 
although  they  are  difficult  to  hit,  since  as  a  rule  the  only  indication  of  their 
presence  is  a  sudden  rush  in  the  long  grass,  in  the  direction  of  which  the  sportsman 
must  fire.  General  Kinloch  says,  that  "hog-deer  may  be  speared  on  favourable 
ground,  and  give  splendid  runs;  they  are  very  fast,  and  usually  give  a  much 
longer  chase  than  a  boar.  I  have  heard  of  instances  of  their  deliberately  charging 
a  horse ;  and  with  their  sharp  horns  they  can  inflict  a  very  severe  wound." 

THE  SWAMP-DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  duvauceli,  etc.). 

The  swamp-deer,  of  which  the  antlers  are  figured  in  the  woodcuts  on  pp.  340 
and  353,  differs  from  all  the  Indian  deer  hitherto  noticed,  in  that  the  antlers 
carry  more  than  three  tines.  This  distinctive  character  of  the  swamp-deer  has  not 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  natives  of  India,  by  whom  it  is  designated  barasingha, 
that  is,  "  twelve-tined."  This  deer  is  a  rather  large  species,  the  bucks  standing 
from  3  feet  8  inches  to  3  feet  10  inches  at  the  withers.  The  neck  is  maned,  the 
tail  of  moderate  length,  the  muzzle  long,  and  the  hair  rather  fine  and  rather  woolly. 
The  antlers  are  smooth  and  somewhat  flattened,  and  give  off  the  brow-tine  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  the  beam ;  after  which  the  beam  continues  without  branching 
for  a  considerable  distance,  finally  dividing  into  a  fork,  of  which  the  two  prongs 
again  branch.  Generally,  as  in  the  figure  on  p.  353,  the  inner  branch  of  the  main 
fork  has  two,  and  the  outer  three  tines,  but  the  number  of  points  is  often  much 
greater,  reaching  from  sixteen  to  twenty,  or  even  more.  In  its  winter  dress  the 
colour  of  the  swamp-deer  is  yellowish  brown  above  and  paler  underneath ;  but 
in  summer  the  upper-parts  are  reddish  brown,  generally  more  or  less  spotted 
with  white,  while  the  under-parts  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  are  pure  white. 
The  young  are  spotted. 

Average-sized  antlers  of  the  barasingha  measure  about  30  inches  along  the 
curve ;  but  a  length  of  38  inches  has  been  recorded.  Large  stags  have  weighed 
from  460  to  570  Ibs.  (32  stone  12  Ibs.  to  40  stone  10  Ibs.) 


DEER. 


361 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


The  swamp-deer  is  confined  to  India,  where  it  has  a  local 
distribution ;  being  found  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  from 
Assam  to  some  distance  west  of  the  Jumna,  and  in  some  districts  in  the  Indo- 
Gangetic  plains,  such  as  the  Bengal  sandarbans  and  Rohri  in  Sind.  It  is  also 
common  in  certain  portions  of  Central  India,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Narbada, 
where  its  habitat  is  limited  to  the  area  clothed  with  forests  of  the  sal  tree. 

The  swamp-deer,  although  sometimes  found  in  open  forest, 
generally  keeps  in  the  outskirts  of  the  woods,  and  frequents  flat  or 
undulating  grass-lands,  more  or  less  interspersed  with  trees.  In  winter  it  is 
gregarious,  herds  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  head  being  frequently  met  with,  while  in 
some  districts  herds  of  several  hundreds  have  been  observed  during  September  and 
October.  In  Assam  the  bucks  are  met  with  singly,  with  the  antlers  for  the  most 
part  still  in  the  velvet,  so  that  the  shedding-time  is  probably,  as  a  rule,  not  later 
than  February.  The  swamp-deer  is  mainly  a  grazer,  and  it  is  said  to  be  much  less 
nocturnal  in  its  habits  than  the 
sambar,  being  not  unfrequently 
seen  grazing  in  the  forenoon,  and 
again  early  in  the  afternoon. 
Scfcomburgk's  Schomburgk's  deer 
Deer.  (£?  schomburgki),  of 
Siam,  is  an  allied  species,  of  which 
the  antlers,  as  shown  in  the  figure 
on  this  page,  are  distinguished  by 
the  extreme  shortness  of  the  beam 
below  the  bifurcation,  and  the 
great  length  of  the  brow  -  tine. 
Each  antler  usually  carries  five 
points ;  and  specimens  vary  in 
length  from  27  to  30  inches  in  good 
examples. 

An  altogether 
unique  form  of  antler 
is  that  of  Eld's  deer  (C.  eldi),  as 
shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  340. 
Here  the  brow -tine  curves  down 
over  the  forehead,  so  as  to  form  an 
almost  continuous  sweep  with  the 
beam ;  the  latter  being  curved  at 
first  backwards  and  outwards,  and 
then  slightly  forwards,  after  which  it  divides  into  a  short  fork,  of  which  the  two 
prongs  may  split  up  into  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  points.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
brow-tine  often  carries  a  number  of  short  points,  and  there  is  very  generally  a 
distinct  snag  at  the  point  where  that  tine  joins  the  beam.  In  some  cases  the 
upper  part  of  the  beam  is  much  flattened.  In  height  this  species  stands  nearly 
the  same  as  the  swamp-deer.  In  winter  the  colour  of  the  fur  of  the  bucks  is 
dark  brown,  tending  to  black,  but  in  summer  it  is  fawn-coloured,  nearly  like  that 


Eld's  Deer. 


HEAD  OF  SCHOMBURGK'S  DEER. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  ZooL  Soc.,  1877.) 


362  UNGULATES. 

of  the  does  at  all  seasons ;  the  under-parts  being  pale  brown  in  winter  and  white 
in  summer.  The  fawns  lose  their  spots  at  an  early  age.  In  the  winter  the  hair  is 
coarse  and  very  shaggy.  Average-sized  antlers  measure  about  40  inches  from  the 
tip  of  the  brow-tine  along  the  curve  to  the  extremity ;  but  one  specimen  of  54, 
and  another  of  59  inches  have  been  recorded. 

Eld's  deer  frequents  low  swampy  grounds  in  Manipur,  Burma,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Cambodia,  and  the  island  of  Hainan.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  they 
are  "  usually  seen  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  fifty  or  more ;  but  occasionally  much  larger 
numbers  are  found  associating.  They  may  enter  the  fringe  of  the  forest  in  places 
for  shade,  during  the  day,  but  they  generally  keep  in  the  open  plain.  In  some 
places  in  the  Irawadi  delta,  and  in  Martaban,  they  are  found  in  plains,  where, 
during  the  dry  season,  no  fresh  water  is  procurable.  They  are  frequently  seen  in 
swamps,  and  feed  on  wild  rice  and  other  plants  growing  in  such  places."  The 
period  of  shedding  the  antlers  varies  from  June  in  Manipur  to  September  in  Lower 
Burma.  The  hinds  utter  a  short  barking  grunt,  while  the  call  of  the  stags  is  a 
more  prolonged  sound  of  the  same  nature. 

DAVID'S  DEER  (Cervus  davidianus). 

Mantchuria,  or  some  neighbouring  region  in  Northern  China,  is  the  habitat  of 
a  remarkable  deer  differing  from  all  other  Old  World  types  in  the  absence  of  a 
brow-tine  to  the  antlers.  Instead  of  the  brow-tine,  each  antler  has  a  single  very 
long  and  nearly  straight  tine  given  off  just  above  the  beam,  and  directed  backwards ; 
above  which  the  beam  ascends  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  then  forks.  The 
normal  number  of  points  on  each  antler  is  accordingly  three,  but  this  may  be 
increased  by  a  splitting  of  each  tine  of  the  fork.  It  appears  that  the  long  back- 
tine  represents  the  hinder  branch  of  the  antler  of  the  swamp-deer,  and  the  terminal 
fork  the  front  branch  of  the  latter.  David's  deer  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the 
swamp-deer,  and  is  clothed  with  long  and  rather  shaggy  hair,  while  the  tail  is  of 
unusual  length,  and  also  thickly  haired.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  fawns  are 
uniformly  coloured,  but  this  requires  confirmation. 

These  deer  are  kept  in  the  imperial  hunting-park  at  Pekin,  and  specimens  have 
been  exhibited  alive  in  England,  but  we  have  no  information  as  to  their  habits 
in  the  wild  state.  The  largest  antlers  on  record  have  a  length  of  32f  inches. 

THE  FALLOW  DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  dama,  etc.). 

The  fallow  deer  is  the  representative  of  a  distinct  group  of  the  genus  Cervus, 
characterised  by  the  antlers  being  rounded  at  the  base,  but  widening  in  the  upper 
part  into  a  flattened  palmate  expansion.  In  front  there  is  a  large  brow-antler, 
forming  rather  more  than  a  right  angle  with  the  beam,  above  which  there  is  a 
trez-tine  given  off  at  some  distance  below  the  commencement  of  the  palmation ; 
while  the  hinder  edge  of  the  latter  carries  three  or  four  small  sharp  snags,  of  which 
the  lowest  is  longer  and  placed  considerably  below  the  others,  so  that  it  may  rank 
as  a  distinct  back-tine. 

In  height  the  fallow  deer  usually  stands  nearly  3  feet  at  the  withers,  and  has 


DEER.  363 

a  small  head,  large  ears,  and  a  relatively  long  tail.  The  general  colour  of  the  fur 
is  some  shade  of  fawn  or  yellowish  brown,  darker  on  the  head  and  neck,  and 
marked  on  the  body  with  a  number  of  large  white  spots.  The  under-parts,  inner 
sides  of  the  limbs,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  are  white ;  and  there  is  a  dark 
line  running  down  the  back  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  end  of  the  tail. 
There  is,  however,  a  dark  brown  variety  in  which  the  spots  are  scarcely  distinguish- 
able, or  wanting,  and  specimens  may  be  seen  exhibiting  every  gradation  in  colour 
from  pure  white  nearly  to  black.  The  hair  is  comparatively  short  and  fine,  and 
there  is  no  mane  on  the  neck  and  throat.  The  upper  jaw  has  no  tusks.  Good 
antlers  vary  in  length  from  19  to  27  inches,  28£  being  the  maximum  length  on 
record. 

The  fallow  deer  is  a  native  of  Northern  Africa  and  the  countries 
bordering  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  a  wild  state  is  still  abundant  in 
Sardinia,  Spain,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  From  these 
countries  it  has  been  introduced  into  Central  Europe,  where  it  flourishes  well, 
although  needing  some  protection  during  the  winter  in  the  more  northerly  regions. 
At  what  period  this  introduction  took  place  is,  however,  quite  uncertain,  although 
in  Britain  it  was  evidently  many  centuries  ago.  From  the  occurrence  of  antlers  of 
the  general  type  of  those  of  the  fallow  deer  in  some  of  the  superficial  deposits,  it 
lias  been  supposed  that  this  species  was  really  an  indigenous  British  animal.  These 
fossil  antlers  belong,  however,  to  an  extinct  although  nearly-allied  species,  known 
as  C.  broivni,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  fossil  remains  of  the 
true  fallow  deer  in  this  country. 

Bell  observes  that  "  fallow  deer  are  gregarious  to  a  great  extent,  associating 
in  large  herds,  the  bucks  apart  from  the  does,  except  in  the  pairing-season  and 
early  winter,  when  the  sexes  consort  in  company.  Most  persons  must  be  familiar 
with  their  boldness  and  the  confident  manner  in  which  they  will  approach  man- 
kind, where  they  are  well  accustomed  to  his  presence.  .  .  .  Like  the  other  species, 
the  fallow  deer  feeds  on  herbage.  It  has  been  noted  that  it  is  especially  fond 
of  horse-chestnuts,  which  the  bucks  knock  down  from  the  branches  with  their 
antlers,  and  this  tree  is  consequently  frequently  planted  in  deer-parks.  The  pairing- 
season  begins  in  September,  and  the  doe  goes  eight  months  with  young."  As  a 
general  rule  but  a  single  fawn  is  produced  at  a  birth,  although  there  may 
occasionally  be  two.  The  alleged  instances  of  triplets  appear  to  be  incorrect. 
The  young  male  exhibits  the  first  signs  of  his  antlers  in  his  second  year,  when  they 
make  their  appearance  as  simple  snags ;  the  animal  being  then  called  a  pricket.  In  the 
fifth  year  the  antlers  attain  their  full  development,  although  some  additional  small 
points  may  be  added  in  the  following  season. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  dark  variety  of  the  fallow  deer  was  introduced  from 
Norway  by  James  the  First,  on  account  of  its  hardy  constitution.  This,  however, 
has  been  proved  to  be  incorrect  by  Mr.  Harting,  who  has  shown  that  this  breed 
existed  in  Windsor  Park  as  far  back  as  the  year  1465.  The  fallow  deer  of  Windsor 
Park  include  both  the  spotted  and  the  brown  breeds ;  but  in  Epping  Forest  only 
the  latter  occur. 

Writing  of  the  fallow  deer  of  Epping,  Mr.  Harting  states  that  they  "  have  held 
their  own,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  until  the  present  time,  and  have  strangely 


364  UNGULATES. 

preserved  their  ancient  character  in  regard  to  size  and  colour.  Locally  they  are 
referred  to  as  'the  old  forest  breed,'  and  are  comparatively  small  in  size,  of  a 
uniformly  dark  brown  colour,  and  with  very  attenuated  antlers — peculiarities  which 
have  no  doubt  been  brought  about  by  continued  isolation,  without  the  admixture 
of  any  fresh  stock  for  many  generations.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  individuals  of 
the  true  fallow  colour  (i.e.  yellow  dun)  or  spotted  with  whito  are  ever  seen  in  this 
forest.  This  in  some  measure  proves  the  antiquity  of  the  stock,  which  would 
otherwise  show  in  their  progeny  a  reversion  to  one  or  other  of  these  varieties, 
which  elsewhere  are  so  common.  The  keepers  assert  that  not  only  are  there  no 
spotted  or  fallow  varieties  here,  but  that  they  have  never  observed  any  spotted 
fawns,  the  latter  being  dark  like  their  parents.  If  this  observation  be  correct,  it 
is  very  remarkable ;  for  it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  fawns  of  all  fallow  deer 
are  spotted  at  birth,  and  that,  except  in  the  permanently  spotted  variety,  the  spots 
disappear  with  age.  The  attenuation  of  the  antlers  is  also  very  noticeable,  the 
palmation  being  reduced  from  a  hand's-breadth  to  about  the  width  of  two  fingers. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  from  long  isolation  and  continued  breeding  in  and  in, 
the  herd  has  considerably  degenerated.  .  .  .  At  present  [1884]  the  number  of  fallow 
deer  in  Epping  Forest  is  estimated  to  be  about  eighty  or  one  hundred  head.  They 
do  not  associate  in  one  herd,  but  roam  about  in  small  parties,  keeping  to  the  thickest 
underwood  and  most  unfrequented  parts  of  the  forest."  The  venison  of  the  fallow 
deer  is  generally  considered  superior  to  that  of  the  red  deer. 
Persian  Fallow  The  Persian  fallow  deer  (C.  mesopotamicua),  from  the  mountains 

Deer.  of  Luristan,  in  Mesopotamian  Persia,  differs  from  the  ordinary  kind 
in  that  the  trez-tine  of  the  antlers  is  placed  nearer  to  the  small  brow-tine,  and  that 
the  main  palmation  of  the  beam  takes  place  below  instead  of  above  the  middle  of 
the  length.  The  two  species  are,  however,  very  closely  allied,  and  will  freely  breed 
together.  The  Persian  species  appears  to  be  always  spotted. 
Extinct  Irish  In  this  place  may  be  noticed  two  extinct  deer  from  the  superficial 

Deer.  deposits  of  Europe,  which  appear  to  be  nearly  related  to  the  fallow 
deer,  although  of  course  it  is  impossible  to  tell  now  whether  they  had  spotted  or 
uniformly-coloured  coats.  The  first  and  largest  of  these  is  the  gigantic  Irish  deer 
(C.  giganteus),  often,  but  incorrectly,  spoken  of  as  the  Irish  elk,  in  which  the 
widely-palmated  antlers  were  larger  and  more  massive  than  in  any  other  species. 
In  this  magnificent  deer  the  antlers  have  a  short  and  nearly  cylindrical  basal 
portion  of  the  beam,  given  off  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  skull. 
Above  the  burr  there  is  a  descending  brow-tine  (b)  which  is  flattened  and  generally 
forked.  As  soon  as  the  beam  expands  it  gives  off  from  the  front  edge  a  trez-tine 
(c),  and  nearly  opposite  to  it,  on  the  hinder  edge,  a  back-tine  (h),  corresponding  to 
the  one  similarly  situated  in  the  fallow  deer.  Above  these  tines  the  antlers  expand 
to  their  fullest  width,  and  generally  terminate  in  five  or  six  snags,  of  which  the 
topmost  have  a  nearly  upright  direction.  In  unusually  fine  examples  the  antlers 
of  the  Irish  deer  may  have  a  span  of  over  11  feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  the  height  of 
the  animal  was  fully  6  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

Although  the  Irish  deer  takes  its  name  from  the  common  occurrence  of  its 
remains  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  country,  but  is 
found  in  the  caverns  and  superficial  deposits  of  England  and  parts  of  Scotland,  as 


DEER. 


365 


well  as  on  the  Continent,  where  its  range  extends  from  Italy  in  the  south  to  Russia 
in  the  north.  That  the  Irish  deer  lived  within  the  human  period  is  proved  by  the 
occurrence  of  its  remains  in  association  with  stone  implements.  It  has,  indeed, 
been  considered  that  the  word  Schelk,  which  occurs  in  the  Nibelungenlied  of  the 
13th  century,  refers  to  the  Irish  deer,  but  Prof.  Nehring  is  of  opinion  that  it  more 
probably  means  either  an  elk  or  a  wild  stallion. 

The  Irish  deer  differs  considerably  from  the  fallow  deer  in  the  form  and 
direction  of  its  antlers,  but  a  connecting  link  between  them  is  found  in  RufFs 


ANTLERS  OP  THE  IRISH  DEER.     (From  Nehring.) 


deer  (C.  ruffi),  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  Germany,  which  was  of  somewhat 
inferior  dimensions  to  the  former.  In  RufFs  deer  the  antlers  are  directed  upwards 
and  outwards  nearly  after  the  fashion  obtaining  in  the  fallow  deer,  while  the  plane 
of  the  palmated  portion  is  placed  in  the  same  longitudinal  direction  as  in  the  latter. 
Moreover,  the  terminal  snags  are  shorter  and  inclined  more  inwardly  than  in  the 
Irish  deer,  but  the  flattened  and  expanded  form  of  the  brow-tine  indicates  a  closer 
connection  with  the  latter. 

THE  MUNTJACS. 
Genus  Cervulus. 

The  small  Asiatic  deer,  commonly  known  as  muntjacs,  differ  so  decidedly  from 
all  those  hitherto  noticed  that  they  are  referred  to  a  distinct  genus.  They  are 
distinguished  from  all  the  members  of  the  genus  Cervus  by  their  short,  simple,  two- 
tined  antlers  being  mounted  on  pedicles  of  the  skull,  which  are  as  long  or  longer 
than  the  antlers  themselves,  and  diverge  from  the  middle  line  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  forehead,  where  they  commence  as  rib-like  bars.  From  this  feature  these 
animals  are  often  spoken  of  as  rib-faced  deer.  The  brow-tine  of  the  antlers  is  short 
and  directed  upwards,  while  the  tip  of  the  undivided  beam  is  more  or  less  inclined 
inwards.  The  skull  has  a  very  large  depression  for  the  reception  of  the  gland 
below  the  eye ;  and  the  bucks  are  furnished  with  long  projecting  tusks  in  the  upper 
jaw.  The  lateral  toes  are  peculiar  in  that  they  consist  of  only  the  hoofs,  without 
any  trace  of  the  bones  of  the  digits  themselves. 


366 


UNGULATES. 


The  muntjacs  are  confined  to  India,  Burma,  and  the  Malayan  region,  and 
evidently  indicate  a  very  ancient  and  generalised  type  of  the  Deer  family.  They 
appear  to  be  represented  in  the  Pliocene  formations  of  Europe,  and  are  probably 
nearly  related  to  a  still  earlier  group  of  extinct  European  deer,  known  as  Palceomeryx, 
in  which  the  antlers  were  either  totally  wanting,  or  of  very  small  dimensions. 

The  best  known  representative  of  the  group  is  the  common 
Indian  muntjac,  also  known  as  the  barking  deer,  and  in  Hindustan  as 
the  kakar  (Cervulus  muntjac).  This  animal  stands  from  20  to  22  inches  in  height 
at  the  shoulder ;  and  has  fur  of  a  deep  chestnut  colour,  becoming  darker  on  the 
back,  and  paler  and  less  brilliant  below ;  the  chin  and  upper  part  of  the  throat,  as 


Indian  Muntjac. 


THE  INDIAN  MDNTJAC 


well  as  the  hinder  portion  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  inner  sides  of 
the  thighs  and  lower  surface  of  the  tail,  being  white.  The  face  and  limbs  are  brown, 
and  there  is  a  black  line  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pedicles  of  the  antlers,  extend- 
ing some  distance  down  the  ribs  on  the  face.  The  antlers  are  generally  only  some 
3  or  4  inches  in  length,  on  pedicles  of  some  4  or  5  inches,  but  sometimes  reach  the 
length  of  5,  and,  it  is  said,  even  11  inches. 

The  kakar  is  essentially  a  forest-dwelling  deer,  and  appears  to 
be  restricted  to  hilly  regions.  Its  range  includes  suitable  districts 
throughout  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma,  whence  it  extends  through  the  Malay 
Peninsula  to  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  Hainan. 

These  deer  are  solitary  creatures,  usually  found  singly  or  in  pairs  ; 
the  name  of  barking  deer  being  derived  from  their  peculiar  cry.  On 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


DEER. 


367 


this  point  General  Kinloch  observes  that  many  visitors  to  the  various  hill-stations 
of  the  Himalaya,  who  may  never  have  seen  a  kakar,  must  probably  be  well 
acquainted  with  its  voice,  which  is  wonderfully  powerful  for  such  a  small  animal. 
It  is  rather  difficult  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  it  by  words,  but  it  may  perhaps  be 
best  described  as  a  hoarse  resonant  bark.  The  cry  may  frequently  be  heard  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings,  and  it  is  also  often  uttered  when  the  deer  is  alarmed,  when 
it  hears  any  loud  or  unusual  sound,  or  suspects  the  existence  of  any  danger. 
Occasionally  a  kakar  will  continue  to  bark,  at  short  intervals,  for  an  hour  at  a 
time,  and  advantage  may  be  taken  of  his  betraying  his  whereabouts  to  stalk  him. 

Kakar  are  adepts  at  making  their  way  at  speed  through  the  most  dense 
jungle,  and  run  with  their  head  low  and  their  hind-quarters  elevated.  When 
running,  a  peculiar  rattling  sound 
is  produced  by  these  animals, 
which  is  thought  to  originate 
in  the  mouth,  although  in  what 
manner  is  still  unknown.  The 
bucks,  when  attacked  by  dogs, 
appear  to  use  their  tusks,  which 
curve  outwards  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  as  their  chief  weapons  of 
defence,  and  are  able  with  them  to 
inflict  gashes  of  considerable  depth. 
Although  young  kakar  are  appar- 
ently to  be  met  with  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  the  chief  pairing-time 
in  Northern  India  is  during  the 
months  of  January  and  February ; 
the  fawns,  which  may  be  one  or 
two  in  number,  being  born  in  the 
following  June  or  July.  The 
bucks  shed  their  antlers  in  May, 
and  their  renewal  is  completed  by  August. 
superior  to  that  of  most  of  the  Indian  deer. 

In  regard  to  the  sport  afforded  by  these  deer,  General  Kinloch 

writes :  "  I  have  stalked  and  shot  kakar  at  various  times,  and  have 
also  had  them  driven  out  of  cover ;  many  may  be  found  in  this  manner,  but,  unless 
one  knows  their  usual  runs,  it  is  difficult  to  know  where  to  post  oneself.  Like 
many  other  animals,  the  kakar  objects  to  being  driven,  and  will  break  back  through 
the  beaters  in  order  to  make  his  point.  As  they  probably  only  give  a  chance  of  a 
snap-shot  at  short  range,  it  is  easier  to  kill  them  with  a  charge  of  shot  than  with 
a  rifle-bullet." 

There  are  four  other  species  of  muntjac,  in  addition  to  the  common 

Indian  form.  Of  these,  Fea's  muntjac  (C.  fece),  from  Tenasserim,  is 
rather  smaller  and  darker  than  the  Indian  species,  with  a  short  tuft  of  hair  between 
the  antlers,  and  a  much  shorter  tail ;  the  latter  appendage  being  altogether  white, 
save  for  a  narrow  streak  of  black  down  the  middle  of  its  upper  surface. 


HEAD   OF  HAIRY-FRONTED   MUNTJAC. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1885.) 

The  venison  of  the  kakar  is  considered 


Hunting. 


Other  Species. 


368 


UNGULATES. 


The  other  three  species  are  Chinese.  In  Eastern  Tibet  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  Hangchow  there  occurs  Sclater's  muntjac  (C.  lacrymans),  characterised  by  the 
bright  yellowish-coloured  hair  of  the  head  and  neck,  while  that  clothing  the  body  and 
limbs  is  of  a  much  more  sombre  hue.  The  smallest  member  of  the  group  is  Reeves's 
muntjac  (C.  reevesi),  from  Southern  China  and  Formosa,  in  which  the  colour  of  the 
whole  fur  is  brighter  than  in  any  other  species,  while  the  pedicles  of  the  antlers 
diverge  less  from  one  another,  and  the  hollow  in  the  skull  for  the  gland  below  the 
eye  is  of  unusually  large  size. 

Finally,  the  hairy-fronted  muntjac  (C.  crinifrons),  which  is  perhaps  the  hand- 
somest of  all  and  comes  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Ningpo,  is  distinguished  at  a 
glance  by  the  long  tuft  of  hair  on  the  forehead  and  top  of  the  head,  in  which  the 
minute  antlers  are  almost  entirely  hidden.  This  species  stands  about  24  inches  in 
height  at  the  shoulder ;  and  the  general  colour  of  its  fur  is  brown.  The  upper  part 
of  the  head  is,  however,  of  a  bright  chestnut,  which,  with  the  white  of  the  under-parts 
and  lower  surface  of  the  tail,  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sombre  coloration  of 
the  body. 

THE  TUFTED  DEER. 
Genus  Elaphodus. 

Nearly  related  to  the  muntjacs  are  two  small  deer  from  Chinese  territory,  of 
which  the  one  known  as  Michie's  deer  (Elaphodus  michianus)  inhabits  Eastern 


MICHIE'S  DEER.    (From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1876.) 

China,  while  the  other,  which  may  be  called  the' Tibetan  tufted  deer  (E.  cephalophus), 
is  from  Moupin,  in  Eastern  Tibet.     In  the  males  of  these  deer,  as  represented  in  the 


DEER.  369 

accompanying  illustration,  the  antlers  are  extremely  minute  and  unbranched,  while 
their  supports  take  the  form  of  long  pedicles,  which,  instead  of  diverging  as  in  the 
muntjacs,  are  convergent.  Then,  again,  the  rib-like  ridges  occurring  on  the  face  of 
the  muntjacs  are  absent,  as  are  likewise  some  small  glands  found  on  the  forehead  of 
the  latter.  Like  the  muntjacs,  the  bucks  of  these  two  deer  are  furnished  with  long 
tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  although  their  extremities  are  not  turned  outwards.  In 
both  species  the  hair  is  so  coarse  as  to  have  been  compared  to  small  quills ;  and  on 
the  forehead  the  hair  is  lengthened  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  horseshoe-like  crest  on 
the  tuft. 

In  Michie's  deer  the  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  greyish  black,  each  individual 
hair  being  white  for  a  considerable  distance  above  its  base,  and  the  face  and  neck 
uniformly  dark  grey ;  while  the  crest  on  the  forehead  and  portions  of  the  ears  are 
dark  brown.  In  the  Tibetan  tufted  deer  the  fur  on  the  head,  neck,  and  fore-quarters 
is  dark  brown,  each  hair  being  brown  above  and  whitish  beneath,  while  a  pure 
white  ring  divides  the  two  colours ;  consequently  there  is  a  speckled  appearance  in 
the  fur  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal.  In  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  the 
white  rings  on  the  hairs  are  absent,  and  the  colour  of  the  fur  is  consequently 
uniform  dark  brown,  becoming  of  a  still  deeper  shade  on  the  feet  and  the  crest  on 
the  forehead.  The  ears  have  a  transverse  black  bar,  with  white  tips  and  edges ; 
the  under-parts  of  the  body  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  being  likewise  white. 

Michie's  deer  is  abundant  in  the  reeds  bordering  the  rivers  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Ningpo  and  other  parts  of  Eastern  China. 

THE  REINDEER. 
Genus  Rangifer. 

The  reindeer  (Rangifer  tarandus)  differs  from  all  other  members  of  the  deer- 
tribe  in  that  the  antlers  are  not  borne  only  by  the  male,  although  those  of  the 
female  are  of  smaller  dimensions ;  and  together  with  all  the  deer  remaining  for 
notice,  it  differs  from  those  already  described  in  the  structure  of  the  fore-foot.  In 
these,  which,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  wapiti,  are  Old  World  types,  the  lateral 
metacarpal  bones  of  the  fore-foot,  which  originally  supported  the  lateral  toes,  are 
represented  only  by  two  small  splints  lying  on  either  side  of  the  upper  end  of  the 
cannon-bone,  as  shown  in  the  foot  of  the  sheep  on  p.  370.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  reindeer  and  the  under-mentioned  genera,  these  same  lateral  metacarpal  bones 
are  represented  only  by  their  lower  extremities,  and  thus  still  support  the  toe-bones 
of  the  lateral  hoofs,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the  next  page.  This  difference  may 
not,  perhaps,  appear  to  be  of  much  significance,  but  as  there  are  other  indications  of 
affinity  between  the  members  of  the  two  groups  into  which  the  deer  family  is 
thereby  divided,  it  is  probably  of  considerable  importance  in  classification.  The 
majority  of  the  deer  belonging  to  the  present  group  are  either  common  to  the 
northern  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  or  are  restricted  to  the  New  World,  the  roe 
and  the  Chinese  water-deer  being  the  only  exclusively  Old  World  forms. 

Reverting  to  the  consideration  of  the  reindeer,  we  have  first  to  observe  that  in 
addition  to  the  presence  of  antlers  in  both  sexes,  the  genus  is  distinguished  from 

VOL.  ii. — 24 


37° 


UNGULATES. 


all  other  deer  by  the  form  and  position  of  these  appendages.  Thus  instead  of  being 
placed  low  down  on  the  forehead,  the  antlers  take  their  origin  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  skull,  immediately  over  the  occipital  ridge,  and  are  accordingly  far  behind  the 
eyes ;  while  as  regards  form  they  are  distinguished  by  the  great 
development  of  the  brow-tines  in  the  males,  which  are  more  or 
less  laterally  compressed,  branched,  and  palmated,  and  descend 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  over  the  face,  so  that  their  lower  edge 
sometimes  almost  touches  the  nose.  Then,  again,  there  is  such 
an  amount  of  individual  variation  that  scarcely  any  two  reindeer 
can  be  found  in  which  the  antlers  are  precisely  similar;  while 
frequently  the  two  antlers  of  the  same  individual  are  widely 
different  from  one  another. 

The  antlers  are  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  length  of 
the   skull,  and   above   the  brow-tine,   which   is   also   branched 
and  often  palmated,  after  giving  off  the  bez-tine,  the  narrow 
beam   is   continued  backwards  for  some  distance,  till  it  bends 
forward    at  an  angle,  usually  giving  off  a  small  back-tine  at 
the  bend.     The  beam  is  then  continued  upwards  and  forwards 
THE   BONES    OF    THE  till  it  becomes  palmated  near  the   extremity,  with  a   variable 
LEFT  FORE-FOOT  OF  number  of  points  on  its  hinder  border.     In  the  reindeer  of  the 
Dawkins.)  New   World    the    antlers    exhibit   the   greatest   complexity   of 

structure,    the    brow-tine    of    one    side    becoming    enormously 
developed  and  greatly  palmated,  while  on  the  other  it  is  aborted. 

In  build  the  reindeer  is  a  somewhat  heavy  animal,  with  short  and  rather  stout 
limbs,  terminating  in  large  hoofs.     The  main  pair  of  hoofs,  as  shown  in  our  figure, 

are  rounded,  broad  and  short,  with  the  intervening  cleft 
very  deep  and  wide ;  while  the  lateral  hoofs  are 
unusually  large  and  flattened  from  front  to  back.  In 
traversing  snowfields  the  two  main  hoofs  spread  out 
sideways,  while  the  lateral  pair  come  in  contact  with 
the  snow,  by  which  means  a  large  extent  of  surface  is 
afforded  to  support  the  weight.  The  muzzle  of  the 
reindeer  differs  from  that  of  all  the  deer  hitherto 
mentioned  in  being  clothed  with  soft  hairs  of  moderate 
length.  The  neck  has  no  distinct  mane,  but  the  throat 
is  fringed  with  long  and  rather  stiff  hair.  The  ears  are 
smaller  than  in  any  other  deer,  and  thickly  covered  on 
both  sides  with  hair.  The  hair  clothing  the  body  is 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  is 
somewhat  crimped  or  waved,  while  beneath  this  is  a 
coat  of  woolly  under-fur.  The  general  colour  of  the 
reindeer  is  brownish  grey,  with  the  face,  neck,  and  throat  whitish,  and  the  nose, 
ears,  and  limbs  brown.  There  are,  however,  great  individual  variations  as  regards 
colour,  some  specimens  being  nearly  or  quite  white  throughout.  In  general  the 
tail  is  white,  with  a  tinge  of  brown  at  the  root  and  on  the  upper  surface ;  and  there 
is  a  distinct  white  ring  round  each  fetlock.  The  hoofs  are  black,  and  the  antlers 


UNDER  SURFACE   OF  FOOT   OF 
REINDEER. 


DEER. 


37i 


yellowish,  wearing  white  in  places.     Reindeer  fawns  are  uniformly  coloured  like 
the  adult. 

The  various  races  of  reindeer  differ  considerably  from  one  another  in  respect 
of  height ;  but  the  bucks  of  the  larger  American  variety  stand  about  4|  feet  at  the 
withers,  and  usually  weigh  some  350  Ibs.,  although  unusually  fine  specimens  may 
reach  nearly  400  Ibs.  In  regard  to  the  length  of  the  antlers,  it  appears  that  fine 
examples  vary  from  48  to  just  over  57  inches,  although  one  pair  is  known  in  which 


REINDEER  (A  nat.  size). 

the  length  reaches  to  upwards  of  60  inches.  There  is  great  variation  in  regard  to  the 
span  of  antlers,  and  the  number  of  points  they  carry ;  while  it  is  not  unfrequently 
the  case  that  the  longest  specimens  have  by  no  means  the  greatest  girth. 

Reindeer  inhabit  the  northern  regions  of  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Hemispheres,  and  English  zoologists  are  pretty  generally 
agreed  that  there  is  but  a  single  species.  In  America,  however,  where  they  are 
known  by  the  French-Canadian  name  caribou  (a  corruption  of  carrebceuf,  literally 
"square-ox"),  it  is  considered  that  there  are  either  one  or  two  species  distinct 
from  the  Old  World  form.  Thus,  whereas  Mr.  Caton  regards  the  smaller  North 


Distribution. 


372 


UNGULATES. 


American  form,  known  as  the  barren-ground  caribou,  as  a  distinct  species,  while 
he  identifies  the  larger  southern  kind  termed  the  woodland  caribou  with  R. 
tarandus,  other  writers,  like  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  consider  that  both  the  American 
forms  are  entitled  to  rank  as  distinct  species.  We  shall,  however,  follow  the  view 
that  all  kinds  of  reindeer  are  merely  local  varieties  or  races  of  a  single  widely 
spread  species. 

In  the  Old  World  reindeer  are  found  nearly  as  far  north  as  the  extreme  limits 
of  land,  while  they  extend  from  Scandinavia  in  the  west  to  Eastern  Siberia.  In 
the  Ural  region  their  southern  limit  reaches  in  the  Kirghiz  steppes  to  about  the 
52nd  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  they  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  the  wild  state, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Orenburg.  In  European  Russia  they  are  found  in  the 
forests  of  the  Government  of  Kazan  as  far  south  as  latitude  54° ;  and  it  is  stated  that 
in  this  district  they  attain  very  large  dimensions,  while  the  females  are  without 
antlers.  In  Scandinavia  wild  reindeer  are,  however,  now  becoming  rare.  Domes- 
ticated reindeer  are  kept  in  Siberia,  Lapland,  and  part  of  Norway,  as  well  as  in  the 
northern  districts  of  the  Government  of  Perm,  but  appear  to  be  unknown  in  the 
Orenburg  region.  They  were  introduced  into  Iceland  in  1870,  where  they  flourish 
well,  and  in  1892  sixteen  head  were  landed  in  Alaska.  The  Scandinavian  domes- 
ticated breed,  which  is  chiefly  used  by  the  Laps  for  purposes  of  draught,  is  consid- 
erably smaller  than  the  wild  race ;  but  in  Siberia  there  is  a  tamed  breed  of  larger 
size,  mainly  used  for  riding.  The  importance  of  the  reindeer  to  the  Laplander 
has  been  so  often  written  of  that  we  may  be  excused  for  making  any  further 
mention  of  it. 

In  regard  to  the  northern  extension  of  the  Old  World  reindeer,  Baron 
Nordenskiold  observes  that  although  it  has  not  been  found  in  Francis  Joseph  Land, 
it  occurs  at  Cape  Chelyuskin,  as  well  as  in  Novaia  Zemlia  and  Spitzbergen,  and  in 
the  still  more  northerly  Phipps  and  Parry  Islands,  which  lie  between  the  80th  and 
81st  parallels  of  north  latitude.  In  some  of  these  desolate  regions  reindeer  are 
still  very  numerous,  even  where,  as  in  Spitzbergen,  they  are  incessantly  hunted. 
Regarding  their  abundance  in  the  islands  last-named,  Baron  Nordenskiold  says 
that  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  immigrate  from  Novaia  Zemlia;  but  he 
considers  it  more  probable  that  if  such  an  immigration  does  take  place,  it  must  be 
from  some  unknown  Arctic  land  to  the  north-north-east. 

The  same  writer  observes  that  "  the  life  of  the  wild  reindeer  is  best  known  in 
Spitzbergen.  During  the  summer  it  betakes  itself  to  the  grassy  plains  in  the  ice-free 
valleys  of  the  island;  in  late  autumn  it  withdraws — according  to  the  walrus- 
hunter's  statements — to  the  sea-coast,  in  order  to  eat  the  seaweed  that  is  thrown  up 
on  the  beach.  In  winter  it  goes  back  to  the  lichen-clad  mountain  heights  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  where  it  appears  to  thrive  exceedingly  well,  though  the 
cold  during  winter  must  be  excessively  severe ;  for  when  the  reindeer  in  spring 
return  to  the  coast  they  are  still  very  fat,  but  some  weeks  afterwards,  when  the 
snow  has  frozen  on  the  surface,  and  a  crust  of  ice  makes  it  difficult  for  them  to  get 
at  the  mountain-sides,  they  become  so  poor  as  to  be  scarcely  eatable.  In  summer, 
however,  they  speedily  eat  themselves  back  into  condition,  and  in  autumn  they  are 
so  fat  that  they  would  certainly  take  prizes  at  an  exhibition  of  fat  cattle." 

Further  observations  on  the  mode  of  life  of  the  reindeer  will  be  deferred  till  we 


DEER.  373 

come  to  the  American  varieties,  but  it  is  important  that  the  periodical  migrations 
of  these  animals  which  take  place  in  Siberia  should  be  noticed  here.  Admiral  von 
Wrangel,  when  in  Eastern  Siberia,  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  such  migrations 
on  more  than  one  occasion ;  and  he  relates  that  the  moving  masses  might  be 
reckoned  to  include  thousands  of  individuals,  split  up  into  herds  of  two  or  three 
hundred  head.  On  one  of  these  occasions  the  Admiral  states  that  "  two  large 
migrating  bodies  of  reindeer  passed  at  no  great  distance.  They  were  descending 
the  hills  from  the  north-west,  and  crossing  the  plain  on  their  way  to  the  forests, 
where  they  spend  the  winter.  Both  bodies  of  deer  extended  further  than  the  eye 
could  reach,  and  formed  a  compact  mass  narrowing  to  the  front.  They  moved 
slowly  and  majestically  along,  their  broad  antlers  resembling  a  moving  wood  of 
leafless  trees.  Each  body  was  led  by  a  deer  of  unusual  size,  which  my  guides 
assured  me  was  always  a  female." 

These  southerly  winter  migrations  of  the  reindeer  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance in  regard  to  the  former  occurrence  of  this  animal  in  Southern  Europe ;  for 
since  its  remains  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  association  with  those  of  the 
hippopotamus,  we  can  scarcely  assume  that  in  such  localities  at  any  rate  the  climate 
could  have  been  otherwise  than  comparatively  mild.  Accordingly,  the  most 
probable  hypothesis  seems  to  be  that  in  the  Pleistocene  period  the  reindeer,  driven 
by  the  intense  cold  of  the  more  northern  portions  of  its  habitat,  must  have  travelled 
so  far  south  during  the  winter  till  it  reached  regions  where  the  rivers  were  suitable 
for  the  habitation  of  the  hippopotamus. 

At  the  present  day  reindeer  are  unknown  in  the  Old  World  to  the  south  of  a 
parallel  running  a  little  below  the  southern  shore  of  the  Baltic ;  it  appears,  however, 
that  in  the  time  of  Caesar  they  were  met  with  in  the  Black  Forest  of  Northern 
Germany,  although  whether  as  permanent  residents  or  as  winter  immigrants,  cannot, 
of  course,  be  now  ascertained.  In  the  British  Isles,  remains  of  reindeer  are  com- 
monly met  with  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  it  was  long  considered  that 
in  Caithness  this  deer  survived  till  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  although  the 
latest  researches  tend  to  discountenance  this  idea.  Reindeer  remains  are  also  found 
over  the  Continent,  occurring  as  far  south  as  the  valleys  of  the  Dordogne  and 
Garonne  in  France. 

Turning:  now  to  the  American  reindeer,  which,  as  aforesaid,  are 
Caribou. 

characterised  by  the  great  development  and  palmation  of  one  brow- 
tine  of  the  antlers,  and  the  abortion  of  the  other,  we  find  there  are  two  well-marked 
varieties.  The  first  and  smaller  of  these  is  the  barren-ground  caribou,  the  R. 
grcenlandicus  of  those  who  regard  it  as  a  distinct  species.  This  reindeer  is  found 
only  in  the  barren  Arctic  districts  lying  to  the  northwards  of  the  forest-region  of 
North  America.  It  is  abundant  in  the  desolate  regions  to  the  northward  of  Fort 
Churchill,  whence  it  extends  to  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  This  form, 
although  much  inferior  in  point  of  size  to  the  woodland  caribou,  has  larger 
antlers ;  and  it  is  mainly  on  the  latter  ground  that  American  zoologists  urge  its 
right  to  be  reckoned  as  a  distinct  species.  Although  confined  in  summer  to  the 
so-called  "  barren-grounds,"  this  variety  of  the  reindeer  makes  extensive  southerly 
migrations  in  autumn,  in  order  to  spend  the  winter  in  the  forest-regions  tenanted 
by  the  woodland  caribou.  It  appears,  however,  that  even  when  inhabiting  the 


374  UNGULATES. 

same  districts,  the  two  races  invariably  remain  completely  apart  from  one  another, 
and  show  no  tendency  to  intermingle. 

woodland  The  larger  woodland  caribou,  of  which   the   dimensions   have 

Caribou.  already  been  mentioned,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  forest  districts  lying 
to  the  south  of  the  barren  northern  lands.  Mr.  Lett  states  that  "it  inhabits 
Labrador  and  Northern  Canada,  and  thence  may  be  found  south  to  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Newfoundland,  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of  Maine  and 
Lower  Canada  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  thence  westerly  in  the  country 
north  of  Quebec  to  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior.  It  never  migrates  towards  the 
north  in  summer,  as  is  the  habit  of  the  barren-ground  caribou,  but  makes  its 
migration  in  a  southerly  direction."  This  difference  in  the  direction  of  the  migration 
of  the  two  varieties  is  certainly  very  remarkable ;  and  when  taken  in  conjunction 
with  the  difference  in  the  size  of  their  antlers,  and  their  refusal  to  mingle  together, 
indicates  their  marked  distinctness  from  one  another. 

Mr.  Caton  says,  that  the  woodland  caribou  feeds  on  leaves, 
"grasses,  and  aquatic  plants,  but  its  great  resource  is  lichens.  It 
frequents  marshy  and  swampy  grounds  more  than  any  other  of  the  Deer  family ; 
for  which  it  is  admirably  adapted,  and  where  it  is  well  protected  from  pursuit. 
In  the  winter  it  resorts  to  the  dense  forests  on  higher  ground."  Like  the  European 
variety,  the  American  reindeer  is  an  animal  of  great  endurance  and  speed,  and  can 
trot  faster  than  most  horses.  In  disposition,  the  caribou  is  shy  and  wary,  and  to 
ensure  a  successful  stalk  requires  all  the  powers  of  the  sportsman.  To  hunt  these 
animals  in  deep  snow  on  foot,  or  on  the  open  ground  with  dogs,  is  said  to  be  mere 
waste  of  time,  as  in  the  one  case  the  animal,  by  the  aid  of  its  broad  hoofs,  makes 
its  way  over  the  snow  without  difficulty,  while  in  the  other  it  easily  distances  and 
tires  out  its  pursuers. 

Woodland  caribou  migrate  in  herds  of  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred,  or  even 
as  many  as  five  hundred  head.  During  these  periodical  migrations,  Mr.  Lett  says 
that  "  they  are  easily  killed  in  vast  numbers  by  taking  advantage  of  the  wind,  and 
shooting  them  as  they  pass  along.  They  are  also  frequently  surprised  crossing 
rivers  or  lakes  that  intersect  their  line  of  march,  when  they  become  an  easy  prey 
to  hunters  in  canoes.  In  winter  they  are  often  seen  upon  the  ice  on  inland  lakes. 
On  such  occasions  they  can  be  easily  shot,  provided  they  neither  see  nor  smell  the 
hunter.  The  instant,  however,  they  catch  the  scent  of  their  hidden  foe,  they 
vanish  like  a  streak  of  light.  I  have  heard  it  said  by  those  who  have  seen 
them  scudding  over  the  ice,  like  shadows,  that  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of 
time  they  appeared  to  the  naked  eye  not  larger  than  rabbits."  Indeed,  so  swift 
are  they  on  the  ice,  that  when  caribou  once  set  foot  on  it,  the  hunter  who 
knows  his  business  immediately  gives  up  the  pursuit  as  hopeless.  Solitary 
caribou  are  more  wary,  and  consequently  more  difficult  to  stalk,  than  those 
in  a  herd. 

The  time  when  caribou  are  most  easily  killed  is  during  the  months  of  March 
and  April,  the  snow  having  then  a  thin  cake  of  ice  on  the  surface,  through  which 
the  animals  are  constantly  breaking,  and  are  thus  run  down  without  much 
difficulty  by  hunters  on  snow-shoes. 

There  appears  to  be  a  lack  of  information  as  to  the  breeding-habits  both  of 


DEER.  375 

the  caribou  and  of  the  wild  reindeer  of  the  Old  World.  The  pairing-season  of  the 
barren-ground  caribou  is,  however,  said  to  be  in  the  winter;  while  that  of  the 
woodland  variety  is  in  September.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  antlers  of  the 
bucks  are  shed  in  December,  while  those  of  the  does  do  not  fall  until  the  spring. 
The  fawns  are  produced  in  May,  and  are  either  one  or  two  in  number. 

Owing  to  incessant  pursuit,  in  season  and  out  of  season,  the  numbers  of  the 
caribou  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  many  districts ;  but,  in  Newfoundland,  these 
animals  are  now  protected  by  special  laws. 


THE  ELK  OR  MOOSE. 

Genus  Alces. 

The  largest  living  representative  of  the  Deer  family  is  the  somewhat  ungainly- 
looking  animal  known  in  Europe  as  the  elk,  and  in  North  America  as  the  moose 
(Alces  machlis).  This  fine  animal  dift'ers  from  all  other  deer  in  the  form  and 
setting-on  of  the  antlers  of  the  male ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  these  append- 
ages have  really  no  connection  with  those  of  the  true  deer,  but  were  independently 
acquired. 

In  build,  the  elk  is  characterised  by  the  length  of  its  limbs,  its  short  neck, 
very  long  and  flapping  ears,  and  the  great  length  and  narrowness  of  the  head, 
which  terminates  in  a  broad  overhanging  muzzle,  completely  covered  with  short 
fine  hair,  save  for  a  small  triangular  spot  just  below  the  nostrils.  The  extremity 
of  the  muzzle  is  flexible,  and  the  eyes  are  small  and  sunken.  The  antlers,  instead 
of  emerging  from  the  forehead  at  an  acute  angle  with  its  middle  line  and  inclining 
forwards,  as  is  the  case  with  all  living  representatives  of  the  genus  Cervus,  project 
on  either  side  at  right  angles  to  the  middle  line  of  the  forehead,  and  in  the  same 
plane  as  its  surface.  Their  basal  portion  consists  of  a  short,  cylindrical  beam, 
without  any  tine,  and  beyond  this  beam  they  expand  into  an  enormous  basin-like 
palmation.  In  young  animals,  and  more  especially  in  the  Swedish  elk,  the 
antlers  have  their  palmated  portion  divided  into  a  smaller  anterior  and  a  larger 
posterior  moiety ;  but  in  the  adult  of  the  American  form  these  two  coalesce 
into  a  single  palmation,  elongated  from  back  to  front,  and  containing  a  number 
of  short  and  irregular  snags  on  its  outer  edge.  The  antlers  of  fine  specimens 
may  weigh  as  much  as  60  Ibs. ;  and  in  a  head  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw 
the  antlers  have  a  span  of  65  inches,  a  length  along  the  palmation  of  41  inches, 
and  a  width  across  the  same  of  24  inches,  but  a  span  of  66  inches  is  on  record. 
The  antlers  do  not  attain  their  full  dimensions  till  the  animal  has  attained  its 
ninth  year. 

The  skull  of  the  elk  differs  from  that  of  other  deer  in  the  extreme  shortness 
of  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  consequently  very  large  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 
The  upper  molar  teeth  have  very  low  and  broad  crowns.  The  tail  is  so  short  that 
it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  rudiment. 

The  elk  carries  its  short  neck  nearly  horizontally,  and  therefore  somewhat 
lower  than  the  elevated  withers  ;  and  it  is  this  feature  which  so  largely  contributes 
to  the  ungainly  and  ugly  appearance  of  the  animal.  The  feet  have  long  and 


376 


UNGULATES. 


Dimensions. 


UNDER  SURFACE  OP  FOOT 
OF  ELK. 


sharply-pointed  hoofs,  very  different  in  appearance  from  those  of  the  reindeer ; 
and  the  lateral  hoofs  are  relatively  large  and  loosely  attached.     In  the  male  the 

hair  is  long,  coarse,  and  somewhat  brittle,  and  is  elongated 
into  a  slight  mane  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  and  throat ; 
while  in  colour  it  varies  from  very  dark  brown  to  yellowish 
grey.  The  female  is  lighter  coloured  than  the  male  during 
the  winter  season.  In  both  sexes  the  hair  is  softer  and 
finer  in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter ;  and  during  the 
later  season  an  abundant  supply  of  woolly  under-fur  is 
developed.  Young  animals  have  also  brighter-coloured 
and  sleeker  coats  than  aged  individuals ;  and  in  the  latter 
the  fading  of  the  winter  coat  with  the  advance  of  spring  is 
much  more  noticeable  than  in  the  former.  The  fawns  are 
uniformly  coloured  like  the  adults. 

The  height  of  the  elk  has  been  much 
exaggerated,  some  writers  asserting  that  the 
male  may  stand  as  much  as  8  feet  at  the  withers.  Mr. 
Caton  observes,  however,  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it 
may  attain  a  height  of  6  feet,  or  occasionally  rather  more, 
and  we  may  probably  put  the  extreme  limits  as  not 
exceeding  6^  feet.  The  weight  of  an  average  adult  male 
elk  is  given  by  the  writer  last  cited  as  TOO  Ibs.,  but  large  specimens  will  reach 
900  or  1000,  and,  it  is  said,  even  as  much  as  1200  Ibs. 

Adult  male  elk,  and  occasionally  the  females,  have  a  curious  pendulous 
appendage  on  the  throat  formed  by  a  dilatation  of  the  skin,  and  covered  with  long 
and  coarse  blackish  hairs.  This  appendage  may  vary  in  length  from  4  to  10 
inches,  and  is  known  to  the  American  hunters  as  the  bell ;  its  use  is  unknown. 

The  elk  has  a  distribution  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
reindeer,  although  it  does  not  extend  so  far  north,  and  is,  indeed, 
limited  by  the  northern  extension  of  trees,  being  essentially  a  forest  animal.  In 
Europe,  although  now  greatly  diminished  in  numbers,  it  is  found  locally  in 
Scandinavia,  Eastern  Prussia,  Lithuania,  and  parts  of  Russia,  such  as  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Orenburg,  the  government  forest  near  Moscow,  and  the  districts 
bordering  the  river  Samara  in  Astrakhan.  Thence  it  extends  eastwards  into  the 
subarctic  portions  of  Siberia,  although  its  extreme  limits  in  this  direction  are  not 
fully  ascertained.  A  few  years  ago  an  elk  was  shot  in  Galicia,  which  had 
probably  wandered  from  more  northern  latitudes.  In  the  time  of  Pallas,  elk  were 
also  found  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus ;  while  Caesar  mentions  them  as 
inhabiting  the  Black  Forest.  During  the  prehistoric  period,  their  distribution 
was  still  more  extensive  in  Europe ;  and  their  remains  have  been  found  in  many 
parts  of  England,  the  most  southern  point  being  Walthamstow  in  Essex.  In  the 
still  earlier  deposits  of  the  Norfolk  forest-bed,  the  species  was  preceded  by  the 
broad-fronted  elk  (A.  latifrons). 

In  North  America  the  range  of  the  elk  appears  to  have  extended  originally 
from  about  the  43rd  to  the  70th  parallel  of  latitude,  its  northern  limit  being 
marked  by  the  southern  border  of  the  so-called  barren  grounds.  Mr.  Caton  says 


Distribution. 


DEER. 


377 


that  elk  have  been  seen  as  far  south  as  the  Ohio,  and  as  far  north  as  the  Mackenzie 
River.  Writing  in  the  year  1865,  Mr.  J.  G.  Lockhart  states  that  elk  were  then 
common  over  the  whole  of  British  America  as  far  north  as  the  barren  grounds, 
although  absent  from  particular  localities.  Thus  they  were  especially  abundant 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  continued  so  to  Behring  Strait, 
but  were  unknown  on  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  in  the  neighbourhood  of  York 


A  FAMILY  OF  ELK  (Ji  Hat.  size.) 

Factory.  Although  specially  protected  in  Ontario,  the  elk  is,  however,  now 
rapidly  disappearing  from  the  forests  of  North  America ;  and  this  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  when  we  learn  that  some  years  ago  several  hundreds  of  these  animals 
were  shot  on  one  occasion  in  New  Brunswick  merely  for  the  sake  of  their  hides ; 
their  carcases  being  left  to  rot  on  the  ground.  Elk  are  still  comparatively 
common  in  Alaska,  but  have  more  or  less  completely  disappeared  from  certain 
districts  where  they  were  formerly  abundant.  As  far  back  as  1881,  Mr.  Caton 
wrote,  that  "  they  have  probably  entirely  ceased  their  visits  to  Newfoundland  ;  but 


378 


UNGULATES. 


in  Labrador  many  still  remain,  though  gradually  retreating  thence  towards  the 
more  secluded  and  inaccessible  portions  of  the  country.  From  Upper  Canada  all 
are  gone,  and  but  few  remain  in  Lower  Canada,  where,  fifty  years  since,  they 
were  abundant.  What  are  left  have  retreated  to  the  great  dense  forests  of  the 
north." 

Elk  feed  more  upon  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  trees  than  upon 
grass ;  and  their  length  of  limb  enables  them  to  pluck  such  nutri- 
ment with  facility,  while  the  shortness  of  their  necks  renders  them  unfitted  for 
grazing,  unless  in  places  where  the  grass  is  unusually  tall,  when  they  merely  pluck 
the  tops.  In  Northern  Europe  and  Asia  birch,  willows,  aspens,  and  poplars  afford 
a  large  proportion  of  the  leafy  food  of  the  elk ;  but  in  North  America  both  ever- 
green and  deciduous  trees  contribute  their  quota.  Various  lichens  and  mosses  are, 
however,  also  eaten ;  but  in  winter,  when  the  whole  country  is  deeply  buried  in  snow, 
the  elk  have  to  depend  solely  on  twigs  and  buds  of  trees.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
foliage  of  saplings  which  are  above  their  reach,  elk  in  America,  at  least,  have  a 
curious  habit  of  straddling  on  either  side  of  the  stem  with  their  fore-legs,  and  then 
gradually  pressing  down  the  tree  with  the  weight  of  their  body. 

In  America  elk  commence  feeding  with  the  first  signs  of  dawn,  and  continue 
till  sunrise,  after  which  they  repose  or  ruminate  till  ten  or  eleven  o'clock. 
From  that  time  they  again  feed  till  about  two,  when  they  take  another  period  of 
repose  till  four  or  five,  and  then  feed  till  dusk,  when  they  lie  down  for  the  night. 
Mr.  Lockhart  says  that  elk  "generally  lie  down  with  their  tails  to  windward,  trusting 
to  their  senses  of  hearing  and  smelling,  which  are  remarkably  acute,  to  warn  them 
of  approaching  danger  from  that  quarter.  They  can  use  their  eyes  to  warn  them 
from  danger  to  leeward,  where  hearing,  and  especially  smelling,  would  be  of  little 
use.  While  sleeping  or  chewing  the  cud,  their  ears  are  in  perpetual  motion,  one 
backward,  the  other  forward,  alternately.  They  also  have  the  remarkable  instinct 
to  make  a  short  turn  and  sleep  below  the  wind  of  their  fresh  track,  so  that  any 
one  falling  thereon  and  following  it  up  is  sure  to  be  heard  or  smelt  before  he  can 
get  within  shooting  distance." 

In  summer  the  favourite  resorts  of  the  American  elk  are  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  swamps,  rivers,  or  lakes,  where  long  grasses  which  can  be  easily  reached  grow  in 
rank  abundance.  In  winter,  however,  they  generally  betake  themselves  to  higher 
grounds,  although  always  those  clothed  with  dense  and  almost  impenetrable  forest. 
When  disturbed,  the  elk,  in  spite  of  his  great  bulk,  makes  off  with  extreme  rapidity 
and  almost  perfect  silence,  even  in  the  thickest  cover,  always  when  possible 
selecting  moss-clad  and  yielding  ground  over  which  to  make  its  way. 

In  winter,  elk  in  America  are  in  the  habit  of  consorting  in  small  parties,  often 
comprising  a  male,  female,  and  the  young  of  two  seasons,  and  taking  up  their 
quarters  in  what  is  termed  a  moose-yard.  "  The  yard,"  writes  Mr.  C.  C.  Ward,  "  is 
situated  in  some  part  of  the  country  where  there  is  an  abundant  growth  of  young 
deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  white  birch,  poplars,  maple,  and  mountain-ash ;  these, 
together  with  a  few  of  the  coniferous  trees,  the  balsam-fir  and  juniper,  form  the 
staple  diet  of  the  moose.  Some  writers  maintain  that  the  bull  moose  never  yards 
with  the  female  and  young,  but  this  is  disproved  by  my  own  experience  as  a  moose- 
hunter.  ...  I  have  on  many  occasions  found  and  killed  males  occupying  the  same 


DEER.  379 

yard  with  the  old  and  young  females."     It  appears,  however,  that  very  old  males 
generally  make  a  yard  for  themselves,  and  remain  alone  throughout  the  winter. 

The  antlers  of  the  adult  elk  are  shed  in  America  during  January,  and  the  new 
pair  attain  their  full  development  in  August.  During  the  time  that  the  antlers 
have  been  in  the  velvet,  the  male  elk  has  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  marshes 
and  swamps,  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  yellow  water-lily,  and  frequently  protect- 
ing himself  from  the  attacks  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insect  torments  by  standing 
neck-deep  in  the  water.  With  the  complete  development  of  his  antlers,  he  sallies 
forth  from  these  retreats  to  commence  calling,  and  to  enter  upon  a  series  of  com- 


A   MOOSE-YARD. 


bats  with  his  rivals  for  the  possession  of  the  females.  These  contests  appear  to  be 
fully  as  fierce  and  determined  as  those  of  the  red  deer ;  and  Mr.  Ward  records 
finding  in  a  lake  the  skulls  of  two  elk,  with  their  antlers  inextricably  interlocked, 
which  had  evidently  perished  after  one  of  these  encounters.  The  fawns  are  born 
in  the  following  May,  and  are  either  one  or  two,  or,  very  exceptionally,  three  in 
number.  They  are  of  a  dark  fawn-colour,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Ward,  with  a 
slight  dappling.  The  females,  before  the  birth  of  the  fawns,  seek  out  the  most 
sequestered  spots,  such  as  islands  in  lakes  and  rivers,  and  swamps  and  prairies, 
which  are  liable  to  be  overflowed  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  where  they  will 
most  likely  be  free  from  the  attacks  of  wolves  and  bears.  Some  writers  aver  that 
at  such  seasons  they  likewise  endeavour  to  avoid  the  males,  but  this  is  denied  by 


38o 


UNGULATES. 


Mr.  Ward,  who  believes  that  the  male  is  never  very  far  away  from  his  consort. 
Mr.  Lockhart  says  that  when  the  fawns  are  very  young  and  helpless,  "  the  mother 
in  their  defence  will  even  attack  man.  At  such  times  her  appearance  reminds  one 
forcibly  of  a  vicious  horse.  She  raises  her  head,  throws  back  her  ears  upon  her 
neck,  and  sniffs  or  blows  like  a  horse;  then  she  bounds  towards  her  enemy, 
striking  the  ground  with  her  fore-feet,  and  her  eyes  glittering  with  rage." 

The  favourite  pace  of  the  elk  when  in  rapid  motion  is  a  long  swinging  trot ; 
and  it  is  said  that  so  long  as  the  animal  keeps  to  this  pace  it  cannot  be  overtaken 
by  any  ordinary  horse.  If,  however,  it  can  be  forced  into  a  gallop,  the  elk  soon 
becomes  blown,  and  can  then  be  readily  ridden  down. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  ungainly  appearance  of  the  elk ;  and  this  un- 
gainliness  is  certainly  most  strongly  marked  in  specimens  exhibited  alive  in 
menageries  or  mounted  in  museums.  Mr.  Ward  states,  however,  that  when  seen 
among  his  native  forests  no  one  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  majesty  and 
grandeur  of  the  male  elk  in  all  the  glory  of  his  spreading  antlers. 

In  Sweden  and  Norway  elk  are  either  hunted  by  being  driven  or 
stalked.  In  the  autumn  of  1885  the  elk  in  the  forest  of  Huneberg, 
which  had  been  preserved  for  thirty-five  years,  were  hunted  by  a  royal  party, 
when  fifty-one  head  were  shot;  and  in  1888  upwards  of  sixty-six  were  killed 
in  the  same  forest.  In  America  there  are  now  three  legitimate  methods  of  elk- 
hunting,  namely,  stalking  or  still-hunting,  fire-hunting,  and  calling  ;  the  wholesale 
slaughter  of  the  animals  when  imprisoned  in  their  yards  by  the  snows  of  winter 
having  fortunately  been  prohibited  by  the  legislature.  In  the  "  Far  West,"  the 
best  season  for  elk-hunting  is  during  the  months  of  October  and  November;  the 
first  snowfalls  occurring  in  the  mountains  during  the  latter  month,  and  the  males 
being  then  incessantly  calling  or  fighting  with  their  fellows.  To  be  successful  in 
elk-stalking  requires  the  aid  of  an  experienced  Indian  guide,  as  very  few  men  of 
European  descent  can  attain  that  marvellous  skill  in  tracking  which  appears  to 
come  naturally  to  the  Indian. 

It  appears  to  be  only  in  the  north-eastern  districts  that  the  practice  of  calling 
with  a  birch-bark  pipe  is  followed,  as  the  custom  is  said  to  be  quite  unknown  in 
the  Kocky  Mountains.  In  regard  to  the  mode  of  procedure,  Mr.  Ward  says  that 
"  the  Indian,  having  selected  a  favourable  position  for  his  purpose,  generally  on  the 
margin  of  a  lake,  heath,  or  bog,  where  he  can  readily  conceal  himself,  puts  his 
birchen  trumpet  to  his  mouth,  and  gives  the  call  of  the  cow  moose  in  a  manner  so 
startling  and  truthful  that  only  the  educated  ear  of  an  Indian  could  detect  the 
counterfeit.  If  the  call  is  successful,  presently  the  responsive'  bull  moose  is  heard 
crashing  through  the  forest,  uttering  his  blood-curdling  bellow  or  roar,  and  rattling 
his  antlers  against  the  trees  in  challenge  to  all  rivals."  In  other  districts  the  call 
of  the  male  is  imitated  by  drawing  the  shoulder-bone  of  a  moose  against  the  dry 
bark  of  a  young  tree,  and  any  male  that  may  be  in  the  neighbourhood  advances  to 
answer  the  challenge  of  the  supposed  rival.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  male 
moose  instead  of  uttering  the  bellowing  call  mentioned  above,  only  gives  vent  to  a 
loud  and  prolonged  kind  of  whistle,  while  the  female  is  completely  silent. 

Fire-hunting,  or  hunting  by  torchlight,  is  practised,  says  Mr.  Ward,  by  ex- 
hibiting a  bright  light,  formed  by  burning  bunches  of  birch-bark  in  places  known 


DEER.  381 

to  be  frequented  by  moose.  The  brilliant  light  seems  to  fascinate  the  animal,  and 
he  will  readily  approach  within  range  of  the  rifle.  The  torch  placed  in  the  bow  of 
a  canoe  is  also  used  as  a  lure  on  a  lake  or  a  river,  but  is  attended  with  considerable 
danger,  as  a  wounded  or  enraged  moose  will  not  unfrequently  upset  the  canoe. 

A  favourite  mode  of  moose-hunting,  when  the  snow  lay  very  deep  on  the 
ground,  was  by  running  them  down  in  snow-shoes.  Accidents  were,  however, 
frequent  in  this  kind  of  hunting,  more  especially  during  the  spring,  when  the  snow 
is  covered  with  a  thin  crust.  At  such  times,  if  the  hunter  happened  incautiously 
to  run  too  near  the  moose,  the  animal  would  turn  suddenly,  and  leaping  upon  his 
pursuer  trample  him  under  foot.  Mr.  Lockhart  also  says  that  in  British  America 
the  Indians  during  the  winter  were  accustomed  in  deep  snow  to  make  a  kind  of 
fence  of  three  poles,  tied  equidistant  from  each  other,  a  little  taller  than  a  man, 
stretching  perhaps  for  two  days'  march  between  lakes,  or  a  lake  and  a  river,  or 
between  two  mountains,  or  in  any  particular  place  where  the  moose  were 
accustomed  to  pass.  Spaces  were  left  vacant  here  and  there  in  this  fence,  and  in 
these  snares  were  set,  in  which  the  unfortunate  animals  became  entangled. 

The  flesh  of  the  elk,  in  spite  of  some  coarseness  of  grain,  is  generally  regarded 
as  forming  excellent  venison,  although  it  is  said  to  have  a  slightly  musky  taste. 
The  large  and  fleshy  nose  is,  however,  esteemed  the  greatest  delicacy,  and  is 
reported  by  those  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of  tasting  it  to  be  absolutely 
unrivalled.  Elk  manage  to  maintain  themselves  in  fair  condition  throughout  the 
winter,  so  that  their  flesh  is  eatable  when  that  of  the  ordinary  American  deer  is  so 
poor  and  dry  as  to  be  unpalatable. 

THE  ROE  DEER. 

Genus  Capreolus. 

The  roe  deer  (Capreolus  caprea),  while  agreeing  with  the  reindeer  and  the  elk 
in  the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fore-legs,  differs  entirely 
from  both  in  the  form  of  its  antlers,  as  well  as  by  its  greatly  inferior  dimensions, 
being,  in  fact,  one  of  the  smallest  representatives  of  the  family.  Moreover,  whereas 
the  two  genera  just  mentioned  have  a  circumpolar  distribution,  the  roe  is  strictly 
confined  to  the  Old  World. 

The  roebuck  when  fully  adult  stands  about  26  inches  in  height;  and  has 
antlers  somewhat  less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  head.  These  antlers  are  rough, 
and  have  a  straight"  and  nearly  cylindrical  beam,  rising  for  some  distance  nearly 
vertically  from  the  skull,  and  then  giving  off"  one  forwardly-directed  tine  from  its 
front  edge ;  after  which  the  beam  curves  backwards  and  terminates  in  a  simple 
fork.  The  roe's  antler  is  therefore  three-tined  like  that  of  the  Indian  spotted  deer, 
but  differs  in  that  instead  of  having  a  true  brow-tine,  the  first  tine  is  not  given  off 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  entire  length.  The  average  length  of  the  antlers  is 
from  8  to  9  inches,  but  it  is  said  that  a  pair  from  Austria  have  been  recorded  in 
which  the  length  was  15  inches.  The  antlers  of  the  roe  are  more  subject  to  mal- 
formations than  those  of  any  other  species ;  and  they  sometimes  show  a  mass  of 
ill-formed  tines. 


382 


UNGULATES. 


The  roe  has  a  relatively  short  head,  with  moderate  ears,  a  very  small  gland 
below  the  eye,  and  the  naked  portion  of  the  sharp  muzzle  small  and  not  extending 
beyond  the  nostrils.  Normally  there  are  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  and  the  tail 
is  short  and  rudimentary.  The  neck  is  rather  long  and  slender,  and  carried  high 
above  the  level  of  the  back  ;  and  the  limbs  are  likewise  slight  and  delicately  formed. 
In  summer  the  colour  of  the  fur  is  reddish  brown,  but  in  winter,  when  it  becomes 


MALE  AND  FEMALE  ROE  DEER  (•£,  nat.  size). 

thicker  and  finer,  the  tint  changes  to  yellowish  grey.  There  are  some  black  and 
white  markings  on  the  lips,  and  there  is  a  large  patch  of  white  on  the  buttocks 
enclosing  the  tail,  while  the  under-parts  and  the  insides  of  the  limbs  are  pale 
yellowish  fawn.  The  fur  of  the  fawns  is  spotted  with  white.  The  weight  of  a 
full-grown  buck  may  reach  60  Ibs. 

The  common  roe  is  an  indigenous  inhabitant  of  the  British  Isles 
and  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  extending  northwards  to  the  south  of 
Sweden,  and  southwards  to  Italy  and  Spain.    In  Russia  it  is  confined  to  the  regions 


Distribution. 


DEER.  383 

of  the  Caucasus  and  the  Ukraine,  and  it  extends  into  Western  Asia  in  Persia. 
Its  fossil  remains  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  England  and  the  Continent ; 
but  at  the  present  day  roe  deer  are  found  wild  within  the  limits  of  the  British 
Isles  only  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Blackmoor  Vale,  in  Dorset- 
shire, where  they  were  reintroduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  century.  In  the  year 
1884  a  few  head  were,  however,  turned  out  in  Epping  Forest;  and  some  are 
kept  in  certain  English  parks. 

In  Turkestan  and  the  mountains  separating  Russia  from  China, 

the  place  of  the  ordinary  roe  is  taken  by  the  nearly-allied  Tartarian 

roe  (C.  jyygargus),  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  the  more  hairy  ears,  and  the 

larger  white  patch  on  the  rump.     In  Mantchuria  there  is  a  third  form,  of  small 

size,  and  differing  somewhat  in  coloration  from  both  the  others. 

In  Scotland  roe  deer  are  found  chiefly  in  the  woods,  or  on  the 
immediately  adjacent  moors,  but  never  wander  far  out  on  the  open 
hills,  although  they  will  venture  on  to  the  cultivated  lands  in  search  of  food.  They 
feed  in  the  early  morning  and  towards  evening,  and  generally  associate  in  small 
family  parties,  while  they  make  regular  tracks  through  the  woods  to  their  feeding 
grounds.  Their  usual  food  is  grass  and  other  herbage,  as  well  as  the  young  shoots 
of  such  trees  and  bushes  as  they  are  able  to  reach.  The  speed  of  the  roe  is  not 
great ;  but  the  animal  is  a  great  leaper,  and,  when  running,  its  usual  pace  is  a 
bounding  gallop. 

The  antlers  of  the  adult  bucks  are  shed  about  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the 
new  ones  are  generally  fully  developed  by  the  latter  part  of  February.  The 
pairing-season  takes  place  during  July  and  August,  at  which  time  the  bucks  are 
exceedingly  pugnacious.  Scrope  relates  that  in  the  summer  of  1820  two  were 
found  dead  in  a  hollow  after  one  of  these  contests,  lying  one  on  the  top  of  the 
other,  with  the  antlers  of  the  one  firmly  driven  into  the  shoulder  of  the  other, 
and  vice  versa.  The  fawns  are  born  in  the  spring,  usually  early  in  May;  and 
in  Scotland  about  one  doe  out  of  five  or  six  will  produce  two  fawns  at  a  birth 
in  favourable  seasons.  No  account  of  the  roe  would  be  complete  without 
some  reference  to  the  extraordinary  fact  that  although  the  pairing-season  takes 
place  in  July  or  August,  and  the  young  are  not  produced  till  the  following 
May,  yet  the  period  of  gestation  is  only  five  months.  The  explanation  of  this 
appears  to  be  that  the  ovum  lies  dormant  for  some  four  and  a  half  months,  that  is 
until  December,  after  which  it  develops  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Certain  extinct  deer  found  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Continent  have  been 
considered  to  belong  to  the  same  genus  as  the  roe. 


THE  CHINESE  WATER-DEER. 
Genus  Hydropotes. 

Among  the  tall  reeds  fringing  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  there  occur 
numbers  of  a  small  deer  differing  from  any  of  the  species  hitherto  noticed  in  that 
while  both  sexes  are  totally  devoid  of  antlers,  the  males  are  provided  with  long 
scimitar-like  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the  next  page.  This 


384 


UNGULATES. 


SKULL  OF  THE  CHINESE  WATER-DEER  WITH  PART  OF  THE  UPPER  JAW  CUT 

AWAY  TO  SHOW  THE  BASE  OP  THE  TUSK.     (From  Sir  V.  Brooke, 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1872.) 


deer  is  the  Chinese  water-deer  (Hydropotes  inermis),  which  in  both  these  features 
resembles  the  musk-deer,  although  in  other  respects  it  is  allied  to  the  more  typical 

representatives  of  the  pre- 
sent section  of  the  family. 

The  Chinese  water-deer 
is  of  the  approximate 
dimensions  of  the  Indian 
muntjac  (p.  366);  and  is  a 
long  -  bodied  and  short- 
limbed  creature,  with  light 
reddish-brown  fur.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  peculi- 
arities about  this  small  deer 

jg  that  yie  Jogg  produce  from 

.      „  ,  .    . 

three  to  six  lawns  at  a  birth. 
The  pelage  of  the  young  is  faintly  marked  with  white  spots,  arranged  in  ill-defined 
rows.  The  number  of  young  produced,  coupled  with  the  absence  of  antlers  in  the 
bucks,  indicates  that  the  Chinese  water-deer  is  in  all  probability  a  survivor  from 
a  very  ancient  type  of  the  Deer  family.  These  deer  are  commonly  found  on  the 
Yang-tse-Kiang,  in  parties  of  two  or  three.  When  disturbed,  they  arch  their  backs 
and  scud  away  at  a  great  pace  in  a  series  of  quick  leaps.  They  are  usually  killed 
with  buckshot. 

The  resemblance  of  the  skull  of  the  male  water-deer  to  that  of  the  musk-deer, 
is  merely  due  to  both  forms  being  apparently  direct  descendants  of  the  common 
ancestral  type,  from  which  the  more  specialised  members  of  the  family  have 
been  evolved ;  it  being  well  ascertained  that  in  most  or  all  of  the  early  Tertiary 
deer  the  males  were  devoid  of  antlers  and  furnished  with  long  upper  tusks. 
When  antlers  were  developed  to  their  full  extent,  so  as  to  become  efficient  weapons 
of  defence,  the  need  for  tusks  disappeared,  and  the  tusks  consequently  dwindled 
or  were  lost.  The  muntjacs,  in  which  the  antlers  are  short,  present  a  kind  of 
middle  stage  of  evolution,  the  tusks  having  become  much  smaller  than  in  the 
Chinese  water-deer,  though  larger  than  in  many  species  of  superior  size. 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER. 
Genus  Cariacus. 

With  the  exception  of  the  wapiti,  the  reindeer,  and  the  elk,  which  are  either  closely 
allied  to,  or  identical  with,  Old  World  types,  the  whole  of  the  deer  of  America  differ 
essentially  from  those  of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  are  referred  (with  the  exception  of  one 
small  species  which  forms  a  genus  by  itself)  to  a  totally  distinct  genus,  Cariacus. 

These  deer  resemble  the  reindeer  in  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  fore-limb ;  and  also  in  that  in  the  dry  skull  the  aperture  of  the  nasal 
passage  is  completely  divided  by  a  longitudinal  vertical  partition  of  bone.  The 
latter  feature  is,  indeed,  peculiar  to  the  reindeer  and  the  American  deer,  and  serves 
at  once  to  distinguish  their  skulls  from  those  of  any  species  of  the  genus  Cervus. 


DEER. 


385 


The  American  deer  are,  however,  still  better  distinguished  from  their  Old 
World  cousins,  by  the  characters  of  their  antlers,  which  are  either  in  the  form  of 
simple  spikes,  or  are  divided  in  a  fork-like  manner,  with  the  anterior  prong  directed 
forwards,  and  no  brow-tine.  These  characteristic  features  are  well  shown  in  the 


PROFILE  VIEWS  OP  THE  ANTLERS  OF  THE 
MARSH -DEER  (A),  THE  VIRGINIAN  DBER 
(£),  AND  THE  MULE-DEER  (C). 

accompanying  figures,  from  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  while  in  one 
case  the  two  prongs  of  the  antler 
may  be  nearly  equally  developed 
(A),  in  another  the  anterior  prong 
(a)  may  be  greatly  developed  at 
the  expense  of  the  posterior  (6), 
as  in  the  middle  figure.  It  will 
also  be  seen  that  there  may  be 
either  a  large  or  small  sub-basal 
tine  (c)  rising  from  the  inner  side 
of  the  front  of  the  antler,  some 
distance  above  the  burr,  and  directed  upwardly.  It  was  long  considered  that  this 
sub-basal  tine  represented  the  brow-tine  of  the  antlers  of  the  Old  World  deer,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  correlate  the  other  tines  of  the  American  deer  with  those  of 
the  genus  Cervus.  Mr.  Allan  Gordon  Cameron  has,  however,  pointed  out  that  this 
is  a  totally  erroneous  notion ;  the  truth  being,  that  while  the  members  of  the  genus 
VOL.  ii. — 25 


386 


UNGULATES. 


Cervus  have  originated  in  Europe  from  an  early  antlerless  deer-like  creature 
(Palceomeryx),  the  representatives  of  Cariacus  have  been  independently  derived  in 
North  America  from  a  totally  distinct  ancestral  deer  (Blastomeryx),  which  was 
likewise  unprovided  with  antlers.  And  it  will  accordingly  be  self -apparent  that 
the  antlers  of  the  Old  and  New  World  deer  are  not  mutually  comparable.  Start- 
ing from  the  simple  spike-like  antlers  of  the  brockets  of  South  America,  we  shall 
find  that  there  is  a  transition  through  a  simply-forked  antler  to  the  complex  type 
exhibited  by  the  mule-deer ;  and  it  will  accordingly  be  most  convenient  to  commence 
our  notice  of  these  deer  with  those  in  which  the  antlers  are  simple,  and  finish  with 
those  in  which  they  are  most  complex. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  various  species,  it  may,  however,  be  added  that  all 


THE  BED  BROCKET   (^  nat.  size). 

the  American  deer  are  uniformly  coloured  above  in  the  adult  condition,  and  that 
they  all  have  narrow  and  naked  muzzles.  The  length  of  the  tail  is  subject  to  a 
great  amount  of  specific  variation.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar  feature  already 
noticed  as  distinguishing  the  hinder  aperture  of  the  nasal  passage,  the  skulls  of  the 
American  deer  are  characterised  by  the  large  dimensions  of  the  unossified  space  in 
front  of  the  eye,  and  the  small  size  of  the  pit  for  the  reception  of  the  gland. 

The  first  group  of  the  American  deer  is  represented  by  several 
small  species  known  as  brockets,  which  are  confined  to  the  southern 
half  of  the  continent,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  unbranched  spike-like  antlers, 
and  by  the  hair  on  the  middle  line  of  the  face  radiating  in  all  directions  from  two 
points,  one  of  which  is  situated  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  the  other  just  below 
the  eyes.  They  are  further  characterised  by  the  large  extent  of  the  naked  portion 
of  the  muzzle,  which  completely  surrounds  the  nostrils ;  and  likewise  by  the  spotted 
coat  of  the  fawns.  The  tail  is  of  medium  length ;  and  the  upper  jaw  may  or  may 


Brockets. 


DEER.  387 

not  carry  tusks.  The  best  known  species  is  the  common  red  brocket  (C.  rufus) — 
the  one  represented  in  our  illustration — of  North-Eastern  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where 
it  ranges  from  Surinam  to  Pernambuco.  It  is  a  rather  clumsily-built  animal, 
standing  27  inches  in  height  at  the  withers,  and  of  a  uniform  reddish  brown  colour. 
The  nearly  allied  Brazilian  brocket  (C.  simplicicornis),  is  a  rather  smaller  species, 
standing  only  21  inches  in  height,  and  distinguished  by  its  lighter  and  more  elegant 
shape,  as  well  as  by  the  more  decided  brown  colour  of  the  fur,  especially  in  the 
young.  This  species  ranges  over  the  greater  part  of  Brazil,  and  extends  westwards 
into  Colombia.  The  other  two  species  are  the  Ecuador  brocket  (C.  rufinus),  found 
in  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Guatemala ;  and  the  wood-brocket  (C.  nemori- 
vagus),  from  Surinam  and  Trinidad,  both  of  which  are  only  19  inches  in  height. 
The  former  has  fur  of  a  full  glossy  red  colour,  with  the  face  and  legs  shaded 
bluish  brown;  while  the  latter  differs  from  all  the  rest  by  the  pepper-and-salt 
colour  of  its  hair.  Fossil  remains  of  brockets  occur  in  the  caverns  of  Lagoa 
Santa,  in  Brazil,  which  probably  belong  to  species  still  inhabiting  the  same 
districts. 

Brockets  are  found  either  alone  or  in  pairs,  and  never  collect  in 
Habits. 

herds ;  a  male  and  female  apparently  associating  for  life.     The  does 

produce  usually  but  a  single  fawn  at  a  birth,  in  December  or  January ;  and  the 
young  are  able  to  follow  their  mother  in  from  three  to  five  days.  The  speed  of 
the  brockets  is  considerable,  but  not  enduring,  and  they  can  be  easily  ridden  down 
by  a  good  horse,  while,  when  the  cover  is  not  too  thick,  hounds  will  generally 
capture  them  within  half  an  hour. 

The  Costa  Rica  deer  (C.  clavatus),  of  Central  America,  is  another 
Costa  Rica  Deer.  .  .1-1.1  ,  • 

small  species  with  spike-like  antlers,  which  appears  to  iorm  a  group 

by  itself,  connecting  the  brockets  with  the  succeeding  groups.  This  deer  is  of  a 
uniform  reddish  yellow  colour,  like  the  Virginian  deer ;  and  differs  from  the  brockets, 
and  agrees  with  the  following  groups  in  that  the  hair  of  the  face  is  directed 
uniformly  backwards,  while  it  likewise  resembles  those  that  follow  in  the  smaller 
size  of  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle,  and  in  the  less  arched  profile  of  the  face. 

The  third  group  of   the   genus   is   represented   by  two  South 

American  species  of  medium  size,  which  are  confined  to  the  Andes, 
where  they  are  known  as  guemals.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  antlers  forming 
a  single  fork,  of  which  the  front  prong  is  the  longer,  and  is  projected  forwards  in 
the  manner  characteristic  of  the  genus ;  by  the  presence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaws 
of  both  sexes,  and  also  by  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  fawns.  Of  the  two  species, 
the  Chilian  guemal  (C.  chilensis)  ranges  from  Santiago  to  Magellan,  but  is  far  more 
scarce  in  the  northern  than  the  southern  portion  of  this  tract ;  while  the  Peruvian 
guemal  (C.  antisiensis)  is  a  northern  form  from  the  highlands  of  Peru. 

The  pampas,  or  Guazuti  deer  (C.  campestris),  represented  in  the 

illustration  on  the  next  page,  brings  us  to  a  fourth  group  of  the 
genus,  confined  to  South  America,  and  characterised  by  the  antlers  being  regularly 
forked,  with  the  hinder  prong — and  sometimes  also  the  front  one — again  forking ; 
while  there  is  no  sub-basal  snag  above  the  burr.  The  two  species  of  this  group  are 
further  characterised  by  the  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  shortness  of 
the  tail,  and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  fawns.  They  are  confined  to  the  eastern 


388 


UNGULATES. 


and  southern  portions  of  South  America ;  and  do  not  attain  such  large  dimensions 
as  the  members  of  the  next  group. 

The  pampas  deer  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  species,  standing  about  2|  feet  at 
the  shoulder ;  and  its  range  extends  from  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  through  Argen- 
tina into  Northern  Patagonia.  The  antlers  (as  shown  in  the  profile  view  in  our 
illustration)  are  characterised  by  the  great  development  of  the  forked  posterior 
tine,  at  the  expense  of  the  unbranched  front-tine;  the  number  of  points  thus 
being  three.  The  hair  is  thick,  coarse,  and  glossy ;  its  colour  on  the  upper-parts 


mim 


Habits. 


THE  PAMPAS   DEER  (^  nat.  Size). 

being  light  reddish  brown.  The  lower  parts  of  the  flanks,  as  well  as  the  chin, 
throat,  chest,  and  a  stripe  on  the  limbs,  are  dusky ;  while  the  under-parts,  inner 
sides  of  the  limbs,  under  side  and  tip  of  the  tail,  and  insides  of  the  ears  are  white. 

The  pampas  deer  is  the  largest  and  most  common  ruminant  in 
the  districts  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  frequents  dry  and 
open  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  generally  found  in  pairs  or  small  parties,  the  old 
bucks  being,  however,  solitary.  Mr.  Darwin  says  that  "  if  a  person  crawling  close 
along  the  ground,  slowly  advances  towards  a  herd,  the  deer  frequently,  out  of 
curiosity,  approach  to  reconnoitre  him.  I  have  by  this  means  killed,  from  one" 
spot,  three  out  of  the  same  herd.  Although  so  tame  and  inquisitive,  yet  when 
approached  on  horseback  they  are  exceedingly  wary.  In  this  country  nobody 


DEER.  389 

goes  on  foot,  and  the  deer  knows  man  as  its  enemy  only  when  he  is  mounted  and 
armed  with  the  bolas." 

The  male  of  the  pampas  deer  possesses  an  unpleasant  and  penetrating  effluvium, 
which,  as  we  can  personally  attest,  can  be  detected  at  a  distance  of  several 
miles.  During  the  day  these  deer  generally  lie  concealed  among  the  tall  pampas- 
grass,  coming  out  to  feed  at  sunset,  and  continuing  throughout  the  night.  Their 
speed  is  very  great,  and  it  is  only  by  the  very  best  horses  they  can  be  ridden  down, 
while  even  then,  if  they  have  any  considerable  start,  they  are  pretty  sure  to  escape. 
The  fawns  are  born  in  the  winter  and  spring,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  there  is 
ever  more  than  one  at  a  birth.  Both  parents  aid  in  protecting  their  young,  and 
the  doe  is  especially  clever  in  aiding  the  escape  of  her  fawn,  as  the  following 
narrative  by  Mr.  Hudson  shows.  "  When  the  doe  with  fawn  is  approached  by  a 
horseman,"  writes  this  observer,  "even  when  accompanied  by  dogs,  she  stands 
perfectly  motionless,  gazing  fixedly  at  the  enemy,  the  fawn  motionless  at  her  side ; 
and  suddenly,  as  if  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  the  fawn  rushes  directly  away  from 
her  at  its  utmost  speed ;  and  going  to  a  distance  of  six  hundred  to  a  thousand  yards 
conceals  itself  in  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  or  among  the  long  grass,  lying  down  very 
close  with  neck  stretched  out  horizontally,  and  will  thus  remain  until  sought  by 
the  dam.  When  very  young,  if  found  in  its  hiding-place,  it  will  allow  itself  to  be 
taken,  making  no  further  effort  to  escape.  After  the  fawn  has  run  away,  the  doe 
still  maintains  her  statuesque  attitude,  as  if  resolved  to  await  the  onset,  and  only 
when  the  dogs  are  close  to  her  side  she  also  rushes  away,  but  invariably  in  a 
direction  as  nearly  opposite  to  that  taken  by  the  fawn  as  possible.  At  first  she 
runs  slowly,  with  a  limping  gait,  and  frequently  pausing,  as  if  to  entice  her  enemies 
on ;  but  as  they  begin  to  press  her  more  closely,  her  speed  increases,  becoming 
greater  the  further  she  succeeds  in  leading  them  from  the  starting-point."  The 
alarm-cry  of  the  pampas  deer  is  a  low,  whistling  bark,  but  this  is  never  uttered 
when  the  doe  has  a  fawn  by  her  side. 

The  marsh,  or  guazu  deer  (C.  palustris)  is  a  somewhat  larger 
species,  found  in  South  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
and  Uruguay;  its  westerly  range  being  limited  by  the  Parana  River.  The 
antlers  of  this  deer,  of  which  an  example  is  represented  in  the  figure  on  p.  385,  are 
larger  and  more  complex  than  those  of  the  pampas-deer,  both  prongs  of  the  main 
fork  being  strongly  developed,  and  each  again  subdividing ;  the  hinder  prong 
being  also  generally  rather  the  heavier  of  the  two.  In  contrast  to  the  pampas- 
deer,  the  marsh-deer  seeks  out  swamps  and  lakes,  where  it  delights  to  enter  the 
water  or  wallow  in  the  mud. 

The  last  main  group  of  the  American  deer  is  typically  repre- 
Virginian  Deer.  .      .     .  . 

sented  by  the  well-known  Virginian  deer  (C.  v^rg^n^anus),  with  its 

numerous  varieties,  and  includes  the  largest  representatives  of  the  genus,  as  well  as 
the  whole  of  those  found  in  the  northern  half  of  the  continent.  The  group  is 
distinguished  by  the  large  size  and  complexity  of  the  antlers,  which  differ  from 
those  of  the  other  groups  by  the  presence  of  a  larger  or  smaller  sub-basal  snag 
(c  of  the  figure  on  p.  385),  and  likewise  by  the  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  the  spotted  coat  of  the  fawns. 

The  Virginian  deer  occurs  typically  in  eastern  North  America,  but  the  so-called 


39° 


UNGULATES. 


white-tailed  deer  (C.  leucurus)  of  the  western  side  of  the  continent  can  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety,  while  it  is  doubtful  if  the  more 
southern  form  known  as  the  Mexican  deer  (C.  mexicanus)  is  really  entitled  to 
specific  distinction.  Considering  all  these  forms  as  referable  to  a  single  species,  the 
Virginian  deer  will  have  a  range  extending  right  across  the  American  continent 
from  east  to  west,  and  from  south  to  north  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  The  main 
distinctive  characteristic  of  this  species  is  to  be  found  in  the  antlers  (shown  in  profile 


VIRGINIAN   DEER  (^  liat.  size). 


in  the  figure  on  p.  385,  and  from  the  front  in  the  figure  of  the  entire  animal),  in 
which  the  anterior  prong  of  the  main  fork  shows  a  great  development  at  the 
expense  of  the  hinder  one.  This  abortion  of  the  hinder  prong  is,  however,  com- 
pensated by  a  corresponding  growth  of  the  sub-basal  snag.  These  snags,  like  the 
main  prongs  of  the  antler,  are  subject  to  extraordinary  abnormal  developments, 
so  that  the  variations  which  occur  in  the  antlers  of  the  Virginian  deer  are  only 
paralleled  by  those  found  in  the  reindeer.  The  tail  is  long.  The  summer  pelage  of 
the  Virginian  deer  is  a  bright  bay,  from  which  it  derives  its  common  local  title  of 
red  deer,  but  in  winter  the  coat  becomes  of  a  greyer  tinge.  At  all  seasons  of  the 


DEER.  391 

yrar  the  throat,  a  ring  above  the  muzzle,  a  spot  above  and  below  the  eye,  portions 
of  the  inside  of  the  ear,  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs  and  the  under-parts  are, 
however,  white.  The  upper  surface  of  the  tail  is  dark  brown,  and  even  in  winter 
there  is  a  more  or  less  reddish  tinge  throughout  the  pelage.  In  build  this  deer  is  the 
most  elegant  and  graceful  of  all  its  compatriots.  Its  variation  in  size  is  so  great  that 
it  would  be  useless  to  give  any  measurements,  although  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
unusually  fine  bucks  are  said  to  weigh  as  much  as  200  Ibs.,  and  occasionally  more. 

With  regard  to  the  variation  in  size  and  colour  in  this,  the  commonest  North 
American  species,  Mr.  Caton  writes  that,  although  in  a  given  neighbourhood  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  individuals,  in  widely  different  localities  there 
is  a  permanent  and  constant  difference  of  size.  Thus,  whereas  in  the  north  all 
the  deer  are  large,  as  we  proceed  south  there  is  a  progressive  diminution,  till  in 
Northern  Mexico  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  deer  have  so 
diminished  that  ic  is  at  first  difficult  to  believe  that  they  are  specifically  identical 
with  their  northern  representatives.  Similarly  we  find  in  the  mountainous  regions 
of  the  west  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  white  on  the  tail  and  body,  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  notion  that  the  so-called  white-tailed  deer  is  a  distinct  species ; 
but  Mr.  Caton  states  that  this  difference  is  not  constant  even  among  the  deer  of  the 
west,  where  many  specimens  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those  found  in  Illinois 
or  Wisconsin.  The  more  northerly  race  appears,  however,  to  be  characterised  by 
the  absence  of  the  black  markings  on  the  face  and  tail,  which  so  frequently  occur 
in  the  southern  and  eastern  portion  of  the  animal's  range. 

In  the  Adirondack  region  of  New  York  Dr.  Hart  Merriam  says 
Habits.  * 

that  the  Virginian  deer  "  is  found  high  upon  the  mountain-sides,  as  well 

as  in  the  lowest  valleys  and  river-bottoms.  It  frequents  alike  the  densest  and  most 
impenetrable  thickets  and  the  open  beaver-meadows  and  frontier  clearings.  From 
the  1st  of  May  to  the  1st  of  November  its  food  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  herbs, 
grasses,  marsh  and  aquatic  plants,  the  leaves  of  many  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs, 
blueberries,  blackberries,  other  fruits  that  grow  within  its  reach,  and  the  nutritious 
beech-nut.  While  snow  covers  the  ground — which  it  commonly  does  about  half 
the  year — the  fare  is  necessarily  restricted,  and  it  is  forced  to  subsist  chiefly  upon 
the  twigs  and  buds  of  low  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  the  twigs  and  foliage  of  the 
arbor  vitae,  hemlock,  and  balsam,  and  a  few  mosses  and  lichens.  In  winters  succeed- 
ing a  good  yield  of  nuts  the  mast  constitutes  its  staple  article  of  diet,  and  is 
obtained  by  following  the  beech  ridges  and  pawing  up  the  snow  beneath  the  trees." 

Although  shy  and  timid  in  the  extreme,  and  at  first  retreating  rapidly  before 
the  advance  of  cultivation,  these  deer  soon  regain  confidence,  and  come  back  to 
their  ancient  haunts.  Their  speed  is  great,  and  they  are  excellent  and  rapid 
swimmers,  even  young  fawns  while  still  in  the  spotted  coat  taking  readily  to  the 
water.  During  long-continued  deep  snow  these  deer  frequently  collect  together 
in  parties,  sometimes  of  considerable  size,  and  form  "  yards,"  like  the  elk. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  time  of  changing  the  grey  dress  of  winter 
for  the  red  coat  of  summer,  as  there  is  in  the  date  when  the  antlers  of  the  bucks  are 
shed,  these  differences  being  apparently  mainly  due  to  the  severity  or  mildness  of 
the  winters.  The  pairing-season,  during  which  the  bucks,  like  those  of  other  deer, 
are  exceedingly  pugnacious,  lasts  from  the  latter  part  of  October  till  the  beginning 


392 


UNGULATES. 


of  December.  The  fawns,  which  are  nearly  always  two  in  number,  are  mostly  born 
in  May.  They  retain  their  white  spots  till  September,  when  both  young  and  old 
assume  their  winter  dress.  The  fawns  are  easily  tamed,  if  captured  sufficiently 
young.  In  bucks  of  the  first  year  the  antlers  form  unbranched  spikes,  while  in 
the  second  year  they  are  simply  forked,  without  any  branching  of  the  two  prongs, 
although  the  sub-basal  snag  makes  its  appearance  at  the  same  time. 


VIRGINIAN  DEER  SWIMMING. 


Hunting. 


The  most  legitimate  mode  of  hunting  the  Virginian  deer  is  by 
stalking,  but  in  the  south  they  are  frequently  pursued  by  hounds, 
followed  by  mounted  hunters  armed  with  rifles.  In  other  cases  hounds  are  em- 
ployed to  drive  the  deer  to  water  or  down  the  paths  in  the  woods,  where  the 
sportsmen  lie  in  wait.  In  summer,  when  deer  are  abundant,  many  are  killed  by 
what  is  termed  "jacking";  that  is  to  say,  a  lantern  or  some  other  light  is  carried, 
upon  seeing  which  the  deer  becomes  dazzled,  and,  while  standing  to  gaze,  offers  a 
ready  shot.  Finally,  "breasting"  is  employed,  according  to  Mr.  G.  B.  Grinnell, 
"  where  the  deer  make  their  home  among  very  high  grass,  such  as  is  to  be  found 
on  some  of  the  prairies  of  the  south-west  or  in  the  great  beds  of  the  dry  lakes  of 
Northern  and  Western  Nebraska.  Here  the  thick  cane-grass  stands  seven  or  eight 


DEER. 


393 


Naked-Eared 
Deer. 


Mule-Deer. 


feet  high,  and  the  head  of  a  mounted  man  is  only  just  visible  above  the  tops. 
Several  huntsmen  armed  with  shot-guns  form  a  line  on  the  leeward  side  of  the 
space  to  be  hunted  over,  and  ride  through  it,  a  little  more  than  a  gun-shot  apart. 
The  deer  that  lie  in  their  course  are  started  from  the  grass,  and  bound  off  ahead  of 
the  hunters,  every  now  and  then  showing  their  backs  above  the  tops  of  the  grass. 
The  horsemen  have  to  shoot  from  the  saddle,  and  very  quickly,  to  secure  their 
game."  Sometimes  these  deer  are  shot  from  canoes  as  they  swim  from  island 
to  island. 

The  naked-eared  deer  (C.  gymnotis)  from  Colombia  and  Ecuador 

appears  to  be  a  distinct  species,  distinguished  from  the  Virginian  deer 
by  the  large  flapping  ears,  of  which  the  outer  surface  is  naked,  by  the  extreme 
narrowness  of  the  head,  and  the  more  slender  form. 

The  most  specialised  of  all  the  American  deer  as  regards  size  and 

complexity  of  antlers  is  the  mule-deer  (C.  macrotis),  so  called  on 
account  of  the  enormous  size  of  its  ears.  In  this  deer  the  antlers  (as  shown  in  a 
front  view  in  the  accompanying 
figure,  and  in  profile  in  the  figure 
on  p.  385),  when  compared  with 
those  of  the  Virginian  deer,  have 
recovered  the  relative  importance 
of  the  posterior  prong,  concomit- 
antly  with  a  proportionate  re- 
duction of  the  subbasal  snag,  and 
are  therefore  much  more  regularly 
forked  "At  the  same  time," 
writes  Mr.  A.  G.  Cameron,  "the 
main  strength  of  the  beam  is 
drawn  into  the  anterior  prong, 
and  intermediate  forms  occur  both 
in  this  and  the  last-named  species, 
which  bridge  the  gap  between  the 
extremes  on  either  side,  and  leave 
no  doubt  as  to  their  intimate 
relationship."  In  general  the 
front  prong  is  simply  forked, 
while  the  second  divides  into  three 
or  more  snags  in  adult  bucks ;  but 


HEAD   OF  MULE-DEER. 


instances  occur  where  the  hinder 
prong   is   unbranched,   while    in 

some  individuals  of  the  Virginian  deer  the  same  prong  is  divided.  The  antlers 
of  the  second  year  are  simply  forked,  in  the  third  year  the  hinder  prong  is  also 
forked ;  but  the  forking  of  the  front  prong  and  the  development  of  the  subbasal 
snag  does  not  take  place  till  the  assumption  of  the  fourth  set  of  antlers.  In  the  left 
antler  represented  in  the  figure  on  p.  385,  which  is  from  a  head  in  the  collection 
of  Mr.  A.  G.  Cameron,  the  length  of  the  upper  prong  is  28,  and  that  of  the  lower 
prong  29  inches  along  the  curve,  the  basal  girth  being  5f  inches;  but  in  the 


394  UNGULATES. 

opposite  one  the  upper  prong  measures  29  and  the  lower  27  inches.  The  extreme 
span  of  these  antlers  is  32  inches.  In  another  head  in  the  same  collection  the 
total  length  of  the  antlers  is  32  inches,  with  an  extreme  span  of  37  inches.  The 
right  antler  of  this  head  has  an  additional  tine  depending  from  just  below  the 
main  fork — an  aberration  not  unfrequently  found  in  the  Virginian  deer,  where  it 
may  occur  on  both  sides. 

In  height  the  mule-deer  is  fully  equal  to  the  Virginian  deer,  but  it  is  a  more 
stoutly  built  and  much  less  graceful  animal,  with  proportionately  shorter  limbs, 
while  the  ears  are  nearly  double  the  dimensions  of  those  of  the  latter.  The  tail  is 
short,  and  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other  deer,  being  cylindrical,  naked  below,  and 
covered  above  with  short  white  hairs,  terminating  in  a  long  brush  of  black  ones. 
In  summer  the  coat  of  the  mule-deer  is  very  thin  and  sparse,  and  generally  of  a 
reddish  colour,  with  a  large  white  patch  on  the  buttocks ;  but  in  winter  the  general 
colour  is  steel-grey,  the  individual  hairs  being  tipped  with  black.  There  is  much 
more  white  on  the  face  than  in  the  Virginian  deer.  In  a  variety  from  California 
the  colour  of  the  pelage  is  more  decidedly  red,  and  there  is  a  black  line  running 
along  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail. 

Mr.  Grinnell  states  that  the  mule-deer  "  is  found  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  Missouri  River  district,  and  thence  westward  on 
the  plains,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  an  inhabitant 
of  rough,  broken  country,  and  on  the  plains  is  usually  only  to  be  found  about  high 
buttes,  in  the  bad-lands,  or  where  the  country  is  diversified  with  rocky  ridges, 
dotted  here  and  there  with  scattered  pines  or  junipers.  Its  favourite  resorts  are 
the  coulees,  gulches,  and  canons  which  so  often  break  up  the  high  table-lands  of 
the  central  plateau  of  the  continent ;  but  it  is  as  often  to  be  found  among  the  green 
valleys  high  up  on  the  mountain-sides,  or,  in  summer,  among  the  low  trees  that 
grow  just  below  the  snow-line.  It  is  to  such  localities  as  the  last-named  that  the 
bucks  resort  during  the  summer  when  they  are  growing  their  antlers,  and  when 
their  thin  coat  of  hair  affords  them  little  or  no  protection  against  the  flies." 

It  appears  that  the  habitat  of  this  deer  has  not  been  very  much  restricted  by 
advancing  civilisation,  as  it  is  much  less  alarmed  by  the  invasion  of  its  haunts 
than  is  the  wapiti.  Instead  of  running  in  the  even  manner  of  the  Virginian  deer, 
mule-deer  progress  by  a  series  of  bounds,  all  their  feet  leaving  the  ground  simul- 
taneously. For  a  short  distance  their  pace  is  rapid,  but  it  soon  slackens.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  Virginian  deer,  the  number  of  fawns  produced  at  a  birth  is  nearly 
always  two.  These  are  born  at  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  and  retain 
their  spots  till  September.  The  pairing-season  is  in  September  and  October. 

By  the  hunters  in  Colorado  this  deer  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  black-tail, 
although  that  name  properly  belongs  to  C.  columbianus. 

Black-Tailed  The  Columbian  black-tailed  deer  (C.  columbianus)  is  a  species 

with  a  very  restricted  distribution,  being  apparently  confined  to  the 
mountain-ranges  bordering  the  Pacific  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Columbia  River, 
and  unknown  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  This  deer  is  rather  smaller 
than  the  mule-deer,  with  relatively  smaller  ears,  but  nearly  similar  antlers.  The 
comparatively  short  cylindrical  tail  is  black  throughout,  except  for  a  short  strip  of 
about  one-fourth  the  circumference  running  along  the  under  surface.  The  general 


DEER.  395 

colour  of  the  pelage  in  winter  is  tawny  grey,  with  white  on  the  under-parts  and 
throat,  and  the  face  is  grey,  with  a  darker  forehead,  the  legs  being  dark  cinnamon 
colour.  In  summer  the  colour  changes  to  bay. 

In  habits  and  gait  this  deer  closely  resembles  the  mule-deer,  but 
it  is  said  to  occasionally  produce  as  many  as  three  fawns  at  a  birth. 
Mr.  Grinnell  states  that  the  black-tail  is  chiefly  found  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  the 
coniferous  forests  of  the  Pacific  ranges,  and  seldom  wanders  far  away  from  the 
protection  of  the  woods.  Where  they  have  been  but  little  molested,  these  deer 
frequently  come  down  to  the  shore  to  feed  upon  a  particular  kind  of  seaweed,  and 
during  such  visits  many  are  killed  by  the  Indians,  who  paddle  stealthily  along  the 
shore  in  their  canoes. 

THE  PUDU  DEER. 
Genus  Pudua. 

The  tiny  little  deer  from  the  Chilian  Andes,  known  as  the  pudu  (Pudua 
humilis),  although  allied  to  the  brockets,  is  so  distinct  from  all  others  as  to 
necessitate  its  reference  to  a  separate  genus. 
This  deer,  which  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  hare, 
has  a  rounded  head,  with  rather  large  ears, 
between  which  in  the  males  are  a  pair  of 
minute  spike-like  antlers,  placed  comparatively 
near  together.  The  fur  is  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour,  becoming  paler  on  the  under-parts.  There 
are  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  skull 
differs  from  those  of  all  the  other  American 
deer  except  the  guemals  in  that  the  premaxillary 
bones,  which  form  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle, 
extend  upwards  to  join  the  nasal  bones  covering 
the  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  ankle-joint  ex- 

*  .  .   .  HEAD  OF  THE  PUDU  DREE.     (From  Sclater, 

hibits  certain  peculiarities  of  structure  unknown  proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1866.) 

in  any  other  species. 

THE  MUSK-DEER. 

Genus  Moschus. 

The  musk-deer  (Moschus  moschiferus)  of  the  Himalaya  differs  so  remarkably 
in  several  important  points  from  all  other  deer  that  it  must  certainly  be  regarded 
as  forming  a  subfamily  by  itself,  while  some  authorities  consider  it  entitled  to 
rank  as  the  representative  of  a  distinct  family.  These  peculiarities  are  chiefly 
internal.  Among  the  most  important  is  the  presence  of  a  gall-bladder  to  the  liver, 
as  in  the  Ox  family,  while  the  brain  is  much  less  convoluted  than  in  other  deer  The 
absence  of  antlers  in  both  sexes  cannot,  however,  be  taken  as  a  character  of  more 
than  generic  importance,  since  the  same  feature  occurs  in  the  Chinese  water-deer. 

The  musk-deer  is  a  somewhat  clumsily  built  animal,  standing  about  20  inches 


396 


UNGULATES. 


in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  clothed  with  peculiarly  coarse,  brittle,  and  rather 
long  hair,  somewhat  resembling  pith  in  structure.  In  addition  to  the  absence  of 
antlers,  the  skull  is  characterised  by  the  presence  of  tusks,  which  in  the  males  may 
be  as  much  as  3  inches  in  length,  and  project  considerably  below  the  mouth. 


All  the  limbs  are  of  considerable  length,  and  the  hinder  pair  are  longer  than  the 
front  ones ;  the  hoofs  are  narrow  and  pointed,  and  the  lateral  pair  unusually  large. 
The  ears  are  very  large  and  the  tail  is  short,  terminating  in  the  male  in  a  tuft,  but 


MALE  AND  FEMALE   MUSK   DEER  (-fa    nat.  size). 

hairy  throughout  in  the  female.  The  male  has  a  peculiar  sac-like  gland  in  the 
skin  of  the  abdomen,  which  yields  the  musk  of  commerce.  The  general  colour  of 
the  fur  is  a  rich  dark  brown,  more  or  less  speckled  and  mottled  with  grey  and 
tawny ;  the  individual  hairs  having  black  tips,  beneath  which  is  a  ring  of  white, 
while  for  three-quarters  of  their  length  they  are  white  at  the  base.  The  chin,  the 
inner  borders  of  the  ears  and  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  not  unfrequently  a  spot 
on  each  side  of  the  throat,  are  whitish,  while  the  under- parts  and  the  inner  surfaces 
of  the  limbs  are  paler  than  the  body.  Some  individuals  are,  however,  considerably 
paler  than  ordinary,  while  in  others  there  is  a  more  or  less  marked  yellowish  tint ; 
and  others,  again,  are  blacker.  The  young  are  spotted. 

Distribution.  ^e  musk-deer  is  found  throughout  the  Himalaya  as  far  west  as 

Gilgit,  and  thence  extends  through  Central  Asia  into  Siberia.     In 


DEER.  397 

Kansu,  on  the  north-west  of  China,  it  is  replaced  by  a  nearly  allied  species 
(M.  sifanicus).  In  the  Himalaya  it  is  seldom  found  below  elevations  of  eight 
thousand  feet  in  summer,  and  in  Sikhim  it  occurs  above  twelve  thousand  feet. 

„  ^.x  Musk-deer  are  found  either  in  pairs  or  alone,  and  in  the  Kashmir 

Habits. 

Himalaya  are  generally  met  with  in  the  birch-forests  above  the  zone 
of  pines.  Sometimes,  however,  they  may  be  seen  at  lower  levels  among  thick 
cover.  In  habits  they  have  been  compared  by  General  Kinloch  to  hares,  and,  like 
these  animals,  they  make  a  "  form,"  in  which  they  lie  concealed  during  the  day, 
their  feeding-time  being  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Musk-deer  seem  capable  of 
enduring  almost  any  degree  of  cold,  against  which  the  peculiar  nature  of  their 
thick  fur  is  doubtless  a  sufficient  protection.  In  early  spring  they  may  be  seen 
among  the  steep  birch-forests  around  Kashmir,  when  the  ground  is  deeply  buried 
in  snow,  making  their  way  from  tree  to  tree  in  search  of  the  young  twigs  and  buds 
upon  which  they  then  chiefly  subsist.  On  such  ground  they  are  very  active 
and  sure-footed,  their  large  lateral  hoofs  being  apparently  adapted  to  aid  them 
in  obtaining  a  foothold  on  hard  snow-slopes  and  smooth  slippery  rocks. 

General  Kinloch  states  that  musk-deer  utter  a  kind  of  hiss  when  alarmed, 
and  it  is  ascertained  that  when  captured  they  give  vent  to  a  series  of  screams ;  with 
these  exceptions  they  appear  to  be  silent,  even  in  the  pairing -season.  From 
observations  on  some  musk-deer  kept  in  captivity  in  Nipal,  it  appears  that  the 
sexes  come  together  in  January,  and  that  the  fawns  are  born  in  June.  Usually 
there  is  but  a  single  young  one  at  a  birth,  but  occasionally  two  are  produced. 

The  musk,  which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  found  in  the  male 

alone,  when  fresh  is  soft  and  moist,  of  a  brownish  colour,  and  with  a 
rather  unpleasant  smell.  It  soon,  however,  hardens  and  dries,  and  at  the  same 
time  acquires  the  all-powerful  scent  of  musk.  When  removed  from  the  dead 
animal,  the  secretion  is  tied  up  in  a  portion  of  the  hairy  skin  covering  the  gland, 
and  is  then  known  as  a  "  musk-pod."  Each  pod  will  contain  on  an  average  about 
an  ounce  of  musk,  and  in  India  will  fetch  some  sixteen  rupees  in  the  market. 

English  sportsmen  hunt  musk-deer  either  by  walking  through 

the  forests  they  frequent,  and  carefully  examining  every  ravine  and 
hollow,  or  by  having  the  jungles  driven  by  natives.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
natives  themselves  capture  these  little  deer  in  a  wholesale  manner,  which  is  de- 
scribed as  follows  by  General  Macintyre.  "  A  low  fence  is  made  of  boughs,  etc., 
along  the  ridge  of  a  hill,  sometimes  a  mile  or  more  in  length.  At  intervals  of 
100  or  150  yards  are  gaps.  The  musk-deer,  crossing  the  ridge  from  one  valley 
to  another,  come  across  this  fence,  and,  to  save  themselves  the  trouble  of  jumping 
over  it,  walk  alongside  until,  seeing  a  little  gap,  they  try  to  go  through  it.  But 
in  each  gap  a  noose  of  strong  string  is  placed  on  the  ground  and  tied  to  a  stout 
sapling  bent  downwards.  The  noose  is  so  arranged  that,  when  the  deer  tread 
inside  it,  the  sapling  is  loosed  and  flies  back,  leaving  the  noose  tied  tightly  round 
the  animal's  leg.  The  people  visit  these  fences  every  two  or  three  days,  and  secure 
the  deer  thus  caught,  and  repair  the  fences  and  nooses,  which  are  often  carried 
away  or  destroyed  by  larger  game."  In  spite  of  the  constant  persecution  to  which 
they  are  subject,  musk-deer  are  still  fairly  common  in  many  parts  of  the  Himalaya, 
where  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  kastura. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

UNGULATES, — continued. 

CHEVROTAINS  AND  CAMELS. 
Families  TRAGULIDJE  AND  CAMELID^E. 

WITH  the  Deer  family  we  took  leave  of  the  last  of  the  two  Kuminants — the  Pecora 
of  the  scientific  zoologist — and  we  now  come  to -two  smaller  groups  of  Ungulates, 
which,  although  Ruminants  in  the  general  sense  of  that  term,  yet  differ  so  widely 
from  the  Pecora,  and  also  from  one  another,  that  they  are  each  regarded  as  consti- 
tuting sections  of  equal  value  with  the  latter.  These  two  groups  are,  firstly,  the 
small  deer-like  animals  commonly  known  as  chevrotains,  and,  secondly,  the  camels ; 
the  latter  term  including  not  only  the  true  camels  of  the  Old  World,  but  likewise 
the  South  American  llamas. 

Both  these  groups  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  having  crescent-like 
(selenodont)  molar  teeth;  but  whereas  the  chevrotains  are  probably  descended 
from  the  same  ancestral  stock  as  that  which  gave  rise  to  the  deer,  it  appears  that 
the  camels  have  originated  from  a  totally  different  stock,  and  have  thus  acquired 
their  crescent-like  teeth  quite  independently  of  the  true  Ruminants.  In  addition 
to  forming  two  distinct  families,  these  two  groups  have  also  received  names  of  a 
superior  grade,  thus  bringing  them  on  to  a  platform  equivalent  to  that  occupied  by 
the  Pecora.  For  the  chevrotains  the  term  Tragulina  is  adopted,  while  that  of 
Tylopoda  is  taken  for  the  camels. 

THE  CHEVROTAINS. 
Family  Tragulidce. 

The  elegant  little  creatures  known  as  chevrotains,  or  mouse-deer,  are  so  like 
small  antlerless  deer  in  general  outward  appearance,  that  they  are  commonly 
regarded  as  nearly  allied  to  the  musk-deer;  near  which  they  were  indeed  long 
placed  by  zoologists.  In  zoology,  as  in  many  other  things,  outward  appearance  is, 
however,  very  often  deceptive ;  and  when  the  chevrotains  are  examined  anatom- 
ically they  are  found  to  depart  very  widely  from  the  deer  family. 

Chevrotains  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  the  absence  of  any  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw ;  and  they  resemble  the  musk-deer  in  the  presence  of  upper  tusks, 
or  canine  teeth,  which  in  the  males  attain  a  considerable  length,  and  project  below 
the  mouth.  They  likewise  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  that  the  canine  teeth 
of  the  lower  jaw  resemble  the  incisors,  to  the  outermost  pair  of  which  they  are 


CHEVROTAINS. 


399 


approximated  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  series.  When  we  have  added  that  the 
three  molar  teeth  and  the  last  premolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw,  together  with  the 
lower  molars,  are  of  a  crescent-like  type,  the  resemblances  to  the  true  Ruminants 
cease.  In  the  first  place,  the  three  premolar  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last  in  the  upper  jaw,  instead  of  being  crescent-like,  have  their  crowns  elongated 
and  narrow,  with  sharp  cutting  edges.  Then  the  second,  or  axis,  vertebra  of  the 
neck  has  a  simple  conical  peg  (odontoid  process) 
projecting  in  front,  by  which  it  articulates  with  the 
lirst,  or  atlas,  vertebra ;  whereas  in  all  the  true 
Ruminants  the  same  process  is  spout-like.  On  ex- 
amining the  limbs  in  the  skeleton  of  a  chevrotain, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  fibula,  or  smaller  bone  of  the 
lower  leg,  is  complete,  instead  of  being  represented 
only  by  its  lower  end.  Moreover,  each  foot  has  four 
complete  digits,  that  is  to  say,  the  metacarpal  and 
metatarsal  bones,  respectively  supporting  the  toes  of 
the  fore  and  hind-feet,  are  complete,  and  extend 
alongside  of  the  cannon-bone  from  the  basal  joints  of 
the  toes  to  the  wrist  and  ankle  joints;  whereas,  as 
we  have  seen,  in  the  true  Ruminants  these  bones  are 
represented  either  by  their  upper  or  lower  extremities  LEFT  FORE  -  FOOT  OF  THE  WATER- 
alone,  or  are  wanting.  Then,  again,  in  one  of  the  CHEVROTAIN  (A)  AND  INDIAN 

,      .  ,,  5     AU         «  V       V      «  CHEVROTAIN  (B). 

chevrotams   the    cannon-bone   or    the    tore -limb   is 

T-IJ-I-,  11  2  and  5  indicate  the  lateral  digits 

divided  into  its  two  component  metacarpal  elements;  and  3  and  4  the  middle  pair    (Frgom 
while  in  the   other  it  is  wider  and  less  completely  Dawkins.) 
soldered  than  in  the  true  Ruminants.     These  differ- 
ences will  be  apparent  by  comparing  the  figures  herewith  given,  with  the  one  on 
p.  213.     Finally,  instead  of  the  four  distinct  compartments  characteristic  of  the  true 
Ruminants,  the  stomach  of  the  chevrotains  has  but  three  such  chambers. 


THE  TRUE  CHEVROTAINS. 
Genus  Tragulus. 

The  chevrotains  are  divided  into  two  genera,  the  first  of  which  is  Asiatic  and 
the  second  African.  The  true  or  Asiatic  chevrotains  are  represented  by  five  species, 
of  which  the  range  extends  from  India  and  Ceylon  through  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago to  the  Philippines.  They  are  characterised  by  the  two  median  metacarpal 
bones  of  the  fore-limb  being  fused  into  a  cannon-bone  (B  of  the  figure),  and  also  the 
small  size  of  the  lateral  toes.  With  one  exception,  they  are  the  smallest  of  living 
Ungulates,  and  much  resemble  the  American  Rodents  known  as  agutis  in  general 
appearance  and  habits. 

Of  the  five  living  species  of  the  genus,  one  is  confined  to  India  and  Ceylon, 
while  the  others  are  found  in  the  regions  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
The  Indian  chevrotain  (Tragulus  meminna}  differs  from  all  the  others  in  having 
the  body  spotted  with  white,  and  the  whole  of  the  chin  and  throat  uniformly 


400 


UNGULATES. 


covered  with  hair.  It  is  of  medium  height,  standing  from  10  to  12  inches  at  the 
withers,  and  weighing  from  5  to  6  Ibs.  In  colour,  the  upper-parts  are  brown  of 
variable  shade,  minutely  speckled  with  yellow ;  while  the  flanks  are  spotted  with 
white  or  buff  on  a  brown  ground ;  the  spots  being  more  or  less  elongated,  and  often 
passing  into  short  longitudinal  stripes.  This  chevrotain  is  found  in  Southern 
India  and  Ceylon  at  elevations  below  two  thousand  feet,  extending  northwards  as 
far  as  Orissa  on  the  east  coast,  and  to  the  Western  Ghats  near  Bombay  on  the 
west.  The  other  four  species  have  the  upper-parts  of  the  body  uniformly  coloured, 
and  the  skin  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  completely  naked  and 
glandular.  Of  these  the  largest  species  is  the  larger  Malayan  chevrotain  (T.  napu), 
standing  13  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  characterised  by  its  dark  smoky- 


THE  SMALLER  MALAYAN  CHEVROTAIN  (i"z  nat.  size). 

grey  colour,  with  the  under-parts  greyish-white  without  any  rufous  or  fulvous 
edging.  This  species  occurs  in  South  Tenasserim,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the 
islands  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo. 

The  two  other  Malayan  species  are  rufous  either  over  the  whole  of  the  upper- 
parts  or  on  the  flanks  and  the  edges  of  the  white  area  of  the  under-parts. 
Stanley's  chevrotain  (T.  Stanley  anus),  from  some  of  the  Malayan  Islands,  is  inter- 
mediate in  size  between  the  preceding  and  following  species,  and  has  all  the  upper- 
parts  bright  rufous.  On  the  other  hand,  the  smaller  Malayan  chevrotain  (T. 
javanicus),  which  is  the  one  represented  in  our  illustration,  is  the  most  diminutive 
member  of  the  group,  and  is  greyish  above,  with  the  sides  brightening  to  rufous, 
and  a  dark  line,  which  may  be  nearly  black,  running  along  the  nape  of  the  neck. 
The  under-parts  are  whitish,  more  or  less  mixed  with  rufous,  but  there  is  generally 
(as  in  our  illustration)  a  broad  reddish  or  brown  stripe  running  up  the  front  of  the 
chest.  With  the  exception  of  the  royal  antelope  (p.  307),  this  chevrotain  is  the 


CHE  VROTAINS,  40 1 

smallest  of  all  living  Ungulates;  it  has  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution, 
being  found  in  Cambodia,  Cochin-China,  South  Tenasserim,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo.  The  last  species  is  the  Philippine  chevrotain  (T.  nigri- 
cans),  confined  to  the  islands  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  Remains  of  a  fossil 
chevrotain  have  been  discovered  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalaya. 

All  the  chevrotains  appear  to  be  very  similar  in  their  habits. 
Habits.  ™        11  •        •  •     • 

They  have  a  peculiar  way  or  walking  in  a  mincing  manner  on  the 

extreme  tips  of  their  hoofs,  which  communicates  a  stiff  and  rigid  appearance  to  the 
legs,  and  has  thus  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion  that  these  animals  have  no 
joints.  Chevrotains  lie  concealed  in  grass  or  jungle,  and  only  venture  out  to  feed 
in  the  evenings  and  mornings.  They  are  timid  and  shy,  but  in  confinement  soon 
become  tame  and  gentle,  and  have  been  known  to  breed.  Writing  of  the  Indian 
species,  Colonel  Tickell  observes  that  it  "  is  found  throughout  the  jungly  districts 
of  Central  India  (i.e.,  Chutia  Nagpur),  but  from  its  retired  habits  is  not  often  seen. 
It  never  ventures  into  open  country,  but  keeps  among  rocks,  in  the  crevices  of 
which  it  passes  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  into  which  it  retires  on  the  approach  of 
an  enemy.  In  these  the  female  brings  forth  her  young  (two  in  number),  generally 
at  the  close  of  the  rains  or  the  commencement  of  the  cold  season.  The  male  keeps 
with  the  female  during  the  rutting  season  (about  June  or  July),  but  at  other  times 
they  live  solitary."  The  smaller  Malayan  chevrotain,  which  is  very  common  in  the 
Peninsula,  inhabits  dense  thickets,  and  produces  either  one  or  two  fawns  at  a  birth. 

THE  WATER-CHEVROTAIN. 
Genus  Dorcatherium. 

The  water-chevrotain  (Dorcatherium  aquaticum)  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
is  the  only  surviving  representative  of  a  genus  which  appears  to  have  been  widely 
spread  in  the  Old  World  during  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  epochs  of  the  Tertiary 
period.  Indeed,  the  genus  was  originally  founded  upon  the  evidence  of  one  of  these 
extinct  species,  the  living  form  having  been  subsequently  described  under  the  name 
of  Hyomoschus,  and  it  is  only  recently  that  zoologists  have  generally  recognised 
the  generic  identity  of  the  recent  and  fossil  species. 

The  water-chevrotain  is  mainly  distinguished  from  the  true  chevrotains  of 
Asia  by  the  feet  being  shorter  and  stouter,  with  relatively  larger  lateral  toes,  and, 
above  all,  by  the  circumstance  that  the  two  middle  metacarpal  bones  remain  com- 
pletely separate,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  399.  The  living  species  is  slightly 
superior  in  size  to  the  largest  of  the  Asiatic  chevrotains,  and  resembles  the  Indian 
representative  of  the  latter  in  having  the  body  spotted  and  striped  with  white. 
The  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  a  rich  brown,  with  a  large  amount  of  white  on  the 
throat  and  chest,  as  well  as  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail ;  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  spotted,  while  the  flanks  are  marked  with  longitudinal  white  stripes,  which 
are  larger  and  more  continuous  than  those  of  the  Indian  chevrotain. 

As  is  the  case  with  so  many  West  African  animals,  we  have  but  scanty  in- 
formation as  to  the  habits  of  the  water-chevrotain  in  its  native  state.  It  is,  however, 

VOL.  ii. — 26 


402 


UNGULATES. 


generally  found  near  the  banks  of  river  and  lakes,  and  its  mode  of  life  is  said  to  be 
much  like  that  of  pigs. 

The  water-chevrotain  has  but  three  premolar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  but  in 
the  somewhat  larger  species  found  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  strata  of  Europe 
there  were  four  of  these  teeth.  The  species  occurring  in  the  Pliocene  of  the  Punjab 
was  of  still  larger  dimensions ;  and  affords  one  more  instance  of  the  intimate 
connection  existing  between  the  Tertiary  Mammalian  fauna  of  India  and  that  of 
Africa  at  the  present  day. 

In  its  separate  metacarpal  bones,  the  water-chevrotain  makes  a 
decided  approach  towards  the  pigs ;  and  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of 
Europe  and  North  America  there  occur  numerous  small  Ungulates,  which  appear 
to  have  connected  the  chevrotains  with  the  deer.  Such  is  Gelocus,  from  the  lower 
Miocene  of  France,  in  which  the  middle  metacarpal  bones  were  separate,  while  the 
metatarsals  were  fused  into  a  cannon-bone,  which  has  been  regarded  as  the  common 
ancestor  of  the  two  families.  Prodremotheriuin  of  the  upper  Eocene  of  France, 
has  cannon-bones  in  both  limbs ;  while  in  the  American  Hypertragulus  both  the 
metacarpals  and  metatarsals  were  separate. 


Extinct  Forms. 


THE  CAMELS  AND  LLAMAS. 
Family  Camelidce. 

The  camels  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  llamas  of  the  New,  form,  as  already 
stated,  a  group  of  ruminating  Ungulates  distinguished  widely  both  from  the  true 


SKELETON  OP  THE   ARABIAN  CAMEL. 


Ruminants  and  the  chevrotains,  and  which  probably  have  had  a  totally  distinct 
origin  from  more  primitive  even-toed  Ungulates. 


CAMELS  AND  LLAMAS. 


403 


THE      LEFT 
FOKE-FOOT   OF  THE 

CAMEL.       (From 
Dawkins.) 


An  important  point  of  distinction  is  that  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw  is  furnished 
with  incisor  teeth ;  it  is  true,  indeed,  that  in  the  adult  state  there  is  only  a  single 
pair  of  these  teeth  remaining,  but  in  young  animals  there  are,  as  in  pigs,  three 
pairs.  Then,  again,  both  jaws  are  furnished  with  tusks  or  canine  teeth ;  those  of 
the  lower  jaw  being  sharply  pointed,  and  separated  by  an  interval 
from  the  incisors,  instead  of  resembling  the  latter  and  forming 
with  them  a  continuous  series,  as  we  have  seen  to  be  the  case  in 
the  chevrotains  and  the  true  Ruminants.  The  molar  teeth  have 
tall  and  crescent-shaped  crowns,  which,  however,  are  not  precisely 
similar  to  those  of  the  group  last-named ;  and  one,  or  sometimes 
more,  of  the  premolar  teeth  generally  has  a  simple  pointed  crown, 
like  that  of  a  canine,  and  is  not  in  contact  with  the  other  teeth 
of  the  cheek-series.  These  isolated  premolar  teeth  are  seen  in 
the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  camel,  in  the  gap  between  the 
tusks  and  the  other  cheek-teeth. 

The  limbs  are  long,  and  the  thigh  is  placed  nearly  vertically, 
so  that  the  true  knee  is  more  detached  from  the  small  hind- 
quarters of  the  body  than  is  usually  the  case  in  Ungulate 
mammals.  The  lower  portion  of  the  legs  is  composed  of  a 
cannon-bone  supporting  two  toes,  without  any  trace  of  the  lateral 

BOr*ES     OK 

toes  or  their  metacarpal  bones.  The  cannon-bone  differs,  how- 
ever, from  that  of  the  true  Ruminants,  in  that  the  two  pulley-like 
surfaces  at  the  lower  end,  instead  of  being  placed  side  by  side 
and  furnished  with  a  distinct  ridge  in  the  middle  of  each,  are  divergent  and  perfectly 
smooth.  The  bones  of  the  first  joint  of  the  toes  are  also  longer  and  more  expanded 
at  their  lower  ends  than  in  the  true  Ruminants ;  the  second  pair  being  broad  and 
flattened,  while  the  third  form  mere  nodules,  quite  unlike  the  symmetrical  ones  of 
the  latter  group.  The  feet  form  broad  expanded  cushion- 
like  pads  (from  which  the  group  derives  its  title  of 
Tylopoda),  of  which  the  under  surface  is  undivided,  while 
the  front  shows  a  division  into  two  toes,  each, of  which 
bears  a  broad  nail  on  the  upper  surface.  The  ankle-joint 
differs  from  that  of  the  true  Ruminants  in  that  the  two 
bones  lying  immediately  below  the  astragalus,  remain 
distinct,  whereas  in  the  former  they  unite  into  a  compound 
bone,  termed  the  naviculo-cuboid.  A  further  distinction  is 
to  be  found  in  the  divided  upper  lip,  like  that  of  a  hare ; 
while  the  elongated  neck  is  characterised  by  the  great 
length  of  its  component  vertebrae.  These  vertebrae  ex- 
hibit certain  peculiarities  of  structure  into  the  considera- 
tion of  which  we  need  not  enter  here;  but  it  must  be 
observed  that  they  resemble  those  of  the  true  Ruminants 

in  that  the  process  in  front  of  the  second  vertebra,  by  which  it  articulates  with 
the  first,  is  spout-shaped.  Here,  then,  we  have  another  instance  of  a  similar 
structure  being  independently  acquired  in  two  distinct  groups.  The  head  is  carried 
high  in  the  air,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  nearly  vertical ;  and  is  unprovided 


WATER-CELLS   IN   STOMACH   OF 
CAMEL. 


404  UNGULATES 

with  either  horns  or  antlers.  The  stomach  has  but  three  compartments ;  the  first 
two  of  these  being  provided  with  a  number  of  cells  or  pouches  which  can  be  closed 
by  the  action  of  muscles,  and  these  contain  only  fluid.  The  bones  of  all  the 
members  of  the  family  are  remarkable  for  their  extremely  solid  and  ivory-like 
structure. 

The  camel  family,  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  is  more  valuable  to  mankind 
than  any  other  group  of  even-toed  Ungulates,  only  one  species  being  unknown  in 
the  domesticated  condition,  while  two  are  now  found  exclusively  in  that  state. 
The  Old  and  New  World  representatives  constitute  two  distinct  genera,  the  former 
of  which  we  take  first. 


THE  CAMELS. 
Genus  Camelus. 

The  camels  of  the  Old  World,  of  which  there  are  two  distinct  species,  are 
characterised  by  their  great  bodily  size  and  bulk,  and  the  presence  of  one  or  two 
large  fatty  humps  on  the  back,  as  well  as  by  having  six  upper  and  five  lower 
cheek-teeth  on  each  side  of  the  jaws,  the  total  number  of  teeth  being  thirty-four. 
Their  ears  are  comparatively  short  and  rounded ;  and  the  hair  is  very  irregularly 
disposed,  being  in  some  places  very  long  and  shaggy,  and  in  others  short  and  close, 
although  never  partaking  of  the  nature  of  true  wool.  The  feet  are  broad,  with  the 
toes  very  imperfectly  separated ;  and  the  tail  is  comparatively  long,  reaching  nearly 
to  the  hocks,  and  furnished  near  the  end  with  long  hair  forming  a  terminal  tuft. 
Callous  pads,  on  which  the  animal  rests  when  lying  down,  and  which  are  present 
at  birth,  are  found  on  the  chest,  the  elbows,  the  wrists  (commonly  called  the  knees), 
and  the  knees.  Needless  to  say,  the  whole  form  of  these  animals  is  far  from 
beautiful,  while  the  head  is  ugly  in  the  extreme ;  and  this  want  of  bodily  beauty 
is  accompanied  by  a  viciousness  of  temper  and  general  stupidity  of  disposition 
which  can  scarcely  be  paralleled  elsewhere  among  domesticated  animals. 

The  two  species  of  camel  are  both  now  unknown  in  the  wild  condition, 
although  in  some  localities  there  are  half -wild  herds  of  which  the  parents 
have  escaped  from  captivity.  There  is  also  a  half-breed  between  the  two  species, 
which  is  said  by  the  tribes  among  which  it  is  bred  to  display  better  qualities  than 
either  of  the  parent  stocks. 

The  first  of  these   two   species  is  the  true  or  Arabian  camel 
Arabian  Camel.    .  „  .  * 

(Camelus  dromedamus),  which  is  found  both  in  Africa  and  Asia,  and 
is  characterised  by  its  single  hump.  It  is  a  long-limbed  animal,  with  a  compara- 
tively short  coat  of  hair,  and  soft  feet,  adapted  for  walking  on  yielding  sandy  soil, 
and  standing  from  about  6  feet  8  inches  to  7  feet  in  height.  The  head  is  compara- 
tively short,  with  a  long  and  sloping  muzzle,  and  convex  forehead ;  the  eyes  are 
large,  with  a  soft  expression ;  and  the  small  rounded  ears  are  placed  far  back  on 
the  sides  of  the  head.  The  upper  lip  overhangs  the  lower;  and  the  large  slit- 
like  nostrils  can  be  closed  at  will.  The  long  neck  is  laterally  compressed,  and 
thickest  in  the  middle ;  and  the  body  is  massive  and  rounded.  The  contour  of  the 
back  rises  from  the  setting  on  of  the  neck  to  the  loins,  and  then  falls  rapidly  away 


ARABIAN    CAMEL. 


CAMELS  AND  LLAMAS.  407 

to  the  tail.  The  hump,  when  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  stands  upright,  but  it 
alters  considerably  in  shape  according  to  age.  The  richer  the  food  of  the  camel, 
the  larger  is  its  hump ;  while,  when  the  food  is  poor  and  dry,  the  hump  decreases 
in  size ;  and  accordingly  in  the  rainy  season  this  appendage  attains  its  maximum 
development,  while  in  the  dry  months  it  proportionately  shrinks.  In  high-con- 
ditioned animals,  the  hump  should  form  a  regular  pyramid,  and  occupy  at  least  a 
quarter  of  the  whole  length,  but  when  the  animals  are  half-starved  it  almost  dis- 
appears. The  hair  is  soft,  and  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  the  neck  and  throat, 
the  shoulders,  the  hump,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  fore-legs,  is  longer  than  else- 
where. The  colour  of  the  hair  is  very  variable,  although  a  light  sandy  is  the 
most  common  hue ;  there  are,  however,  white,  grey,  brown,  and  even  totally  black 
camels ;  but  those  of  the  last-named  colour  are  held  by  the  Arabs  to  be  worthless. 

There   are  numerous  breeds  of  camels   differing   more   or  less 
Various  Breeds. 

from  another,  and  the  Arabs  recognise  no  less  than  twenty  distinct 

strains.  Roughly  speaking,  they  may,  however,  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
namely,  baggage-camels  and  riding-camels,  or  dromedaries ;  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
observes  that  there  "  is  the  same  difference  between  a  good  hygin,  or  dromedary, 
and  a  baggage-camel,  as  between  the  thoroughbred  and  the  cart-horse;  and  it 
appears  absurd  in  the  eyes  of  the  Arabs  that  a  man  of  any  position  should  ride  a 
baggage-camel.  Apart  from  all  ideas  of  etiquette,  the  motion  of  the  latter  animal 
is  quite  sufficient  warning.  Of  all  species  of  fatigue,  the  back-breaking  monotonous 
swing  of  a  heavy  camel  is  the  worst."  The  peculiarly  unpleasant  motion  of  even 
the  best  camels  is  due  to  the  circumstance  that  the  two  legs  of  one  side  are  moved 
simultaneously.  The  ordinary  pace  of  a  baggage-camel  is  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  miles  an  hour  when  fully  loaded,  but  a  good  dromedary  will  keep  up  a  pace 
of  from  eight  to  ten  miles  an  hour  for  a  long  period. 

„  ,_...  ^  Arabian  camels  are  now  found  in  the  domesticated  condition  in 

Habitat. 

all  parts  of  Africa,  lying  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  12th 
parallel  of  north  latitude,  while  in  Somaliland  they  extend  as  far  south  as  the  5th 
parallel.  They  are  also  widely  distributed  in  South-Eastern  Asia,  ranging  from  the 
lowlands  of  Afghanistan  and  Bokhara,  where  they  impinge  on  the  habitat  of  the 
two-humped  Bactrian  camel,  through  North- Western  India,  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Arabia.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Khorasan,  there  is  a  race  of  half-breeds 
between  the  Arabian  and  the  Bactrian  camel ;  this  breed  being  known  in  the  last- 
named  country  as  the  Boghdi  camel.  According  to  Elphinstone,  it  has  the  two 
humps  of  the  Bactrian  species,  but  the  long  limbs  of  the  Arabian ;  and  it  appears 
to  be  generally  a  product  of  crossing  a  male  of  the  former  with  a  female  of  the 
latter.  Arabian  camels  have  also  been  introduced  into  the  Canaries,  Australia, 
North  America,  Italy,  the  south  of  Spain,  and  Zanzibar. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  what  country  was  the  original  home  of 
the  Arabian  camel ;  but  it  has  been  considered  that  Arabia  has  the  best  title  to 
this  honour.  This  conclusion  appears  to  rest  partly  on  the  statements  of  Diodorus 
Siculus  and  Strabo  that  wild  camels  existed  in  Arabia  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era,  and  partly  on  the  circumstance  that  no  representations  of  camels 
occur  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  frescoes.  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  the  state- 
ments referred  to,  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  absence  of  pictures  of 


4o8  UNGULATES. 

these  animals  from  the  frescoes  of  Egypt  does  not  support  the  conclusion  that 
they  were  introduced  at  a  comparatively  late  date  into  that  country.  For  there  is 
evidence  furnished  by  a  papyrus  of  the  14th  century  B.C.  that  camels  were  at 
that  early  period  well  known  in  Egypt.  Possibly  there  were  some  superstitious 
or  other  reasons  which  led  to  the  exclusion  of  their  portraits  from  the  frescoes. 

A  certain  amount  of  light  is  thrown  on  the  question  by  the  occurrence  of 
fossilised  remains  of  extinct  camels  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  and  also  in  beds  belonging  to  the  succeeding  Pleistocene 
period  in  Algeria.  And  knowing,  as  we  do,  that  so  many  of  the  African  genera  of 
Mammals  have  taken  origin  in  India,  from  whence  they  have  migrated  to  their 
present  home,  it  would  seem  highly  likely  that  the  same  may  have  been  the  case 
with  the  camels.  The  Arabian  camel,  or  its  immediate  parent,  may,  therefore, 
have  sprung  from  an  Indian  ancestor,  and  thence  made  its  way  through  Arabia 
and  Syria  into  Northern  Africa. 

The  Arabian  camel  is  essentially  an  animal  fitted  to  exist  only  in  dry  or  desert 
districts,  and  consequently  all  attempts  to  introduce  it  into  the  moist  and  wooded 
regions  of  Southern  India  and  Equatorial  Africa  have  signally  failed.  Where, 
however,  the  climate  is  at  all  favourable,  its  introduction  into  new  regions  has 
generally  been  attended  with  success.  Camels  are  reported  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Italy  in  the  year  1622,  and  again  in  1738.  On  a  flat  plain  near  Pisa  the  number 
in  1810  was  forty,  and  in  1840  forty-one,  while  later  it  had  increased  to  upwards  of 
two  hundred.  Their  attempted  introduction  into  Sicily,  as  beasts  of  burden  in  the 
sulphur  mines,  was,  on  account  of  the  climate,  a  failure ;  but  in  Spain  they  appear 
to  have  thriven. 

In  the  year  1856  a  drove  of  seventy-five  camels  was  procured  from  Smyrna 
by  the  United  States  Government,  and  distributed  over  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico.  During  the  war  of  secession,  the  whole  of  these  animals  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Confederates,  and  were  used  for  carrying  the  mails,  some  of  them 
making  journeys  of  upwards  of  120  miles  in  a  day.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war 
the  remnant  of  these  once  more  came  under  the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
and  others  were  purchased  in  1866.  These  were  distributed  through  Arizona  and 
Texas  for  breeding  purposes ;  but  many  died,  and  the  experiment  proved  unsatis- 
factory. Consequently,  those  that  survived  were  turned  adrift  to  shift  for  them- 
selves ;  and  it  appears  that  some  still  remain  in  the  wilder  districts  of  California 
and  Arizona,  and  wander  over  a  considerable  area  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
In  Australia,  the  introduction  of  camels  has  been  a  greater  success,  and  they  have 
proved  invaluable  in  the  expeditions  which  have  been  undertaken  to  explore  the 
deserts  of  the  interior. 

The  food  of  the  camel  in  its  natural  state  probably  consisted 
Habits.  . 

entirely  of  branches  and  leaves  of  trees,  and  although  grain  is  now 

largely  given,  a  certain  amount  of  green -food  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
animal's  health.  No  matter  how  thorny  the  boughs  may  be,  they  are  quite 
acceptable  to  the  camel ;  and  it  is  perfectly  marvellous  how  the  animals  manage  to 
eat  such  food  without  injury  to  their  mouths.  On  such  a  diet,  or  even  on  dates, 
camels  will  do  well ;  but  when  compelled  to  work  for  days  with  little  or  no  food, 
they  soon  break  down,  as  was  disastrously  shown  in  the  expedition  to  Khartum. 


CAMELS. 


409 


For  a  few  days,  owing  to  the  peculiar  conformation  of  their  stomachs,  camels  can 
exist  comfortably  without  water,  but  their  endurance  in  this  respect  is  often  taxed 
sadly  beyond  its  natural  capability. 

Although  the  camel  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  and  useful  of  all  animals 
in  dry  and  desert  countries,  its  disposition  and  temper  are  decidedly  of  the  very 
worst  description.  In  addition  to  its  ordinary  surliness  and  want  of  attachment 
to  its  master,  the  male  camel  during  the  pairing-season  is  subject  to  almost  uncon- 
trollable outbreaks  of  rage;  and,  at  the  same  time,  owing  to  a  swelling  of  the 
uvula,  makes  a  loud  bubbling  noise  which  is  most  unpleasant  to  the  human 
occupants  of  the  camp.  An  instance  of  the  savage  disposition  of  camels  is 
afforded  by  the  habit  they  have,  when  passing  a  mounted  man  on  a  narrow  path, 
of  turning  their  heads  suddenly  round  and  endeavouring  to  inflict  a  bite  on  the 
rider's  arm  or  shoulder;  a  camel's  bite  being,  by  the  way,  exceptionally  severe. 
Writing  of  the  character  of  the  camel,  Dr.  Robinson  observes,  that  these  animals 
"  are  commonly  represented  as  patient,  but  if  so,  it  is  the  patience  of  stupidity. 
They  are  rather  exceedingly  impatient,  and  utter  loud  cries  of  indignation  when 
receiving  their  loads,  and  not  seldom  on  being  made  to  kneel  down.  They  are  also 
obstinate,  and  frequently  vicious ;  and  the  attempt  to  urge  them  forwards  is  often 
very  like  trying  to  drive  sheep  the  way  they  do  not  wish  to  go." 

So  again,  Palgrave  writes  that  the  camel  "  takes  no  heed  of  his  rider,  pays  no 
attention  whether  he  be  on  his  back  or  not,  walks  straight  on  when  once  set 
agoing,  merely  because  he  is  too  stupid  to  turn  aside,  and  then  should  some 
tempting  thorn  or  green  branch  allure  him  out  of  the  path,  continues  to  walk  on 
in  the  new  direction,  simply  because  he  is  too  dull  to  turn  back  into  the  right  road. 
In  a  word,  he  is  from  first  to  last  an  undomesticated  and  savage  animal,  rendered 
serviceable  by  stupidity  alone,  without  much  skill  on  his  master's  part,  or  any 
co-operation  of  his  own  save  that  of  an  extreme  passiveness." 

In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  beast  of  burden,  the  camel  is  also 
Uses 

esteemed  by  the  natives  of  many  countries  on  account  of  its  milk  and 

flesh,  while  its  hair  is  woven  into  ropes  and  cloth,  and  in  some  parts  of  India  its 
bones  are  used  in  lieu  of  ivory  for  inlaying  and  turning.  The  milk  is  extremely 
thick  and  rich,  but  is  unsuitable  for  use  with  tea  or  coffee,  as  it  then  immediately 
curdles.  From  remote  antiquity  camels  have  been  kept  in  enormous  herds  by 
Eastern  nations.  In  modern  times  the  Arabs  of  the  Sudan  possess  immense  herds, 
which  in  the  rainy  season  are  driven  northwards  in  thousands ;  and  in  some  parts 
of  North- Western  India  the  number  of  camels  kept  by  the  natives  must  be  very 
large.  When  the  young  camels  are  too  feeble  to  undergo  the  fatigues  of  a  day's 
march,  they  are  slung  in  nets  on  the  backs  or  by  the  sides  of  some  adult  members 
of  the  drove.  But  a  single  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  after  a  gestation  of  rather 
more  than  eleven  months;  and  the  calf  is  suckled  by  the  dam  for  at  least  a 
twelvemonth. 

In  the  Sudan  the  price  of  a  riding-camel  varies  from  about  £10  to  £15, 
while  a  good  baggage-camel  can  be  purchased  for  about  £4,  10s.  Young  or  weak 
camels  may  be  bought  for  as  little  as  80s. 

Aversion  to  Camels  have  a  great   aversion  to  crossing   even   the   smallest 

water.        stream,  and  swim  either  imperfectly,  or  not  at  all,  without  assistance ; 


4io 


UNGULATES. 


this  aversion  doubtless  indicating  that  the  original  home  of  the  animal  was  in 
desert  lands.  On  this  subject  Sir  Samuel  Baker  observes,  that  "  a  camel  either 
cannot  or  will  not  swim,  unless  it  is  supported  by  inflated  skins ;  thus  the  passage 
of  the  broad  river,  Atbara  (about  300  yards  wide),  is  an  affair  of  great  difficulty. 
Two  water-skins  are  inflated,  and  attached  to  the  camel  by  a  band  passed  like 
a  girth  beneath  the  belly.  Thus  arranged,  a  man  sits  upon  its  back,  while  one  or 
two  swim  by  the  side  as  guides.  The  current  of  the  Atbara  runs  at  a  rapid  rate ; 
and  the  camel  is  generally  carried  at  least  half  a  mile  down  the  river  before  it  can 
gain  the  opposite  bank." 

The  Bactrian   camel   (C.   bactrianus),  of   Central  Asia,  is  dis- 
tinguished  from  the  Arabian  species,  not  only  by  its  double  hump, 


THE   BACTRIAN   CAMEL  (A  Hat.  size). 

but  likewise  by  its  inferior  height,  stouter  and  more  clumsy  build,  shorter  legs, 
and  harder  and  shorter  feet,  as  well  as  by  the  greater  length  and  abundance  of  the 
hair.  This  animal  is,  indeed,  in  all  respects,  better  adapted  for  a  rocky  and  hilly 
country  than  its  southern  congener ;  its  shorter  and  stouter  limbs  rendering  it  far 
less  liable  to  accidents  in  traversing  precipitous  ascents.  The  largest  develop- 
ment of  hair  occurs  upon  the  top  of  the  head,  the  neck  and  shoulders,  the  upper 
part  of  the  fore-limbs,  and  the  humps. 


CAMELS.  411 

The  Bactrian  camel  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  desert-regions  of 
Central  Asia  lying  between  Afghanistan  and  Turkestan,  and  China 
and  Southern  Siberia.  In  the  regions  lying  to  the  eastward  of  Yarkand,  there 
occur  droves  of  these  camels  now  living  in  a  wild  condition,  which  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  are  descended  from  domesticated  individuals  escaped  from 
captivity.  According  to  Prejevalski,  these  wild  camels  differ  from  the  ordinary 
domestic  race  by  the  smaller  size  of  their  humps,  the  more  distinct  pads  on  their 
wrists  (front  knees),  and  certain  peculiarities  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull. 
Major  C.  S.  Cumberland  states  that  "  the  habitat  of  the  wild  camel  is  the  Gobi 
steppe,  from  Khotan  to  Lob  Nor.  Except  when  snow  lies  on  the  ground,  these 
animals  may  be  met  with  here  and  there  along  the  old  bed  of  the  Yarkand  and 
Tarim  Rivers,  which  they  frequent  for  the  pools  of  brackish  water  that  are  to  be 
found  here  and  there.  But  as  soon  as  the  snow  falls,  they  move  off  into  the  desert, 
as  if  then  independent  of  the  water-supply.  They  prefer  the  snow,  I  imagine,  as 
being  less  salt  than  the  water,  although  it  also  is  impregnated  to  a  certain  extent 
soon  after  it  falls.  The  camel  is  very  shy  in  its  habits,  and,  so  far  as  I  could 
ascertain,  has  never  been  caught  and  domesticated.  The  natives  told  me  that  no 
horse  in  the  country  could  catch  the  camels  in  the  deep  sand  of  the  region  they 
frequent.  .  .  .  They  vary  in  colour,  like  the  domestic  species,  from  dark  brown  to 
lightish  dun .  Their  origin  has  yet  to  be  traced.  I  take  it  that  they  have  sprung 
from  camels  which  escaped  when  the  district  known  as  Takla  Makun  was  buried 
in  a  great  sand-storm  some  two  centuries  ago.  Tradition  relates  that  no  human 
beings  survived,  but  it  is  likely  enough  that  some  of  the  camels  and  horses  did  so, 
and  that  this  was  the  origin  of  the  wild  camels  and  ponies  which  are  found  in  the 
district." 

The  Bactrian  camel  feeds  chiefly  upon  the  saline  and  bitter 
plants  of  the  steppes  which  are  rejected  by  almost  all  other  animals ; 
and  displays  a  curious  partiality  for  salt,  drinking  freely  at  the  brackish  water 
and  salt  lakes,  which  are  so  common  throughout  its  habitat.  Instead  of  confining 
itself  to  a  strictly  vegetable  diet,  the  Bactrian  camel,  according  to  the  reports  of 
Prejevalski,  will,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  readily  devour  almost  anything  that  it 
may  come  across,  including  felt-blankets,  bones  and  skins  of  animals,  flesh  and 
fish. 

The  pairing-season  occurs  during  February,  March,  and  April ; 
and  the  young  (of  which  but  one  is  produced  at  a  birth)  are  not  born 
till  thirteen  months  later,  so  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  considerably  longer 
than  in  the  Arabian  camel.  At  birth  the  young  are  so  helpless  when  the  animals 
are  kept  in  the  domesticated  state  that  they  have  to  be  attended  with  the  greatest 
care ;  but  they  very  soon  gain  strength,  and  in  about  a  week  are  able  to  eat.  They 
are  weaned  at  an  early  period  for  the  sake  of  the  milk  of  the  parents,  which  is 
largely  used  by  their  owners.  In  their  third  year  they  are  ridden  on  short 
journeys,  while  in  their  fifth  year  they  attain  their  full  stature  and  vigour ;  and 
with  good  management  they  are  said  to  be  serviceable  until  they  attain  the  age  of 
some  five-and-twenty  years.  In  Mongolia  and  on  the  Kirghiz  steppes  the  Bactrian 
camel  is  fully  as  important  to  the  nomad  inhabitants  as  is  its  southern  cousin  in 
Arabia. 


4I2 


UNGULATES. 

THE  LLAMAS. 
Genus 


Under  the  general  title  of  llamas  may  be  conveniently  included  all  the  exist- 
ing South  American  representatives  of  the  camel  family,  although  that  name 
properly  belongs  only  to  a  domesticated  variety  of  one  of  the  two  wild  species. 


A  DROVE  OF  VICUNIAS  (^  nat.  size). 


All  the  llamas  are  smaller  in  size  and  lighter  in  build  than  the  camels,  and  owing 
to  the  absence  of  any  hump  on  the  back  depart  less  widely  from  the  ordinary  type 
of  Ungulates.  Their  pointed  ears  are  relatively  much  longer  than  in  the  camels, 
while  their  thickly-haired  tails  are  reduced  to  little  more  than  a  stump.  The  feet, 
again,  are  narrower  and  more  pointed  than  in  their  Old  World  relatives,  and  have 


LLAMAS.  413 

their  toes  more  completely  separated,  each  toe  being  furnished  with  a  distinct  pad 
on  the  sole.  The  whole  of  the  body  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  long  hair 
partaking  of  a  woolly  nature ;  and  there  are  fewer  callosities  on  the  limbs  than  in 
the  camels.  As  characters  of  minor  import,  it  may  be  added  that  the  head  is  pro- 
portionately longer  than  in  the  latter,  and  has  a  tapering  and  sharply-pointed 
muzzle,  while  the  neck  is  relatively  thinner. 

The  skull  has  one  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  less  than  in  the  camels, 
the  missing  tooth  being  the  isolated  sharp-pointed  preinolar  which  is  found  in  the 
latter  in  the  middle  of  the  gap  between  the  tusk  and  the  main  series  of  cheek-teeth. 
Consequently  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  only  thirty-two  instead  of  thirty -four. 
The  premolar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  of  very  small  size,  not  unfrequently, 
however,  falls  out  in  the  adult,  and  thus  reduces  the  number  to  thirty. 

Llamas  at  the  present  day  are  entirely  confined  to  the  western  and 
southern  regions  of  South  America,  and  can  live  only  where  the  climate 
is  temperate.  Thus  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent  they  are  restricted  to  the 
higher  ranges  of  the  Andes  and  Cordilleras,  but  in  many  parts,  Patagonia  and 
Tierra-del-Fuego,  they  flourish  on  the  plains  at  the  sea-level.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Equator  they  are  generally  found  at  elevations  of  between  twelve 
thousand  and  sixteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  they  never  descend  lower 
than  between  six  thousand  and  seven  thousand  feet.  During  the  rainy  part  of  the 
year  the  wild  species  which  inhabit  the  mountains  ascend  to  the  limits  of  vegeta- 
tion, but  in  the  hot  season  they  descend  to  the  valleys  where  alone  sustenance  is  to 
be  found.  They  live  in  larger  or  smaller  parties,  and  sometimes  congregate  in 
herds  comprising  many  hundreds  of  individuals.  All  the  species  are  characterised 
by  their  very  objectionable  habit  of  spitting,  as  many  visitors  to  zoological  gardens 
well  know. 

There  are  two  wild  species  of  llama  now  existing,  respectively 
known  as  the  vicunia  and  the  guanaco,  and  likewise  two  domestic- 
ated races,  namely,  the  llama  and  the  alpaca.  For  a  long  period  much  uncertainty 
existed  as  to  the  relationship  of  these  domesticated  races  to  the  wild  species,  but 
the  researches  of  Mr.  O.  Thomas  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  both  the  former 
are  in  all  probability  derived  from  the  wild  guanaco,  with  which  they  agree 
in  the  proportionately  large  size  of  their  skulls,  and  the  presence  of  naked  patches 
on  the  hind-limbs. 

The  vicunia    (Lama  vicunia)    is  the  smaller  of  the  two  wild 

Vicuniti 

species,  and  is  of  a  uniform  light-brown  colour,  becoming  paler  on  the 
under-parts  and  limbs,  and  with  light  markings  on  the  face  and  jaws.  The  build 
of  the  animal  is  very  light  and  graceful ;  its  head  is  relatively  short,  and  it  has  no 
naked  callosities  on  the  hind-legs.  In  correlation  with  the  shortness  of  the  head, 
the  skull  is  of  proportionately  small  size.  This  species  has  a  somewhat  restricted 
range,  being  confined  to  the  mountains  in  the  district  between  Southern  Ecuador 
and  Central  Bolivia,  which  includes  the  whole  of  Peru. 

According  to  the  account  of  Tschudi,  during  the  wet  season  of  the 

year  the  vicunias  seek  the  highest  ridges  of  the  Cordillera,  where 
plant-life  is  but  sparse.  On  account  of  the  softness  of  their  feet,  they  prefer 
upland  meadows,  and  avoid  the  stony,  naked  peaks,  while  they  still  more  carefully 


4I4  UNGULATES. 

shun  glaciers  and  snow-fields.  In  the  hot  season,  on  the  other  hand,  they  descend 
into  the  higher  valleys.  The  reason  of  this  reversal  of  the  usual  plan  of  migration 
appears  to  be  that  in  the  Cordillera  the  vegetation  on  the  higher  ridges  is  completely 
withered  up  by  the  heat  of  the  dry  summer  season,  and  that  such  herbage  as 
remains  is  only  to  be  found  in  the  valleys,  where  it  is  nourished  by  springs  or 
swamps.  Vicunias  feed  all  day,  and  it  is  seldom  that  a  flock  is  seen  lying  down. 
During  the  pairing-season  the  males  fight  with  great  fierceness  for  the  supremacy 
of  the  flocks,  each  of  which  comprises  one  male  accompanied  by  from  six  to  fifteen 
females.  The  male  always  remains  a  few  paces  behind  the  flock,  and  gives  notice 
of  any  approaching  danger  by  uttering  a  shrill  whistle,  at  the  same  time 
rapidly  advancing;  the  flock  then  collects,  and  takes  to  immediate  flight  in  a 
swift  gallop,  the  male  bringing  up  the  rear,  and  often  stopping  to  observe  the  foe. 

In  the  month  of  February  the  females  give  birth  to  a  single  fawn,  which  as 
soon  as  it  comes  into  the  world  is  endowed  with  remarkable  speed  and  endurance. 
The  young  males  remain  with  their  dams  until  full  grown,  when  they  are  expelled 
from  the  flock  by  the  united  force  of  females.  These  young  males  unite  together 
in  separate  flocks  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  head ;  and  as  such  flocks  have  no 
special  guardian,  but  all  the  members  are  constantly  on  the  alert,  they  are  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  approach.  During  the  pairing-season  incessant  fights  take-  place 
among  these  male  flocks,  and  the  animals  then  utter  a  peculiar  neighing  sort  of  cry 
which  can  be  heard  at  a  great  distance. 

The  Indians  hunt  vicunias  by  forming  a  circular  enclosure  of 
stakes  connected  by  cords,  with  a  diameter  of  about  half  a  mile,  and 
an  entrance  of  some  couple  of  hundred  feet  in  width.  The  cords  connecting  the 
stakes  are  hung  with  bright-coloured  pieces  of  cloth,  which  flutter  in  the  wind  and 
prevent  the  animals  from  trying  to  break  through.  When  the  enclosure  is  ready, 
the  hunters  make  a  wide  circuit  on  the  mountains,  and  drive  in  all  the  flocks  of 
vicunias  there  may  be  in  the  neighbourhood ;  the  animals  being  despatched  by  the 
bolas — a  weapon  consisting  of  two  large  balls  connected  by  a  string,  which  is 
whirled  round  the  hunter's  head  and  then  hurled  with  unerring  aim  at  his  victim. 
The  flesh  is  divided  among  the  Indians,  but  the  skins  belong  to  the  priests.  The 
wool,  although  small  in  quantity,  is  fine  and  of  excellent  quality  ;  and  in  1826  a  law 
was  made  that  the  vicunias  should  be  caught  and  shorn,  instead  of  killed,  but  the 
wildness  of  the  animals  rendered  this  impracticable.  In  the  time  of  the  Incas  vicunia- 
hunts,  in  which  as  many  as  thirty  thousand  men  took  part,  were  organised  upon  a 
large  scale.  An  area  of  some  twenty  miles  would  be  completely  surrounded,  and 
every  living  thing  driven  in ;  and  it  is  said  that  at  times  as  many  as  forty  thousand 
head  of  game,  including  bears,  pumas,  foxes,  deer,  vicunias,  and  guanacos,  would  be 
thus  surrounded.  Such  a  hunt  would  last  for  a  week,  during  which  many  hundred 
head  of  game  would  be  killed,  Tschudi  mentioning  that  in  a  hunt  which  he  joined, 
upwards  of  one  hundred  and  twenty -two  vicunias  were  slaughtered. 

The  guanaco  (L.  guanacus}  is  a  rather  larger  and  heavier-built 

animal  than  the  vicunia,  with  a  longer  head,  larger  skull,  and  distinct 

naked  patches  on  the  knees  of  the  hind-legs.     A  full-grown  male  will  measure  4 

feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  from  7  to  8  feet  in  length.     The  thick  and 

woolly  hair  is  of  a  pale  reddish  colour,  longest  and  palest  on  the  under-parts.     The 


LLAMAS.  415 

geographical  range  of  this  species  is  very  wide,  extending  from  the  lofty  mountains 
of  Ecuador  and  Peru,  where  it  is  found  in  company  with  the  vicunia,  to  the  plains 
of  Patagonia  and  the  islands  of  Tierra-del-Fuego. 

In  the  mountains  the  habits  of  the  guanaco  appear  to  be  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  vicunia,  but  it  is  not  unfrequently  seen  in 
larger  flocks,  which  may  occasionally  reach  as  many  as  one  hundred  or  even  five 
hundred  head.  The  pairing-season  occurs  in  August  and  September,  and  the  young 
are  born  ten  or  eleven  months  afterwards.  Darwin  states  that  these  animals 
are  very  wild  and  wary,  and  that  frequently  the  first  evidence  of  their  presence  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  hunter  is  their  loud,  neighing  alarm-cry,  which  makes 
itself  heard  at  a  great  distance.  If  the  hunter  looks  attentively,  he  will  then, 
writes  Darwin,  "probably  see  the  herd  standing  in  a  line  on  the  side  of  some 
•distant  hill.  On  approaching  nearer,  a  few  more  squeals  are  given,  and  off  they  set 
at  an  apparently  slow  but  really  quick  canter,  along  some  narrow  beaten  track  to 
a  neighbouring  hill.  If,  however,  by  chance  he  abruptly  meets  a  single  animal,  or 
several  together,  they  will  generally  stand  motionless  and  intently  gaze  at  him, 
then  perhaps  move  on  a  few  yards,  turn  round,  and  look  again."  The  writer  then 
proceeds  to  give  instances  of  their  extreme  curiosity,  and  adds  that  they  are  easily 
domesticated,  and  in  the  wild  state  have  no  notion  of  defending  themselves.  He 
continues  that  "  guanacos  take  readily  to  the  water ;  several  times  at  Port  Valdes 
they  were  seen  swimming  from  island  to  island.  Byron,  in  his  voyage,  says  he 
saw  them  drinking  salt-water.  Some  of  our  officers  likewise  saw  a  herd  apparently 
drinking  the  briny  fluid  from  a  salina  near  Cape  Blanco.  I  imagine  in  several 
parts  of  the  country  if  they  do  not  drink  salt-water  they  do  not  drink  at  all.  In 
the  middle  of  the  day  they  frequently  roll  in  the  dust,  in  saucer-shaped  hollows. 
The  males  fight  together ;  two  one  day  passed  quite  close  to  me,  squealing  and 
trying  to  bite  each  other ;  and  several  were  shot  with  their  hides  deeply  scored. 
Herds  sometimes  appear  to  set  out  on  exploring  parties ;  at  Bahia  Blanca,  where, 
within  thirty  miles  of  the  coast,  these  animals  are  extremely  unfrequent,  I  one  day 
saw  the  tracks  of  thirty  or  forty,  which  had  come  in  a  direct  line  to  a  muddy  salt- 
water creek.  They  then  must  have  perceived  that  they  were  approaching  the  sea, 
for  they  had  wheeled  with  the  regularity  of  cavalry,  and  had  returned  in  as 
straight  a  line  as  they  had  advanced." 

The  most  singular  circumstance  connected  with  the  guanacos  is 
Dying-Places. 

their  habit  of  resorting  to  certain  particular  spots  when  they  feel 

their  end  approaching.  On  this  point  Darwin  observes  that  "on  the  banks  of 
the  Santa  Cruz,  in  certain  circumscribed  spaces,  which  were  generally  bushy  and 
always  near  the  river,  the  ground  was  actually  white  with  bones.  On  one  such  spot 
I  counted  between  ten  and  twenty  heads.  I  particularly  examined  the  bones ;  they 
did  not  appear,  as  some  scattered  ones  which  I  had  seen,  gnawed  or  broken,  as  if 
dragged  together  by  beasts  of  prey.  The  animals  in  most  cases  must  have  crawled 
before  dying  beneath  and  amongst  the  bushes."  Although  mentioning  that 
wounded  guanacos  invariably  make  their  way  towards  the  river,  Darwin  did 
not  attempt  any  explanation  of  this  strange  habit.  A  later  observer,  Mr.  W.  H. 
Hudson,  after  stating  that  this  habit  is  only  developed  among  the  guanacos  of 
Southern  Patagonia,  suggests,  however,  that  it  is  due  to  an  inherited  instinct, 


416 


UNGULATES. 


derived  from  a  time  when  the  animals  were  accustomed  during  a  period  of 
exceptional  cold  to  seek  refuge  beneath  the  cover  of  the  bushes  growing  in  the 
sheltered  river- valleys.  "  Once  we  accept  this  explanation  as  probable,"  writes  Mr. 
Hudson,  "  namely,  that  the  guanaco,  in  withdrawing  from  the  herd  to  drop  down 
and  die  in  the  ancient  dying-ground,  is  in  reality  only  seeking  an  historically- 
remembered  place  of  refuge,  and  not  of  death — the  action  of  the  animal  loses  much 
of  its  mysterious  character ;  we  come  on  to  firm  ground,  and  find  that  we  are  no 
longer  considering  an  instinct  absolutely  unique,  with  no  action  or  instinct  in  any 
other  animal  leading  up  to  or  suggesting  any  family  likeness  to  it." 

With  the  true  llama  (L.  glama)  we  come  to  the  first  of  the  two 
domesticated  representatives  of  the  genus,  both  of  which  are  now 
considered  to  have  originated  from  the  wild  guanaco.     The  llama  attains  larger 


Llama. 


THE  LLAMA  (r'g  nat.  size). 


dimensions  than  the  guanaco,  and  is  very  variable  in  colour,  although  generally 
white,  or  white  spotted  with  brown  or  black,  and  more  rarely  completely  brown  or 
black.  The  skull  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  guanaco,  and  the  knees  have  the  same 
naked  patches.  In  general  appearance  the  llama  is  a  long-necked  and  long-limbed 


LLAMAS.  417 

creature,  with  comparatively  short  hair  falling  but  little  below  the  lower  line  of 
the  body.  It  was  bred  by  the  ancient  Peruvians  mainly  as  a  beast  of  burden,  or 
for  riding,  and  was  chiefly  characteristic  of  the  southern  portion  of  Peru,  where, 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  enormous  numbers  of  these  animals  were  kept.  The 
introduction  of  horses  and  mules  has,  however,  gradually  led  to  the  displacement 
of  the  llama  as  a  beast  of  burden.  When,  however,  llamas  and  alpacas  were  the 
only  domesticated  Ungulates  in  South  America,  their  importance  to  the  Peruvians 
was  fully  as  great  as  is  that  of  the  reindeer  to  the  modern  Laplander,  since  between 
them  they  not  only  did  all  the  carrying  work  of  the  country,  but  likewise  supplied 
their  masters  with  wool  and  flesh.  The  complete  distinction  between  llamas  and 
alpacas  from  as  far  back  as  tradition  or  records  extend,  coupled  with  the  extreme 
antiquity  of  the  Peruvian  civilisation,  indicates  that  the  domestication  of  the 
wild  guanaco  must  in  all  probability  have  taken  place  at  a  very  early  period.  As 
showing  the  security  of  the  country  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  soon  after  the 
Spanish  conquest,  it  was  not  uncommon  to  meet  droves  of  from  three  hundred  to  five 
hundred  or  even  one  thousand  llamas,  each  laden  with  silver  ingots,  and  the  whole 
in  charge  of  a  single  native.  Such  droves  slept  in  the  open  fields  without  the 
slightest  danger  from  loss  by  robbers.  Only  the  male  llamas  were  used  as  beasts 
of  burden,  while  the  smaller  females  were  kept  for  their  milk  and  flesh.  In  travel- 
ling along  the  roads  the  droves  marched  in  single  file,  under  the  guidance  of  a 
leader ;  and  such  a  line  would  traverse  the  highest  passes  of  the  Cordillera,  and 
skirt  the  most  stupendous  precipices  with  perfect  safety.  When  not  in  active  use,  the 
herds  of  llamas  were  kept  on  the  higher  mountain-pastures,  where  they  would  often 
temporarily  associate  with  wild  guanacos.  The  Spanish  conquerors  of  Peru  spoke  of 
llama-flesh  as  being  fully  equal  to  the  best  mutton,  and  they  established  in  the  towns 
shops  for  its  regular  sale.  At  the  period  of  the  conquest  it  is  estimated  that  upwards 
of  three  hundred  thousand  llamas  were  employed  in  the  transport  of  the  product  of 
the  mines  of  Potosi  alone.  Llamas  produce  only  one  offspring  at  a  time,  so  that 
their  rate  of  increase  is  not  very  rapid.  Usually  the  young  are  suckled  by  the 
mother  for  about  four  months,  but  in  one  race  the  period  is  longer ;  and  it  is  stated 
that  the  young  of  two  successive  seasons  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  suckling  at 
the  same  time. 

The  alpaca  (L.  pacos)  is  a  considerably  smaller  animal  than  the 
llama,  and  is  bred  for  the  sake  of  its  wool,  which  is  of  great  fineness 
and  length,  reaching  in  some  specimens  almost  to  the  ground.  The  usual  colour 
of  the  wool  is  very  dark  brown  or  black.  In  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  alpaca, 
Mr.  Thomas  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  old  view  of  the  vicunia  being  the 
parent -stock  is  untenable,  and  that  we  must  look  to  the  guanaco  as  the  true 
ancestor.  He  observes,  for  instance,  that  the  size  of  the  alpaca,  "  although  less  than 
that  of  the  llama,  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  vicunia.  Its  skull  and  teeth 
wholly  agree  with  those  of  the  former,  and  the  naked  patches  on  the  legs,  so 
distinctive  of  the  guanaco  as  compared  with  the  vicunia,  are  very  often,  although 
not  always,  present,  the  exceptions  being  easily  explainable  in  the  case  of  an  animal 
bred  and  selected  for  generations  solely  with  an  eye  to  the  thickness  and  extent  of 
its  furry  covering.  The  occasional  growth  of  the  fur  over  the  naked  patches  is 
not  therefore  to  be  wondered  at.  The  probabilities  also  are  much  in  favour  of  the 
VOL.  n. — 27 


4i8  UNGULATES. 

Peruvians  having  domesticated  one  wild  species  only  rather  than  two,  and  of  their 
having  gradually  developed  two  races  out  of  it — the  one  large,  strong,  and  suitable 
for  the  carriage  of  burdens,  and  the  other  smaller  in  size,  but  exceptional  in  its 
capacitj"  for  producing  a  quantity  of  useful  wool." 

Alpacas  are  kept  throughout  the  year  in  large  herds  on  the  high 
plateaus  of  Bolivia  and  Southern  Peru,  and  are  only  driven  down  to 
the  villages  at  the  shearing-season.  The  wool  is  of  two  kinds — a  longer  and 
coarser,  and  a  finer  and  shorter;  the  former  being  termed  by  the  Peruvians 


Uses. 


THE  ALPACA  (&  nat.  size.) 

hanaska,  and  the  latter  kumbi.  The  Incas  dyed  both  kinds  with  bright  and 
lasting  colours,  and  wove  them  into  cloth  and  blankets ;  and  alpaca  wool  has  been 
introduced  into  England,  the  late  Sir  Titus  Salt  having  established  mills  for  its 
manufacture  into  cloth  at  Bradford. 

Acclimatisation.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  acclimatise  the  alpaca  in  Europe 
and  Australia.  A  large  herd  was  imported  by  a  late  Earl  of  Derby 
and  established  at  Knowsley,  and  it  was  thought  that  these  animals  might  be 
successfully  introduced  into  the  highlands  of  Scotland;  but  if  the  attempt  was 
ever  made,  it  had  no  permanent  results.  In  Australia,  after  great  difficulties  in 


LLAMAS.  419 

getting  permission  from  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Governments  for  the  export  of 
such  a  large  number,  three  hundred  head  were  introduced,  but  in  five  years  these 
had  dwindled  down  to  a  dozen,  and  the  experiment  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
repeated.  Probably  one  of  the  great  difficulties  to  be  contended  with  in  the 
successful  introduction  of  llamas  into  other  countries  would  be  to  find  a  locality 
where  they  could  be  left  almost  to  themselves,  and  yet  where  they  would  be  safe. 
The  climate  of  Britain  is  doubtless  far  too  damp  for  them,  and  in  this  respect  parts 
of  Australia  would  be  much  more  suitable. 

The  alpaca  goes  with  young  eleven  months,  and  produces  but  one  at  a  birth. 
Its  flesh  is  as  excellent  as  that  of  the  llama. 

EXTINCT  CAMEL-LIKE  UNGULATES. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  extinct  camels  occur  in  India  and  Northern 
Africa,  while  fossil  species  of  llamas — some  as  large  as  camels — are  found  in  eastern 
South  America.  In  addition  to  these,  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  formations  of  the 
United  States  have,  however,  yielded  the  remains  of  a  number  of  extinct  genera 
of  camel-like  Ungulates,  from  which  both  camels  and  llamas  have  probably  been 
derived ;  and  as  no  such  forms  have  hitherto  been  discovered  in  Europe,  we  may 
probably  regard  North  America  as  the  original  home  of  the  family,  from  which  the 
modern  representatives  have  migrated  southwards  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien, 
and  westwards  over  Behring  Strait  into  Asia.  In  the  older  Tertiary  formations 
of  Patagonia  the  group  is  unknown. 

Some  of  these  North  American  Pliocene  types,  like  Procamelus,  were  not 
unlike  existing  members  of  the  family,  but  had  four  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw. 
In  the  Miocene  we  come  to  still  more  generalised  forms,  having  the  typical  number 
of  forty-four  teeth  (that  is  to  say,  with  three  pairs  of  incisors  in  each  jaw),  while 
one  kind  (Poebrotherium),  which  was  no  larger  than  a  fox,  had  the  main  meta- 
carpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet  separate,  and  also  showed  traces  of  the  bones 
of  the  lateral  toes.  From  this  form  a  transition  can  be  traced  to  others  with  four 
complete  toes  and  bunodont  *  molar  teeth ;  and  we  thus  reach  the  important  con- 
clusion that  camels  and  llamas  were  derived  from  pig -like  animals  quite  in- 
dependently of  the  true  Ruminants. 

1  The  meaning  of  this  term  is  explained  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

UNGULATES, — continued. 

THE  PIG-LIKE  UNGULATES. 
Family  SUID& 

THE  whole  of  the  even-toed  Ungulates  described  in  the  five  preceding  chapters  are 
characterised  by  their  power  of  ruminating,  with  which  is  associated  their  crescent- 
like,  or  selenodont,  molar  teeth  (see  figures  on  p.  155),  and,  with  but  one  exception, 
the  presence  of  a  cannon-bone  in  the  limbs  (see  p.  154).  We  now  come  to  more 


SKELETON  OP  WILD  BOAR. 


Extinct  Links. 


generalised  forms  of  the  same  great  group  of  Ungulates,  such  as  pigs  and 
hippopotami,  which  lack  the  power  of  rumination,  and  in  which  the  structure  of 
the  molar  teeth  and  lower  portion  of  the  limbs  is  of  different  nature. 

At  the  present  day  there  is  a  great  gap  between  the  types  with 
crescent-like  molars  and  the  pig-like  animals ;  a  gap  so  wide  that  the 
earlier  naturalists  failed  to  recognise  the  intimate  relation  that  really  exists  between 
the  two.  This  gap  is,  however,  almost  completely  bridged  over  by  a  number  of 
extinct  Ungulates,  and  since,  in  order  to  have  any  adequate  idea  of  the  relations  of 
the  existing  groups,  some  knowledge  of  the  fossil  forms  is  absolutely  essential,  we 
must  devote  a  brief  space  to  their  consideration. 

First,  with  regard  to  the  molar  teeth.     On  p.  155  there  is  figured  an  upper 
molar  of   a  modern  Ruminant,  showing  that  the  crown  is  surmounted  by  four 


PIGS,  PECCARIES,  AND  HIPPOPOTAMI  421 

crescentic  columns  of  great  height,  and  separated  by  deep  pocket-like  pits,  while 
on  the  same  page  there  is  also  represented  the  corresponding  tooth  of  an  extinct 
Ungulate,  in  which  the  same  columns,  although  still  crescent-like,  are  very  much 
lower,  and  are  separated  by  quite  shallow  valleys,  of  which  the  base  is  visible  from 
the  surface.  Now  from  such  a  tooth  there  is  but  a  step  to  the  teeth  represented  in 
the  woodcuts  on  the  present  page,  marked  1  and  2.  It  will  be  observed,  however, 
that  the  front  inner  column  of  the  Ruminant  molar  is  here  divided  into  two 
moieties  (pi.  p),  so  that  the  tooth  becomes  five-columned.  The  molar  represented 
in  Fig.  1  is  that  of  the  anoplothere,  a  two  or  three-toed  Ungulate  from  the 
upper  Eocene  rocks  of  Europe,  furnished  with  the  full  number  of  forty-four  teeth. 
The  one  marked  2  belongs  to  the  so-called  Hyopotamus,  which  also  occurs  in  the 
upper  Eocene  rocks.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  columns  of  the  latter,  although 
very  low,  still  have  an  imperfect  crescentic  shape ;  but  in  the  allied  anthracothere 


Fig.  2 
LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR  TEETH  OF  EXTINCT  PIG-LIKE  ANIMALS. 

1,  Anoplothere  (after  Gaudry) ;  2,  Hyopotamus  ;  3,  Hy  other  e.    (The  specimen  represented  in  the 
second  figure  is  imperfect  on  the  anterior  side). 

of  the  same  horizon  this  structure  is  far  less  apparent,  and  the  columns  assume 
the  form  of  flattened  cones.  From  such  a  tooth  the  transition  is  easy  to  the  type 
of  the  pair  marked  3  in  our  illustration,  which  belonged  to  an  extinct  pig  known 
as  the  hyothere.  In  the  latter  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  each  tooth  carries  four 
low,  conical,  hillock-like  columns,  or  tubercles,  the  column  marked  pi  in  the  molar 
of  the  anoplothere  having  almost  completely  disappeared.  From  the  hillock-like 
form  of  the  columns  the  type  of  tooth  found  in  the  pigs  is  known  as  the  bunodont 
(Gr.  bounos,  a  hillock)  form,  in  contradistinction  to  the  selenodont  (Gr.  selene,  the 
crescent-moon)  form  distinctive  of  all  the  ruminating  Ungulates.  This  essential 
distinction  in  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  is  the  most  readily  recognised 
characteristic  by  which  the  pig-like  Ungulates  are  distinguished  from  all  those 
treated  in  the  preceding  chapters ;  but  from  the  transition  between  one  type  and 
the  other  indicated  by  extinct  forms,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  the  true  Ruminants, 
the  chevrotains,  and  the  camels,  are  all  severally  descended  from  bunodont 
ancestors. 

Characters  of  The  pigs  and  their  allies  are  further  distinguished  from  the  true 

Pi£B-         Ruminants  and  camels,  by  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the 

two  main  digits  of  the  feet  remaining  distinct  instead  of  being  fused  into  a  cannon- 


422 


UNGULATES. 


bone,  while  in  the  fore-limb  at  least  the  lateral  toes  are  likewise  furnished  with 
complete  metacarpals,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  In  these  respects  the 
pigs  are,  however,  approached  by  the  water- chevrotain  (p.  401)  ;  and  they  also 
resemble  all  the  chevrotains  in  having  a  conical  process  on 
the  front  of  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck  for  articulation 
with  the  first  of  that  series. 

All  members  of  the  pig-like  group — technically  known 
as  the  Suina — have  front  or  incisor  teeth  in  their  upper 
jaws,  and  their  lower  tusks  are  quite  unlike,  and  distinct  from 
the  incisors.  Further,  in  correlation  with  the  absence  of 
the  power  of  rumination,  the  stomachs  of  these  animals  are 
always  less  complex  than  those  of  the  Ruminants,  and  they 
may  be  perfectly  simple,  and  comprise  only  a  single  chamber. 
It  is,  perhaps,  well  to  add  that  pig-like  animals  existed  at  a 
date  when  Ruminants  were  unknown,  as,  indeed,  must  neces- 
sarily have  been  the  case  if  the  one  group  be  the  ancestor  of 
the  other. 

With  these  introductory  remarks  as   to  the   character- 
THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  igtics   of   the   members  of  the  group,  and  their  relationship 
wo"5  (Fr°om  Dawki™E)  tnrougn  extinct  f orms  with  the  Ruminants,  we  may  proceed 
to    the    consideration    of    the    existing    pig -like    Ungulates, 
which   are   divided   into   the   three   families  of  the  Pigs,  the  Peccaries,  and  the 
Hippopotami. 

THE  PIGS. 
Family  SuiD^E. 

The  pigs,  or  swine,  of  which  there  are  three  existing  generic  types,  are  such 
well-known  animals  that  but  little  description  is  necessary.     They  are,  however, 


SKULL  OF  THE  BEARDED  PIG.     (From  Nehring.) 


distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong  by  the 
following  assemblage  of  characters.  The  head  and  skull  are  greatly  elongated, 
and  the  muzzle  terminates  in  an  abruptly-truncated  mobile  snout,  with  a  disc-like 


PIGS.  425 

naked  surface  at  the  extremity,  in  which  are  situated  the  nostrils,  the  disc  being 
supported  by  an  additional  separate  bone  at  the  extremity  of  the  skull,  as  shown 
in  our  figure.  The  feet  are  narrow,  and  carry  four  completely -developed  toes, 
of  which  the  hindmost  do  not  touch  the  ground  in  walking,  while  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  main  pair  are  flattened.  The  molar  teeth  are  narrow,  the  last 
one  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  being  more  or 
less  elongated  ;  and  the  large  tusks  grow  continuously 
throughout  life,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  curving  up- 
wards, instead  of  pointing  downwards,  after  the  usual 
fashion.  Swine  have  large  flapping  ears,  and  rather 
long  cylindrical  tails,  with  a  tuft  at  the  end.  Their 

.  THE  LAST   RIGHT   LOWER  MOLAR 

bodies  are  more  or  less  sparsely  clothed  with  bristly  TOOTH  OF  A  PIG. 

hairs,  and  their  stomachs  are  quite  simple.     Like  all 

unspecialised  Ungulates,  swine  have  the  neck  short  and  thick,  and  imperfectly 
differentiated  both  from  the  body  and  the  head,  the  latter  being  consequently 
carried  low.  The  whole  of  the  existing  members  of  the  family  are  restricted  to 
the  Old  World ;  and  they  chiefly  frequent  damp  or  swampy  districts,  and  are  fond 
of  wallowing  in  wet  mud. 

THE  TRUE  PIGS. 
Genus  Sus. 

The  typical  representatives  of  the  Pig  family,  such  as  the  European  wild 
boar,  are  characterised  by  having  forty-four  teeth,  among  which  the  last  molar  in 
each  jaw  is  greatly  elongated,  while  the  thick  and  short  upper  tusk  is  turned 
sharply  upwards,  and  has  a  large  smooth  facet  worn  on  the  outer  side  of  its 
upturned  extremity  by  the  abrasion  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  extremity  of  the 
lower  tusk.  Consequently,  if  either  tusk  happens  to  be  broken,  the  opposing 
one  continues  to  grow  indefinitely,  and,  from  its  curved  form,  generally  pierces 
some  portion  of  the  skull  with  its  tip,  thus  ultimately  leading  to  the  death  of 
the  animal  which  has  had  the  misfortune  to  meet  with  an  accident  of  this  nature. 
In  addition  to  the  bristly  hairs,  there  is  generally  a  more  or  less  developed  woolly 
under-fur.  The  skull  of  the  pigs,  besides  the  presence  of  the  additional  bone  in 
the  snout  already  mentioned,  is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  nasal 
bones,  and  also  for  the  high  elevation  of  the  crest  of  the  occiput,  which  is  generally 
even  more  developed  than  in  the  specimen  figured  here.  In  wild  pigs  the  profile 
of  the  face  is  straight,  although  in  most  domesticated  races  it  is  more  or  less 
concave.  Pigs  are  exceedingly  prolific  animals;  and  the  young  of  all  the  wild 
species  (as  shown  in  our  illustration)  are  marked  with  light  longitudinal  stripes, 
although  these  markings  are  very  rarely  observed  in  those  of  domesticated 
breeds. 

The  distributional  area  of  the  genus,  before  curtailed  by  human 
Distribution. 

agency,   was   extensive,   comprising    the    greater    part    of    Europe, 

Southern,  and  a  portion  of  Central,  Asia,  Japan,  the  islands  of  the  Malayan 
region,  and  Africa.  The  two  species  inhabiting  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara 


426  UNGULATES. 

and  a  third  from  Madagascar,  belong,  however,  to  a  group  distinct  from  that  in- 
cluding the  rest.  Domesticated  pigs  have  been  turned  loose  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  such  as  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  New  Zealand,  where  they  have 
formed  feral  races  tending  to  revert  more  or  less  completely  to  the  wild  type,  some 
even  producing  striped  young. 

Although  some  of  the  species  are  markedly  distinct,  the  pigs 
(exclusive  of  those  from  Southern  Africa)  are  an  exceedingly 
puzzling  group,  scarcely  any  two  zoologists  being  in  accord  as  to  the  number 
of  existing  species.  Some  of  the  most  important  distinctive  features  are  afforded 
by  the  cheek-teeth ;  but  as  such  differences,  after  all,  are  but  slight,  and 
difficult  to  recognise,  we  shall,  in  the  main,  confine  our  attention  to  some  of  the 
better-known  species,  such  as  those  of  Europe  and  India. 

European  wild  The  type  of  the  genus  is  the  European  wild  pig,  or  wild  boar 

Boar.  (Sus  scrofa),  ranging  over  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  part  of 
Western  and  Central  Asia.  In  Asia,  it  is  believed  by  Mr.  Blanford  to  extend  into 
Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Baluchistan,  and  Afghanistan,  while  northwards  it  ranges 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Yarkand.  It  was  formerly  abundant  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  as  is  attested  not  only  by  historical  evidence,  but  also  by  the 
abundance  of  its  remains  in  the  peat-mosses  and  fens ;  and  boar-hunting  was  a 
favourite  pursuit  of  our  ancestors.  Although  the  exact  date  of  the  extermination 
of  wild  boars  from  the  British  Islands  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained,  Mr.  J.  E. 
Harting  has  shown  that  they  still  existed  in  Oxfordshire  in  the  year  1339,  in 
Suffolk  in  1572,  and  in  Chartley  Forest,  Staffordshire,  as  -late  as  1593 ;  and  it 
is  quite  probable  that  in  Scotland,  and  perhaps  in  Ireland  also,  they  may  have 
lingered  on  till  a  still  more  recent  date.  In  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  and 
especially  in  the  Black  Forest,  wild  boars  are  still  abundant. 
Indian  wad  The  Indian  wild  boar  (8.  cristatus)  is  so  closely  allied  to  its 

Boar.  European  cousin  that  it  is  frequently  regarded  as  specifically 
inseparable.  It  is,  however,  a  somewhat  taller  animal,  with  a  thinner  coat  of 
hair  and  no  under-fur ;  but  it  is  more  especially  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  a  crest  or  mane  of  long  black  bristles  running  from  the  nape  of  the  neck 
along  the  back,  and  by  the  more  complex  structure  and  larger  size  of  the  last 
molar  tooth  in  each  jaw.  As  regards  the  latter  characteristic,  it  may  be  observed 
that  in  the  European  wild  boar  the  hindmost  of  the  three  lobes  constituting 
the  last  lower  molar,  is  not  more  complex  than  in  the  specimen  figured  on 
p.  425 ;  but  in  the  Indian  species,  and  more  especially  in  the  males,  this  lobe 
(the  one  on  the  left  of  the  figure)  is  complicated  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more 
extra  tubercles  to  the  hinder  extremity,  thus  making  the  whole  of  this  tooth 
considerably  longer  and  more  complex.  Analogous  but  less  strongly  -  marked 
differences  may  be  observed  between  the  corresponding  upper  teeth  of  the  two 
species.  The  usual  height  of  the  Indian  wild  boar  varies  from  30  to  40  inches 
at  the  shoulder,  but  it  is  stated  that  one  specimen  has  been  killed  standing 
upwards  of  43 \  inches ;  while  the  weight  ranges  from  200  to  considerably  over 
300  Ibs.  When  extracted  from  the  jaw,  the  lower  tusk  of  a  fine  boar  will 
measure  somewhere  about  8  or  9  inches  in  length;  but  specimens  measuring 
9£  and  10  inches  have  been  recorded,  and  one  is  said  to  have  been  obtained 


PIGS. 


427 


Habits. 


which  measured  upwards  of  12  inches.  The  Indian  wild  boar  is  found  in 
suitable  spots  throughout  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma,  and  also  in  the  wooded 
districts  of  the  outer  Himalaya,  extending  into  the  interior  as  far  as  Kashmir. 

Since  the  habits  of  all  swine  are  very  similar,  while  those  of 
the  Indian  wild  boar  are  best  known  to  Englishmen,  we  may  give 
an  account  of  them  in  this  place.  As  we  have  said,  pigs  generally  frequent 
moist  or  marshy  situations,  where  there  is  plenty  of  cover,  and  their  great 
characteristic  is  their  habit  of  turning  up  the  ground  with  their  snouts  in  search 
of  food,  leaving  marks  by  which  their  presence  in  a  district  can  be  instantly 
recognised.  It  is  this  habit  which  renders  these  animals  so  especially  obnoxious 
to  the  cultivator.  During  the  day  the  Indian  wild  boar  makes  his  lair  in  any 
convenient  cover,  sometimes  in  tall  grass,  at  others  in  reeds  or  sugar-cane,  and 


A    "  SOUNDER "   OF   WILD   SWINE. 


at  others  in  bushes  or  forest,  while  not  unfrequently  standing  crops  other  than 
sugar-cane  afford  the  necessary  shelter.  In  the  mornings  and  evenings  he 
wanders  forth  in  search  of  food,  in  cultivated  districts  devastating  the  crops, 
but  away  from  human  haunts  he  depends  chiefly  upon  roots,  those  of  a 
kind  of  sedge  being  especial  favourites.  Wild  pigs  will,  however,  readily 
feed  on  the  carcases  of  animals  and  other  carrion,  while  in  Assam  they  are  stated 
to  be  in  the  habit  of  digging  out  the  fish  which  bury  themselves  in  the  mud 
during  the  dry  season.  According  to  Mr.  Blanford,  pigs  are  less  nocturnal  in 
their  habits  in  remote  districts  than  in  those  where  they  are  much  disturbed. 
While  the  females  and  young  associate  in  droves  or  "  sounders,"  usually  comprising 
from  ten  to  a  dozen  head,  and  rarely  exceeding  twenty,  the  old  boars  are  solitary. 
The  number  of  young  produced  at  a  birth  by  the  European  species  varies  from 
six  to  ten,  after  a  gestation  of  four  months ;  and  frequently  at  least  two  litters 
are  produced  in  a  year. 


428 


UNGULATES. 


The  lower  tusks  of  the  male  wild  boar,  which  project  about  3  inches  from 
the  jaw,  and  are  kept  with  edges  as  sharp  as  razors  by  wear  against  those  of  the 
upper  jaw,  are  most  formidable  weapons,  capable  of  ripping  open  a  horse  at 
a  single  stroke.  Both  the  European  and  the  Indian  species  are  among  the  boldest 
and  fiercest  of  all  animals,  charging  men,  horses,  or  elephants  time  after  time 
without  a  moment's  hesitation,  and  in  spite  of  the  most  desperate  wounds.  Indeed, 
the  injuries  that  a  wild  boar  will  sustain  without  loss  of  life  are  perfectly 
marvellous.  A  correspondent  of  the  Asian  newspaper  relates  that  he  once  killed 
an  old  boar,  in  the  skull  of  which  the  broken  extremity  of  the  tusk  of  another 


r 


BERKSHIRE  PIG  (^  nat.  size). 

boar  was  firmly  embedded,  with  its  point  penetrating  into  the  brain-cavity  a  short 
distance  behind  the  left  eye. 

Although  the  speed  of  a  wild  pig  is  considerable,  yet  it  cannot  be  maintained 
for  any  long  distance,  and  accordingly,  either  a  boar  or  a  sow  may  be  easily  over- 
taken by  a  well-mounted  horseman  after  a  comparatively  short  run.  Both  as 
regards  speed  and  inclination  to  fight  there  is,  however,  considerable  local  variation 
among  the  wild  pigs  of  India;  the  large  heavily-built  animal  found  in  Bengal 
being  much  more  disposed  to  show  fight  than  the  lighter  pig  of  the  Punjab,  which 
has  a  greater  turn  of  speed.  In  spite  of  its  boldness,  the  Indian  wild  boar  seldom 
makes  unprovoked  attacks ;  but  when  once  roused  nothing  will  stop  it.  An  instance 
is  on  record  of  a  boar  charging,  overthrowing,  and  ripping  open  a  camel;  and 
there  are  several  well-authenticated  cases  of  boars  having  attacked  and  killed  or 
beaten  off  tigers. 


PIGS.  429 

In  Germany  the  European  wild  boar  is  hunted  with  boarhounds ; 

and  when  in  the  highlands  of  Ceylon  Sir  Samuel  Baker  was  in  the 
habit  of  hunting  the  Indian  pig  with  a  pack  of  dogs,  and  despatching  his  quarry 
single-handed  with  a  hunting-knife.  In  all  parts  of  India  where  riding  is  possible 
the  wild  boar  is,  however,  always  speared ;  and  the  sport  of  "  pig-sticking,"  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  is  undoubtedly  by  far  the  finest  and  most  exciting  of  all  the 
many  kinds  of  Indian  shikar.  One  of  the  best  grounds  for  pig- sticking  is  the  old 
valley  of  the  Ganges  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mirut,  locally  known  as  the  Khadir. 
Here  "  the  ground,"  writes  General  Kinloch,  "  consists  of  level  plains  covered  with 
grass  and  intersected  with  deep  nullas  or  ravines,  some  dry,  others  full  of  water ; 
with  deep  but  invisible  ditches ;  holes  varying  in  size,  from  pits  large  enough  to 
swallow  up  horse  and  rider  to  others  just  big  enough  to  admit  a  horse's  leg ; 
hidden  stumps,  and  tangled  bushes ;  and  over  this  one  has  to  gallop  at  racing  pace." 
Falls  are  of  course  frequent,  although  severe  accidents  are  less  common  than  might 
have  been  expected. 

A  smaller  species  of  pig  inhabits  the  forests  of  the  Andaman 

Islands  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  arid  stands  only  some  20  inches  in 
height  at  the  shoulder.  In  addition  to  its  small  stature,  the  Andaman  pig 
(S.  andamanensis)  is  further  distinguished  by  its  relatively  short  tail,  the  shaggi- 
ness  of  the  coat,  the  absence  of  the  crest  of  long  hair  on  the  neck,  and,  above  all, 
by  the  relative  shortness  of  the  hindmost  lobe  of  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the  lower 

jaw.     The  third  Indian  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  pigmy  hog 

(S.  salvanius),  of  the  forests  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya  in  Bhutan, 
Sikhim,  and  Nipal.  These  tiny  little  pigs  are  scarcely  larger  than  hares,  standing 
only  about  11  inches  at  the  shoulder.  They  are  brown  or  blackish  brown  in 
colour,  with  small,  naked  ears,  very  short  tail,  and  only  three  pairs  of  teats  in  the 
female  instead  of  the  usual  six.  From  the  little  that  is  known  of  the  habits  of 
these  pigs  in  the  wild  state,  it  appears  that  they  generally  live  in  herds  of  from 
five  to  twenty  head  in  grass-jungle,  and  that  the  old  boars  remain  with  the  sows. 
Probably  the  number  of  young  produced  at  a  birth  is  less  than  in  other  pigs. 

We  have  now  to  consider  briefly  the  wild  pigs  of  the  islands  of 
Malayan  Pigs.  * 

the  Malayan  region  and   Japan ;  and  it  is  among   these   that   the 

greatest  uncertainty  prevails  among  zoologists,  as  to  the  real  number  of  species 
discoverable.  These  pigs  may,  however,  be  divided  into  three  groups,  of  which 
the  first  is  nearly  related  to  the  Indian  pig.  The  best  known  representative  of 
the  first  group  is  the  collared  pig  (S.  vittatus)  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo, 
characterised  by  the  white  streak  running  along  the  sides  of  the  face  to  the  neck, 
and  by  the  absence  of  any  crest  of  hair  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  of  warts 
on  the  face ;  the  last  lower  molar  tooth  being  large  and  complex.  The  white- 
whiskered  Japan  pig  (S.  leucomystax),  as  well  as  the  Papuan  pig  (S.  papuensis), 
and  the  Formosan  pig  {S.  taevanus)  are  nearly  allied  species.  The  second  group  is 
represented  by  a  well-marked  species  known  as  the  warty  pig  (S.  verrucosus), 
from  Java  and  Borneo,  readily  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  three  small  warts 
on  each  side  of  the  face,  the  largest  of  these  carrying  a  number  of  bristles  and 
being  situated  just  below  the  eye.  The  skull  in  this  pig  is  of  ordinary  length ; 
while  the  last  lower  molar  tooth  is  of  medium  size  and  complexity.  The  Ceram 


43° 


UNGULATES. 


pig  (S.  ceramensis)  and  the  Celebes  pig  (S.  celebensis)  belong  to  this  group.  Lastly, 
we  have  the  bearded  pig  (S.  barbatus)  of  Borneo,  which  is  markedly  distinct  from 
all  the  others,  having  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the  cheeks,  an  extremely  elongated 
skull  (shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  422),  and  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw 
relatively  short,  and  of  simple  structure.  The  great  elongation  of  the  skull  is 
shown  by  the  circumstance  that  the  first  cheek-tooth  of  the  upper  jaw  is  separated 
by  a  considerable  interval  from  the  tusk,  whereas  in  other  species  the  two  are 
placed  close  together. 

Since  there  is  nothing  in  the  habits  of  these  pigs  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Indian  wild  pig,  we  may  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  some  of  the  domesticated 


HARRISON  PIG  (^  nat.  Size). 

breeds  of  swine.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  with  the  exception  of  the 
European  wild  boar,  which  ranges  into  Algeria  and  the  adjacent  districts,  the  only 
typical  representative  of  the  genus  found  in  Africa  is  the  Senaar  pig  (S.  senaar- 
ensis)  of  the  north-eastern  regions  of  that  continent. 

Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  origin  of  the  numerous 
domesticated  breeds  of  swine,  and  very  different  views  on  this  subject 
have  been  expressed  by  different  writers ;  some  urging  that  certain  of  the  earlier 
races  found  in  Europe  had  an  eastern  origin,  while  others  regard  the  whole  of 
them  as  descended  directly  from  the  European  wild  boar.  The  earliest  evidence  of. 
the  existence  of  domesticated  swine  in  Europe  is  afforded  by  remains  found  on  the 
sites  of  the  prehistoric  lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland.  These  were  regarded  by 
Professor  Rtitimeyer,  of  Basle  as  indicating  two  distinct  breeds — one  nearly  allied 


Domestic  Swine. 


PIGS.  431 

to  the  European  wild  boar,  and  the  other  more  resembling  some  of  the  Asiatic 
kinds.  The  late  Professor  Rolleston  failed,  however,  to  detect  evidence  of  Asiatic 
affinity  in  any  of  the  prehistoric  swine  of  Europe,  and  accordingly  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  all  probably  derived  from  the  European  wild  species, 
although  these  might  possibly  have  some  crossing  with  an  Asiatic  stock.  It  must 
be  confessed  that  this  view  is,  at  first  sight,  the  most  probable;  and  that  the 
original  domesticated  races  of  different  parts  of  the  world  have  been  derived  from 
the  wild  species  inhabiting  the  same  districts.  This  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Blanford, 
who  states  that  the  tame  pig  of  India  is  doubtless  derived  from  the  wild  8. 
cristatus,  with  which  it  probably  interbreeds.  In  modern  times,  however,  there  has 
certainly  been  a  great  amount  of  intercrossing  between  the  various  breeds  of 
domestic  swine ;  and  many  of  the  races  now  most  esteemed  in  Europe  have  a  large 
proportion  of  Asiatic  blood  in  their  veins. 

The  effects  of  domestication  have  been  very  marked  on  the  swine,  although 
the  degree  of  variation  from  the  wild  type  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  care 
that  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  breed.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  the 
European  domestic  breed  differs  from  all  wild  species  by  the  concave  profile  of  the 
face ;  while  as  a  rule  domesticated  races  have  uniformly-coloured  young.  Indeed, 
whenever  the  young  of  domestic  swine  are  striped,  a  recent  crossing  with  a  wild 
race  may  not  unreasonably  be  suspected.  When  domesticated  pigs  revert  to  a 
wild  condition,  the  striping  of  the  young  is,  however,  frequently  resumed. 
Domestication  invariably  greatly  reduces  the  size  of  the  tusks  of  the  boars,  which 
in  some  breeds  are  very  small  indeed ;  and  in  this  respect  we  have  a  reversion  to 
extinct  species  of  swine,  in  the  earlier  forms  of  which  the  tusks  were  but  slightly 
developed.  There  are  also  modifications  in  the  form  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
skull,  in  the  number  of  joints  in  the  backbone,  and  in  the  length  of  the  intestines. 
Equally  marked  differences  obtain  in  the  shape  of  the  ears,  which  in  some  of  the 
inferior  breeds  are  large,  flapping,  and  pendent,  while  in  the  superior  breeds  they 
are  small  and  erect.  As  regards  bodily  form,  we  have  but  to  contrast  the  long- 
legged,  large-headed,  and  thin-bodied  "  greyhound  pig "  of  Ireland,  with  some  of 
the  best  modern  breeds,  like  the  Harrison  swine  represented  on  p.  430,  to  see  how 
enormous  is  the  difference  in  this  respect.  Darwin  remarks,  however,  that  the 
observations  of  Professor  Nathusius  tend  to  show  "  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the 
skull  and  body  in  the  most  highly-cultivated  races  is  not  characteristic  of  any  one 
race,  but  is  common  to  all  when  improved  up  to  the  same  standard.  Thus  the 
large-bodied,  long-eared  English  breed  with  a  convex  back,  and  the  small-bodied, 
short-eared,  Chinese  breeds  with  a  concave  back,  when  bred  to  the  same  state  of 
perfection,  nearly  resemble  each  other  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  body.  This 
result,  it  appears,  is  partly  due  to  similar  causes  of  change  acting  on  the  several 
races,  and  partly  to  man  breeding  the  pig  for  one  sole  purpose,  namely,  for  the 
greatest  amount  of  flesh  and  fat ;  so  that  selection  has  always  tended  towards  one 
and  the  same  end.  With  most  domestic  animals  the  result  of  selection  has  been 
divergence  of  character,  here  it  has  been  convergence." 

Domesticated  pigs  are  now  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  habitable  world ; 
but  while  those  kept  in  more  northern  regions  are  generally  confined  more  or  less 
closely  to  the  homestead,  the  races  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world  are  allowed  to 


432 


UNGULATES. 


run  more  or  less  fully  at  liberty.  Those  kept  in  confinement  are  generally  larger 
and  fatter,  although  often  more  delicate  animals,  than  the  breeds  which  are  allowed 
to  roam  almost  at  will;  the  latter  being  longer-limbed  and  thinner  than  the 
former,  but  at  the  same  time  bolder  and  more  independent  in  disposition.  In 
Southern  Hungary,  Croatia,  Bosnia,  Servia,  Turkey,  and  Spain,  the  herds  of 
swine  are  allowed  to  run  in  the  woods  throughout  the  year,  but  in  less  warm 
districts  they  have  to  be  taken  in  and  fed  during  the  winter.  In  the  Sierra 
Nevada  of  Spain,  these  herds  ascend  to  an  elevation  of  some  nine  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  thus  become  expert  climbers. 


European  Breeds. 


DWARF  CHINESE  PIG  (fa  nat.  size). 

The  different  breeds  of  European  domestic  pigs  vary  so  much 
''that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  classify  them,  and  only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  ones  can  even  be  mentioned  in  this  work.  Many  of  the  best 
breeds  have  been  produced  by  crossing  original  stocks  with  the  so-called  Siamese 
breed,  which  is  distributed  over  a  great  part  of  the  Malayan  region,  and  has  been 
imported  into  China.  This  breed  (frequently  termed  S.  indicus)  is  characterised 
by  its  small  size,  cylindrical  trunk,  hollow  back,  short  limbs,  and  the  approximation 
of  the  belly  to  the  ground.  The  colour  is  generally  black,  with  the  skin  externally 
of  a  rich  copper  colour,  and  the  bristles  are  soft ;  but  there  is  also  a  white  variety. 
The  ears  are  small  and  somewhat  erect,  and  the  face  is  short.  According  to  Mr.  D. 
Low,  these  pigs  "  are  less  hardy  and  prolific  than  the  native  races  of  Europe,  and 
the  females  do  not  yield  the  same  quantity  of  milk ;  but  they  arrive  very  soon  at 


433 

maturity,  they  fatten  on  a  small  quantity  of  food,  and  their  flesh  is  white  and 
delicate."  The  native  breeds  of  Britain,  according  to  the  same  authority,  may  be 
divided  into  those  of  small  size,  with  erect  or  semi-erect  ears ;  and  those  with  larger 
bodies  and  long  pendent  ears.  Nearly  all  these  have,  however,  been  more  or 
less  largely  crossed  with  the  Siamese,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  Chinese  breed ; 
and  the  general  tendency  of  modern  breeding  is  towards  a  reduction  in  size 
and  uniformity  in  character.  Of  the  smaller  kinds,  with  short,  erect  ears,  one 
of  the  most  distinct  is  the  Highland  breed ;  these  pigs  being  lean,  wiry,  greyish 
animals,  of  great  hardihood,  roaming  over  the  Scottish  moors  almost  at  will,  and 
doing  great  harm  to  game  and  other  birds.  Near  the  sea  they  will  feed  on 
molluscs  and  dead  fish,  and  their  flesh,  at  all  times  coarse,  then  acquires  a  fishy 
taste.  They  are  also  found  in  the  Hebrides  and  Orkneys. 

The  larger  breeds  with  pendent  flapping  ears  are  chiefly  characteristic  of 
the  lowlands,  but  few  now  remain  which  have  not  been  crossed  with  foreign 
blood.  In  colour  they  are  mostly  white,  or  white  spotted  with  black.  They 
are  long  in  coming  to  maturity  and  fatten  slowly,  but  they  attain  enormous 
dimensions,  and  'have  the  advantage  of  producing  large  litters,  and  being  excellent 
mothers.  The  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire  breeds,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Eastern 
counties,  are  large  white  pigs,  with  pendent  ears;  the  Essex  breed  (which  has 
now  been  largely  crossed  with  the  Chinese)  being  remarkable  for  the  fineness 
of  the  skin  and  the  softness  of  the  bristles.  The  Hampshire  is  also  a  noted 
breed ;  while  the  largest  of  all  is  the  Rudgwick.  One  of  the  most  valuable  is, 
however,  the  Berkshire  breed,  which  is  somewhat  inferior  in  point  of  size. 
Originally  these  pigs,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  428,  were  generally 
of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  with  brown  or  black  spots ;  but  by  crossing  with  the 
Chinese  breed,  or  derivates  thereof,  the  size  has  been  reduced,  and  the  colour 
changed  to  black,  although,  when  the  crossing  has  been  with  the  white  breed, 
it  is  more  generally  black  mixed  with  white.  The  original  Berkshire,  writes 
Mr.  Low,  "  is  still  regarded  as  one  of  the  superior  breeds  of  England,  combining 
size  with  a  sufficient  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  being  fitted  for  pork  and  bacon, 
and  it  is  held  to  be  the  hardiest  of  the  more  improved  races."  The  Harrison 
pig,  figured  on  p.  430,  is  intended  to  exhibit  one  of  the  best  types  of  fattening  breeds : 
while  the  white  dwarf  Chinese  pig,  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  432, 
exhibits  the  greatest  diminution  in  size,  coupled  with  an  almost  completely 
cylindrical  form  of  body. 

It  may  be  observed  that  although  the  usual  mode  of  life  led  by  pigs  in 
England  is  not  calculated  to  develop  their  intellectual  faculties,  yet  they 
are  by  no  means  deficient  in  intelligence,  and  display  a  remarkable  acuteness 
of  scent.  Indeed,  a  pig  has  been  trained  to  stand  to  game  as  steadily  as  the 
best-bred  pointer. 

Before  taking  leave  of  domesticated  swine,  we  must  not  omit 
Masked  Swine.  »    .  . 

to  mention  the  curious   Japanese   masked   pig,  represented   in   the 

figure  on  p.  434.  This  pig,  writes  Darwin,  "has  an  extraordinary  appearance, 
from  its  short  head,  broad  forehead,  and  nose,  great  fleshy  ears  and  deeply- 
furrowed  skin.  Not  only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but  thick  folds  of  skin,  which 
are  harder  than  the  other  parts,  almost  like  the  plates  on  the  Indian  rhinoceros, 
VOL.  n. — 28 


434 


UNGULATES. 


hang  about  the  shoulders  and  rump.  It  is  coloured  black,  with  white  feet,  and 
breeds  true.  That  it  has  long  been  domesticated,  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  and 
this  might  have  been  inferred  even  from  the  circumstance  that  its  young  are  not 
longitudinally  striped."  From  a  study  of  its  skull,  Professor  Nathusius  regards  the 
masked  pig  as  nearly  allied  to  the  Chinese  breed  ;  but,  as  Darwin  remarks,  "  if  this 
be  really  the  case,  it  is  a  wonderful  instance  of  the  amount  of  modification  which 
can  be  effected  under  domestication." 


Bush-Pigs. 


MASKED  JAPANESE  PIG  (^  nat.  size). 

The  African  bush-pigs — the  Bosch-Varks  of  the  Cape  Boers- 
differ  from  the  typical  members  of  the  genus  by  always  having 
one  pair  less  of  cheek-teeth,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  first  premolar  on  each 
side  of  the  lower  jaw,  while  frequently  the  corresponding  upper  tooth  is  like- 
wise wanting  in  the  adult.  The  molar  teeth  are  also  distinguished  by  their 
simpler  structure,  the  last  in  the  lower  jaw  having  the  third  lobe  much  reduced 
in  size.  The  tusks  are  scarcely  larger  than  those  of  domestic  pigs,  and  the 
snout  is  unusually  elongated.  On  each  side  of  the  face  immediately  below  the 
eye  there  is  a  large  swelling,  due  to  the  great  development  of  a  ridge  of  bone 
on  the  sheath  of  the  upper  tusk.  The  grey  bush-pig  (S.  africanus),  ranging 
from  South  to  Central  Africa,  has  the  hair  of  a  greyish  brown  colour,  and  no 
pencils  of  hair  on  the  ears.  It  generally  frequents  thick  forest,  although 
occasionally  found  in  thorny  bush  and  among  reeds  in  the  river  valleys.  Mr. 
E.  H.  Drummond  says  that  "the  ingulabi,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  does 
an  immense  amount  of  damage  to  their  sweet  potatoes  and  fields,  and  has  in 


PIGS. 


435 


consequence  been  exterminated  in  many  districts."     Its  habits  appear  to  be  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  ordinary  swine. 

The  red  bush-pig  or  river-hog  (8.  porcus)  is  a  rather  smaller  species  than 
the  last,  inhabiting  West  Africa,  and  distinguished  by  the  long  pencils  of  hairs 
with  which  the  ears  terminate,  and  also  by  the  brilliant  reddish  colour  of  the 
hair.  As  in  the  last  species,  the  bristles  of  the  neck,  back,  chin,  and  throat  are 
elongated  into  a  distinct  mane,  and  the  tail  terminates  in  a  distinct  tuft.  The 
prevailing  colour  is  either  a  shining  brownish  red  with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  or 


THE  RED  BUSH-PIG. 


a  dark  reddish  yellow ;  the  forehead,  ears,  and  limbs  are,  however,  blackish,  while 
the  mane  on  the  back,  part  of  the  margins  of  the  ears,  and  the  tips  of  their 
pencils  of  hair,  the  eyebrows,  and  a  streak  under  the  eyes  and  the  margins 
of  the  cheeks,  are  white  or  whitish.  The  under-parts  are  whitish  grey,  and 
the  snout  grey.  These  brilliant  contrasts  of  colour  make  the  red  bush-pig 
decidedly  the  handsomest  member  of  the  Swine  family.  These  pigs  are  found  in 
large  herds,  and  frequent  moist  forests  and  the  banks  of  rivers,  while  they  are 
occasionally  seen  on  the  mountains.  The  first  living  example  of  this  species 
brought  to  Europe  was  exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  1852,  since 
which  date  many  specimens  have  been  imported  into  Europe.  A  third  species 
(»S'.  edwardsi)  inhabits  Madagascar. 

Numerous  fossil  pigs  are  found  in  the  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene 
Tertiary  deposits  of  the  Old  World,  which  may  be  referred  to  the 
genus  Sus,  and  several  of  which  differ  markedly  from  all  existing  species;  these 
fossil  pigs  occurring  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  India,  and  China.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  titan  pig  (S.  titan)  from  the  Siwalik  Hills,  at  the  foot  of  the 


Extinct  Pigs. 


436  UNGULATES, 

Himalaya.  In  this  monster  the  length  of  the  skull  was  23  inches,  against  16  in 
an  average-sized  Indian  wild  pig,  so  that  the  height  of  the  animal  could  not  have 
been  much  less  than  that  of  a  fair-sized  mule.  The  same  deposits  have  also  yielded 
remains  of  an  extinct  species  which  did  not  exceed  the  living  pigmy  hog  in  point 
of  size.  Still  more  noteworthy  are  Falconer's  pig  (S.  falconeri)  from  the  Siwalik 
Hills,  and  some  allied  species  from  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Southern  India  and 
Algeria,  which,  in  the  extreme  complexity  of  the  lower  teeth,  approximated  to  the 
under-mentioned  wart-hogs.  The  Auvergne  pig  (S.  arvernensis)  from  the  Pliocene 
of  France,  is  believed,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  related  to  the  African  bush-pigs. 
In  most  of  these  extinct  species  the  tusks  of  the  boars,  as  already  mentioned, 
were  relatively  small. 


THE  BABIRUSA. 
Genus  Babirusa. 

The  extraordinary  development  of  the  tusks  in  the  males  of  the  animal  to 
which  the  Malays  have  given  the  name  of  Babirusa  (meaning  pig -deer)  is  so 
remarkable  as  to  suggest  at  first  sight  the  idea  of  a  malformation.  The  babirusa 
(Babirusa  alfurus),  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  Celebes  and  Boru,  and  is  the  sole 
representative  of  its  genus,  has,  indeed,  derived  its  name  from  these  abnormally- 
developed  tusks,  which  have  led  the  Malays  to  liken  them  to  the  antlers  of 
the  deer.  In  the  boars,  as  is  well  exhibited  in  our  figure  of  the  skull,  the 
upper  tusks,  while  curving  upwards  like  those  of  an  ordinary  wild  pig,  instead 
of  protruding  from  the  margins  of  the  jaws,  arise  close  together  near  the  middle 
line  of  the  face,  and  thence,  after  being  directed  upwards  for  a  short  distance, 
sweep  backwards,  frequently  coming  into  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  forehead, 
and  are  then  finally  directed  forwards  at  the  tip.  The  lower  tusks  have  the  same 
up wards-and-back wards  direction  as  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  but  are  frequently 
less  strongly  curved,  although  in  other  cases  the  direction  of  their  sweep  is  not 
very  different  from  that  of  the  latter.  Both  pairs  of  tusks  are  quite  devoid  of 
enamel,  and,  as  there  is  no  abrasion  of  the  one  pair  against  the  other,  both  grow 
uninterruptedly ;  the  upper  tusks  occasionally  attaining  a  length  of  14 1  inches,  we 
believe,  exclusive  of  the  portion  buried  in  the  socket.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar 
conformation  of  its  tusks,  the  babirusa  differs  from  ordinary  pigs  in  the  diminished 
number  of  its  teeth,  of  which  the  total  is  only  thirty-four;  the  missing  teeth 
comprising  the  outermost  incisors  and  the  first  two  premolars  on  each  side  of  both 
the  upper  and  lower  jaws.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterised  by  their  simple 
structure  and  the  small  development  of  the  third  lobe  of  the  last  one  in  each 
jaw. 

The  babirusa  has  a  nearly  naked  skin  of  a  dark  ashy  grey  colour,  sparsely  covered 
with  hair  along  the  line  of  the  back,  and  thrown  into  numerous  wrinkles.  The 
ears  are  small,  the  tail  is  short  and  devoid  of  a  terminal  tuft,  and  the  back  is  much 
arched.  The  female  has  small  tusks,  and  only  a  single  pair  of  teats.  The  height 
at  the  middle  of  the  back  is  about  42  inches.  The  young,  of  which  there  are  either 
one  or  two  at  a  birth,  are  devoid  of  stripes. 


PIGS. 


437 


The  peculiar  character  of  the  tusks,  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  teeth, 
and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  young,  indicate  that  the  babirusa  is  a  more 
specialised  creature  than  the  ordinary  pigs.  At  the  same  time,  the  simple  structure 
of  the  molar  teeth  indicates  that  it  must  be  directly  descended  from  one  of  the 
extinct  genera  of  pigs  in  which  a  similar  type  of  dentition  obtains. 

The  habits  of  the  babirusa  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of 
other  wild  swine ;  moist  forests,  cane-brakes,  and  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  lakes  where  abundance  of  water-plants  are  to  be  found,  being  its  favourite 
resorts.  Here  these  animals  collect  in  larger  or  smaller  herds,  sleeping  by  day  and 
going  forth  to  feed  at  night.  The  babirusa  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  not  only 
entering  lakes  to  feed  on  water-plants,  but  likewise  traversing  small  channels  of 


Habits. 


THE  BABIRUSA  (J  nat.  size). 

the  sea  separating  one  island  from  another.  Its  gallop  is  lighter  than  that 
of  the  wild  boar.  The  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  very  acute  in  the  babirusa, 
and  its  grunt  is  very  similar  to  that  of  other  swine.  The  young  are  born  in 
February,  and  of  very  small  size,  and  require  great  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
sow. 

Babirusa  are  frequently  tamed  in  Celebes,  and  may  be  found  in  the  houses  of 
some  of  the  chiefs.  The  first  living  examples  brought  to  Europe  were  a  pair 
exhibited  in  Paris  in  the  year  1820. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  the  use  of  the  tusks  of  the  male 
babirusa.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  may  be  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  eyes  when  the  animal  is  rushing  through  dense  forest ;  but  if  this 
were  so,  as  Mr.  Wallace  points  out,  how  are  we  to  account  for  the  slight  develop- 
ment of  these  organs  in  the  sows.  On  the  whole,  the  same  observer  considers  it 
most  probable  that  the  tusks  were  at  one  period  useful  to  their  owner,  and  were 


Use  of  Tusks. 


438 


UNGULATES. 


Hunting. 


then  kept  of  moderate  size  by  mutual  attrition,  but  that,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
they  have  become  of  110  benefit  to  the  animal,  and  have  assumed  a  monstrous 
growth  like  that  occurring  in  the  lower  tusk  of  a  wild  boar  when  the  corresponding 
upper  one  has  been  accidentally  broken  off. 

The  natives  of  Celebes  organise  carefully-planned  hunts  for  the 
capture  of  the  babirusa,  an  account  of  one  of  these  being  given  by  Dr. 
Guillemard  in  the  following  words  : — "  The  animals  being  driven  into  a  curral,  with 
a  V-shaped  opening  and  flanked  by  netting,  we  had  plenty  of  time  to  wait  before 
the  sport  began,  and  meanwhile  the  natives  arranged  themselves  at  their  posts. 
One  stood  at  the  door  of  the  curral,  ready  to  close  it  directly  any  animal  rushed 
in;  others  took  up  their  places  on  either  side  of  the  wide  entrance,  while  the 
remainder  crouched  in  front  of  the  long  net  at  intervals  of  a  few  yards,  each 
grasping  his  spear,  and  hidden  from  view  by  a  huge  Livistonia  (a  kind  of  palm) 

frond.  We  had  not 
long  been  settled 
before  a  peculiar 
barking  grunt  in  the 
distance  announced 
the  arrival  of  the 
first  victim.  Every- 
one was  instantly 
motionless,  and 
directly  afterwards 
a  dark  object  dashed 
up  at  great  speed 
and  buried  itself  in 
the  net  a  short  way 
down  the  slope. 
There  was  a  short 
struggle,  and  in  less 
than  five  minutes 
the  captive,  a  full- 
grown  female  babi- 
rusa, was  quietly  reposing  on  her  back,  with  her  legs  tied  together  with  rattan,  and 
we  were  once  more  in  ambush  for  the  next  comer.  We  were  hardly  quiet  before 
the  same  peculiar  sound  was  heard  rapidly  approaching,  and  the  next  moment  a 
magnificent  old  boar  babirusa  rushed  past  within  five  yards  of  us,  and  plunged  into 
the  net  between  our  tree  and  the  entrance  to  the  curral.  His  long  tusks  became 
entangled  in  the  meshes,  and  the  natives  ran  up  to  spear  him.  Just  at  this  moment, 
however,  he  broke  loose,  and,  turning  on  his  antagonists,  scattered  them  in  all 
directions.  It  was  a  most  determined  charge,  and,  as  we  were  unable  to  fire  for 
fear  of  hitting  some  of  our  own  men,  it  might  have  proved  a  serious  affair  for 
the  native  he  singled  out."  After  some  trouble  the  animal  was,  however,  finally 
despatched  with  a  spear-thrust ;  but,  "  even  with  four  spears  buried  in  his  body, 
the  old  boar  died  game,  striving  to  the  very  last  to  get  at  his  antagonists." 

1  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Murray  and  the  author  of  the  book  named  for  the  use  of  this  figure. 


SKULL  OF  BABIRUSA.     (From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  Marchesa.) : 


PIGS. 


439 


THE  WART-HOGS. 

Genus  Phacochoerus. 

As  Africa  possesses  in  the  red  bush-pig  the  handsomest  representative  of  the 
Swine  family,  so  in  the  wart-hogs  it  presents  us  with  the  most  hideous  members, 
not  only  of  that  group,  but  of  the  whole  Ungulate  order. 

The  wart-hogs,  of  which  there  are  two  nearly  allied  species,  are  characterised 
by  the  enormous  size  of  their  heads,  in  which  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is 
extremely  flat  and  broad,  while  below  each  eye  is  a  huge  warty  protuberance 


^ELIAN'S  WART-HOG  (^  nat.  size). 


between  which  and  the  tusk  there  are  two  other  of  smaller  size.  The  head  is  likewise 
distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  consequent  backward 
position  of  the  eyes  ;  the  hideous  physiognomy  being  completed  by  the  huge  tusks 
with  which  the  jaws  of  both  sexes  are  armed,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  being 
considerably  longer  than  those  of  the  lower,  or  just  the  reverse  of  what  occurs  in 
the  true  pigs.  This  difference  in  the  proportionate  length  of  the  upper  and  lower 
tusks  in  the  two  groups  is  due  to  the  circumstance  that  in  the  wart-hogs  the  lower 
pair  only  bite  against  the  inferior  surface  of  the  upper  ones,  instead  of  abrading 
their  whole  summits.  The  upper  tusks  are  devoid  of  enamel  except  at  their  tips, 


440 


UNGULATES. 


and  these  small  caps  are  worn  away  at  an  early  period.  They  curve  in  an  upward 
and  inward  direction,  and  sometimes  project  as  much  as  8f  inches  from  the  jaw, 
having  a  basal  girth  of  5  inches.  The  shorter  and  more  slender  lower  tusks  have  a 
nearly  similar  curvature,  and  are  coated  throughout  with  enamel. 

The  tusks  are  not,  however,  the  only  peculiarity  in  the  dentition  of  the  wart- 
hogs.  In  young  animals  there  are  thirty-four  teeth,  namely,  one  pair  of  upper  and 
three  pairs  of  lower  incisors,  a  pair  of  tusks  in  each  jaw,  and  six  cheek-teeth  on  each 
side  of  the  upper,  and  five  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  adult,  the  incisors  and  anterior 
cheek-teeth  tend,  however,  to  disappear,  till  in  some  instances  the  tusks  and  the 
last  molars  alone  remain,  thus  leaving  a  total  of  eight  teeth.  This  paucity  in  the 
number  of  cheek-teeth  is  compensated,  however,  by  the  enormous  size  and  complex 
structure  of  the  single  molar  remaining  in  each  jaw.  The  tooth  in  question  is 
composed  of  a  number  of  small  elongated  cylindrical  denticules,  closely  packed 
together ;  its  total  length  from  back  to  front,  being  something  over  2  inches,  and 
its  height  proportionately  great,  although  its  width  is  small.  This  is,  however,  only 
an  extreme  development  of  the  structure  already  referred  to  as  occurring  in  certain 
extinct  species  of  the  genus  Sus ;  and  in  possessing  such  a  single  tooth  on  each 
side  of  the  jaws  in  the  adult  condition,  the  wart-hogs  may  be  compared  to  the 
elephants. 

The  body  in  these  animals  is  massive  and  nearly  cylindrical,  the  ears  are  small 
and  sharply-pointed,  the  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the  tip,  and  the  neck  and  back 
are  furnished  with  a  mane  of  long  bristly  hair,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  nearly 
naked.  The  young  are  uniformly  coloured. 

Of  the  two  species,  ^Elian's  wart-hog  (Phacochcerus  africanus)  (figured  on 
p.  439)  is  distributed  over  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  side  of  Africa,  ranging  as  far 

north  as  Abyssinia.  On  the 
other  hand,  Pallas's  wart- 
hog  (P.  pallasi),  of  which 
the  head  is  here  figured,  is 
confined  to  South-Eastern 
Africa.  Both  species  stand 
about  27£  inches  at  the 
shoulder.  The  second  is 
distinguished  from  the  first 
species  by  its  shorter  head, 
which  is  more  convex  be- 
tween the  eyes ;  and  it  has 
also  the  warts  below  the 
latter  very  long  and  pen- 
dent, instead  of  projecting 
outwards,  while  the  tusks  are  more  inclined  outwards.  The  mane  is  also  wider 
and  shorter,  and  there  is  a  greater  development  of  hair  on  the  top  of  the 
head  and  the  ears.  It  has  also  been  considered  that  it  is  only  this  species  in 
which  all  the  teeth,  except  the  tusks  and  last  molars  are  habitually  shed,  but 
this  is  doubtful.  The  colour  of  Pallas's  wart-hog  is  redder  than  that  of  its 
northern  relative. 


HEAD  OF  PALLAS'S  WART-HOG. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1869.) 


PIGS.  441 

Our  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  wart-hogs  are  not  so  full  as 
Habits.  . 

might  be  desired,  and  there  is  some  discrepancy  between  those  given 

by  different  observers.  The  statement  made  by  Heuglin  that  these  animals  habitu- 
ally repose  on  swampy  ground,  or  even  in  water,  is,  however,  not  borne  out  by  later 
writers.  The  northern  species  is  found  everywhere  in  Abyssinia,  from  the  level  of 
the  sea  at  Annesley  Bay  to  heights  of  nine  thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet  in  the 
highlands  of  the  interior.  Mr.  Blanford  writes,  that  "  its  habits  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  ordinary  pigs.  It  lives  amongst  bushes  or  in  ravines  during  the  day,  and 
comes  out  to  feed  in  the  evening,  still  keeping  much  to  bush-jungle.  The  large 
males  are  usually  solitary ;  the  younger  animals  and  females  live  in  small  herds, 
apparently  not  exceeding  eight  or  ten  in  number.  I  never  saw  large  '  sounders,' 
such  as  are  so  commonly  met  with  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  hog.  It  feeds  much 
on  roots,  which  it  digs  up  by  means  of  its  huge  tusks.  It  also  appears  to  dig  large 
holes,  in  which  it  occasionally  lies;  these  are  perhaps  intended  for  the  young. 
Despite  its  formidable  appearance,  the  Abyssinian  wart-hog  is  a  comparatively 
timid  animal,  far  inferior  in  courage  to  the  Indian  wild  hog.  Several  which  I 
wounded  showed  no  inclination  to  charge  under  circumstances  in  which  an  Indian 
pig  would  certainly  have  shown  fight.  The  flesh  is  savoury,  but  dry  and  hard, 
even  in  comparatively  young  animals." 

The  foregoing  opinion  of  the  courage  of  these  animals  is  confirmed  by 
Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  states  that  it  is  but  rarely  that  they  ever  charge.  One 
kept  in  confinement  at  Khartum  on  one  occasion,  however,  broke  out  from  its 
cage  and  deliberately  charged  at  Sir  Samuel  Baker's  party,  when  its  rush  was 
effectually  stopped  by  having  a  huge  rhinoceros  horn  hurled  at  its  head.  When 
brought  tO'  bay  by  dogs,  wart-hogs  make  a  determined  stand,  and  inflict  severe 
injuries  on  their  assailants.  If  excited,  they  carry  their  long  tails  stuck  straight 
upright. 

In  South-Eastern  Africa — where  they  are  known  to  the  natives  by  the  name  of 
Indhlovudawani — wart-hogs,  according  to  Mr.  E.  H.  Drummond,  are  found  on  the 
plains  in  light  thorn -jungles ;  and  they  are  abundant  in  the  districts  around  Mount 
Kilima-Njaro.  In  those  regions  they  generally  occupy  the  deserted  burrow  of 
an  aard-vark,  or  other  animal.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  wart-hogs,  occupy- 
ing such  burrows,  "  have  a  most  curious  mode  of  exit  when  they  bolt — a  dangerous 
one  if  you  are  not  up  to  it.  As  they  emerge  from  a  hole,  they  turn  a  somer- 
sault on  to  the  back  of  it,  instead  of  coming  straight  out  like  an  ordinary  animal, 
and  as  that  is  just  the  spot  where  one  would  naturally  stand,  more  than  one 
man  has  had  his  legs  ripped  open  before  he  learnt  the  wisdom  of  experience." 
The  same  writer  mentions  that  he  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  seen  a  male 
wart-hog  walk  deliberately  through  a  pack  of  large  hounds  without  taking  the 
slightest  notice  of  them,  so  long  as  they  refrained  from  biting.  Did,  however, 
one  bolder  than  the  rest,  venture  to  come  to  close  quarters,  the  wart-hog  with  a 
sudden  jerk  would  either  lay  its  assailant  crippled  on  the  ground,  or  send  it 
howling  away. 

We  have  no  information  as  to  the  breeding-habits  of  the  wart-hogs,  but  from 
the  number  of  teats  in  the  female  being  only  four,  it  may  be  inferred  that  but 
few  young  are  produced  at  a  birth.  The  young  are  striped. 


442 


UNGULATES. 


THE  PECCARIES. 
Family  DlCOTYLID^:. 

The  peccaries,  which  are  the  American  representatives  of  the  swine,  differ  so 
markedly  from  the  latter  that  they  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  separate  family, 
of  which  there  is  but  a  single  genus.  The  most  important  differences  between  the 
two  groups  are  that  the  upper  tusks  of  the  peccaries  have  their  points  directed 
downwards  instead  of  upwards,  that  their  hind-limbs  have  three  instead  of  four 
toes,  while  instead  of  the  simple  stomach  of  the  Old  World  swine,  the  peccaries 
have  a  complex  one  approaching  that  of  the  Ruminants. 

Peccaries  have  a  total  of  thirty-eight  teeth,  that  is  to  say,  they  have  a  pair  of 


THE  COLLARED  PECCAHY  AND  YOUNG  (j  Hat.  size). 

incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  a  premolar  on  each  side  of  both  jaws  less  than  the 
wild  boar.  The  downwardly-directed  upper  tusks,  which  are  at  first  completely 
covered  with  enamel,  are  of  small  size,  with  sharp  cutting-edges  behind ;  while 
those  of  the  lower  jaw  are  directed  upwards,  outwards,  and  slightly  backwards, 
and  are  received  in  notches  in  the  sides  of  the  opposite  jaw  just  in  front  of  the 
upper  tusks.  The  last  molar  tooth  in  each  jaw  lacks  the  hind  lobe  characteristic 
of  the  Old  World  swine  (see  fig.  on  p.  421),  and  the  fourth  premolar  tooth  in  the 
upper  jaw  resembles  the  first  molar  in  having  four  tubercles  on  its  crown,  instead 
of  only  three.  In  addition  to  the  difference  in  the  number  of  toes  in  the  hind-feet, 
the  peccaries  are  further  distinguished  by  the  upper  ends  of  the  two  larger  meta- 
carpal  and  metatarsal  bones  being  united,  so  that  we  have  here  an  approach  to  the 
formation  of  cannon-bones.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  complex  structure  of 
their  stomachs,  and  the  presence  of  four  tubercles  on  their  last  upper  premolar 
teeth,  the  peccaries  are  clearly  one  step  in  advance  of  their  allies  of  the  Old  World. 


PECCARIES.  443 

An  altogether  unique  feature  in  these  animals  is  the  presence  of  a  large  gland 
in  the  middle  of  the  back,  from  which  is  secreted  in  great  abundance  a  most  evil- 
smelling  oily  substance.  In  appearance,  peccaries  are  not  unlike  small  hogs  but 
with  very  slender  limbs ;  they  are  devoid  of  any  externally  visible  tails,  and  their 
snouts  are  much  elongated  and  extremely  mobile.  Their  ears  are  small  and 
pointed ;  and  their  bodies  are  covered  with  thick  bristle-like  hairs,  elongated  into 
a  mane  on  the  neck,  and  forming  a  fringe  on  the  throat  and  hind- quarters.  The 
young  are  uniformly-coloured,  like  their  parents,  and  never  exceed  two  in  number 
at  a  birth. 

Of  the  two  well-defined  species,  the  collared  peccary  (Dicotyles 
tajacu)  is  the  smaller,  and  has  the  most  northerly  habitat,  its  range 
extending  from  Arkansas  and  Texas  to  the  Rio  Negro  in  Patagonia.  This  species 
stands  from  about  13|  to  15  J  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder.  The  bristly  hairs 
are  parti-coloured,  and  the  general  hue  of  the  pelage  is  blackish  brown,  becoming 
yellowish  brown  mingled  with  white  on  the  flanks.  The  under-parts  are  brown, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  white,  while  a  broad  yellowish  white  stripe  runs 
from  the  hinder  part  of  the  shoulders  obliquely  downwards  to  the  chest. 

The  white-lipped  peccary  (D.  labiatus)  is  a  rather  larger  species  than  the  last, 
its  height  at  the  shoulder  varying  from  15£  to  nearly  18  inches.  It  is  further 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  large  white  spot  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  white 
lips  ;  the  general  colour  of  the  hair  being  greyish  black.  There  is  also  a  difference 
in  the  mane  and  fringe  on  the  neck  of  the  two  species.  The  range  of  the  white- 
lipped  peccary  is  comparatively  small,  including  only  the  region  lying  between 
British  Honduras  and  Paraguay. 

All  peccaries  are  essentially  forest-dwelling;  animals,  but  whereas 
Habits.  .  J  &.          .  . 

the  collared  peccary  is  found  only  singly  or  in  pairs,  or  in  small 

parties  of  from  eight  to  ten  individuals,  the  white-lipped  species  associates  in  large 
herds,  of  which  the  members  may  be  numbered  by  scores.  Moreover,  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the  disposition  of  the  two  species,  the  former  being  a 
harmless  and  inoffensive  creature,  whereas  the  other  is  comparatively  fierce,  and 
not  unfrequently  inflicts  severe  wounds  with  its  tusks.  Indeed,  when  a  herd  of 
these  animals  is  encountered  in  the  forest,  the  hunter  frequently  has  to  seek 
protection  by  climbing  a  tree.  Both  species  frequent  only  the  densest  and  most 
extensive  forests,  dwelling  either  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  in  burrows  excavated  by 
other  animals,  or  among  bushes  and  grass ;  and  in  parts  of  South  America  they 
ascend  in  the  mountains  to  heights  of  between  3000  and  4000  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  herds  or  parties  are  under  the  leadership  of  an  old  boar.  Peccaries  wander 
about  both  during  the  day  and  at  night ;  and  when  food  is  scarce  they  make  long 
migrations  in  search  of  it.  Their  chief  food  consists  of  fruits  and  roots ;  and  their 
teeth  and  jaws  are  of  such  strength  as  to  enable  them  to  crack  with  ease  the  hard 
seeds  of  palms.  In  inhabited  districts  peccaries  inflict  much  damage  on  growing 
crops ;  and,  in  addition  to  roots  and  fruits,  they  are  by  no  means  averse  to  varying 
their  diet  with  carrion,  worms,  or  insects.  Their  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed ;  and 
it  is  essential  that  immediately  the  animals  are  killed,  the  ill-smelling  gland  on  the 
back  should  be  removed,  as  otherwise  the  flesh  will  become  tainted.  As  a  general 
rule,  but  a  single  young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth,  two  being  comparatively  rare. 


444  UNGULATES. 

When  taken  young,  peccaries  are  easily  tamed,  although  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  a  domesticated  breed.  Large  numbers 
of  them  are  destroyed  by  jaguars  and  pumas. 

Fossil  remains  of  peccaries,  some  belonging  to  living  and  others 
to  extinct  species,  occur  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  both  North  and 
South  America.  In  addition  to  these,  certain  extinct  Pliocene  and  Miocene  hog- 
like  animals  seem  to  indicate  the  parent-stock  from  which  both  the  peccaries  and 
the  true  pigs  have  been  derived.  Of  these  Chcerohyus,  from  North  America,  comes 
closest  to  the  peccaries,  while  the  Old  World  Hyotherium,  of  which  two  upper 
molar  teeth  are  figured  on  p.  421,  is  more  like  the  pigs.  Listriodon  is  another 
European  type,  in  which  the  molars  have  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  instead  of 
four  tubercles.  Finally  Chceropotamus,  from  the  upper  Eocene  of  England  and 
France,  connects  the  type  of  molar  tooth  characteristic  of  the  pigs  with  that  of  the 
extinct  anthracothere  referred  to  on  p.  421. 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI. 
Family  HlPPOPOTAMlD^;. 

Although  the  Greek  term  hippopotamus,  and  its  English  equivalent  river- 
horse,  are  etymologically  decidedly  objectionable  ones  to  denote  the  animals  we  have 
now  to  describe,  yet  the  former  at  least  is  so  firmly  established  in  European 
languages  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  attempt  to  change  it.  The  Dutch  term 
see-kuh,  commonly  translated  sea-cow,  but  which  we  think  might  equally  bear  the 
interpretation  lake-cow,  and  a  name  used  by  the  Arabs  which  means  water-buffalo, 
are  far  less  objectionable ;  but  a  title  equivalent  to  river-swine,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  conferred  on  these  animals  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  is,  from  a  zoological 
standpoint,  far  arid  away  the  best  of  all. 

The  common  hippopotamus,  together  with  a  much  smaller  species  from  West 
Africa,  constitute  a  family  by  themselves,  which  is  also  the  last  group  of  the  even- 
toed  Ungulates.  Hippopotami  are  bulky  animals,  with  round,  barrel-like  bodies  of 
great  length,  very  short  and  thick  legs,  and  enormous  heads,  in  which  the  muzzle 
is  angular  and  greatly  expanded  transversely,  and  has  no  trace  of  the  terminal  disc 
characteristic  of  the  swine  and  peccaries.  Indeed,  the  ugly  head  of  a  hippopotamus 
appears  as  if  it  were  too  large  and  heavy  for  its  owner,  since  the  animal  may  fre- 
quently be  seen  resting  its  ungainly  muzzle  on  the  ground,  as  though  to  relieve  the 
neck  from  the  strain  of  its  weight.  The  portion  of  the  skull  in  front  of  the  eyes 
is  very  much,  longer  than  that  behind  them ;  and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  (as 
seen  in  our  figure  of  the  skeleton)  are  completely  surrounded  by  a  very  prominent 
bony  ring,  which  has  an  almost  tubular  form.  In  the  pigs,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
socket  of  the  eye  is  open  behind  (compare  the  figure  on  p.  422).  The  prominence 
of  these  sockets  causes  the  relatively  small  eyes  of  the  hippopotamus  to  project  far 
above  the  level  of  the  forehead.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded,  and  the  slit-like 
nostrils  are  placed  rather  close  together  on  the  highest  point  of  the  broad  bristly 
muzzle ;  while  both  ears  and  nostrils  alike  can  be  completely  closed  at  the  will  of 
the  animal.  The  neck  is  extremely  short  and  powerful ;  and  the  body  is  so  deep, 


HIPPOPOTAMI. 


445 


that  when  the  animal  is  walking  on  soft  mud,  the  under  surface  comes  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  Disproportionately  short  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  the  tail  is 
laterally  compressed  from  side  to  side.  The  short  and  broad  feet  are  furnished 
with  four  well-developed  short  toes,  all  of  which  touch  the  ground  when  walking ; 
and  are  encased  in  rounded  black  hoofs,  of  which  the  middle  pair  have  not  their 
inner  surfaces  flattened ;  so  that  the  hippopotamus  lacks  the  cloven  hoof  of  the 
pigs  and  the  Ruminants.  The  toes  of  the  feet  are  partially  connected  by  webs. 
Although  there  are  a  number  of  bristles  on  the  muzzle,  and  also  a  few  on  the  sides 
of  the  head  and  neck,  as  well  as  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  tho  skin  of  the  hippo- 
potamus is  naked ;  it  is  also  rather  rough  and  warty,  and  of  enormous  thickness. 

The  gigantic  mouth  of  a  hippopotamus,  when  opened  to  the  widest,  is  one  of 
the  ugliest  sights  imaginable,  looking  like  a  huge  red  cavern,  from  the  edges  of 
which  project  the  enormous  tusks  and  incisor  teeth.  The  tusks,  or  canines,  are  the 
largest  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  are  curved  backwards  in  a  bold  sweep,  with 


SKELETON  OF  HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


their  extremities  obliquely  bevelled  off  by  mutual  attrition ;  they  grow  through- 
out the  life  of  the  animal,  and  their  points  are  directed  downwards.  The  incisor 
teeth  likewise  grow  during  the  whole  period  of  existence,  and  thereby  differ  from 
those  of  the  pigs,  which  form  roots.  In  the  existing  species,  there  are  not  more 
than  two  pairs  of  these  teeth,  and  whereas  those  of  the  upper  jaw  are  directed 
downwards,  the  lower  ones  project  forward  in  advance  of  the  jaw.  The  sides  of 
the  jaws  are  severally  provided  with  seven  cheek-teeth,  of  which  the  four  premolars 
have  subconical  pointed  crowns,  while  the  broad  molar  teeth  carry  four  distinct 
columns,  which,  when  worn  by  use,  show  on  their  summits  well-defined  trefoil- 
shaped  surfaces  of  ivory  surrounded  by  a  rim  of  enamel.  A  peculiarity  in  the 
lower  jaw  of  the  hippopotamus  is  the  presence  of  a  hook -like  flange  at  its  hinder 
extremity,  as  shown  in  our  figure  of  the  skeleton. 

Summarising  the  result  of  the  foregoing  description,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  hippopotami  are  entitled  to  rank  as  a  distinct  family  on  account  of  the  following 
differences  from  the  pigs  and  peccaries,  viz.  the  broad  and  expanded  muzzle,  not 
terminating  in  a  disc ;  the  subequal  size  of  the  hoofs,  all  of  which  touch  the  ground, 
and  the  absence  of  flattening  in  the  opposing  surfaces  of  the  middle  pair;  the 


446  UNGULATES. 

continually-growing  incisor  teeth ;  the  complete  ring  of  bone  round  the  socket  of 
the  eye;  and  the  hook-like  flange  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Common  The  common  hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus  amphibius)  is   by 

Hippopotamus.  far  the  larger  of  the  two  living  species,  and  next  to  the  elephant 
would  seem  to  be  the  bulkiest  of  all  existing  terrestrial  Mammals.  A  male  which 
lived  for  many  years  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  measured  12  feet 
from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  length  of  the  latter  appendage 
being  22  inches,  and  its  total  weight  was  about  4  tons.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  states 
that  in  an  old  male  measured  by  himself  the  length  was  14  feet  3  inches  from  the 
snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  the  latter  being  about  9  inches.  And  the  same  writer 
estimates  the  weight  of  the  hide,  when  freshly  removed,  at  about  5  cwts.  The 
height  at  the  shoulder  is  some  3  feet  8  inches.  This  species  is  further  characterised 
by  having  two  pairs  of  incisor  .teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  middle  lower  pair  being  of 
far  larger  dimensions  than  the  others.  The  general  colour  of  the  skin  is  a  slaty 
copper-brown,  tending  more  to  blackish  brown  on  the  back  and  purplish  brown 
beneath.  There  is,  however,  considerable  sexual  and  individual  variation  in  this 
respect ;  and  the  hue  of  the  skin  also  varies  according  to  whether  the  animal  has 
recently  emerged  from  the  water,  or  whether  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  Dr.  Livingstone 
says  that  while  the  males  are  of  a  dark  colour,  the  females  are  of  a  yellowish  brown ; 
and  when  hippopotami  first  leave  the  water  the  upper-parts  appear  brownish  blue 
and  the  under-parts  almost  flesh-coloured,  but  when  thoroughly  dry  the  colour  of 
the  back  is  blackish  brown  or  slaty.  Sir  John  Kirk  observed  in  East  Africa  nearly 
pure  white  and  also  spotted  individuals,  while  in  others  only  the  feet  were  white. 
In  certain  cases,  however,  a  more  or  less  distinct  reddish,  purple,  or  yellow  tinge 
has  been  noticed.  The  largest  recorded  pair  of  lower  tusks  of  the  hippopotamus 
have  a  total  length  of  31|  inches  along  the  curve,  and  a  basal  circumference  of 
just  over  9  inches. 

That  the  hippopotamus  formerly  inhabited  Lower  Egypt  is  indicated  by  the 
occurrence  of  its  remains  in  the  mud  of  the  delta,  while  this  is  also  confirmed  by 
the  frequency  with  which  it  is  depicted  in  the  ancient  frescoes  of  that  country. 
One  of  these  frescoes  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Edfu  shows  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  were  in  the  habit  of  harpooning  these  animals  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  is  now  practised  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Nile.  Teeth  of  the  hippopotamus 
have  been  dug  up  at  Kalabshi,  a  short  distance  above  the  first  cataract ;  but  at  the 
present  day  the  animal  is  not  to  be  met  with  north  of  the  neighbourhood  of 
Dongola,  in  the  Sudan,  between  the  second  and  third  cataracts.  And  even  there} 
according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  it  is  comparatively  rare,  although  a  certain  number  take 
refuge  in  the  wooded  islands  between  Abou  Hamed  and  Berber.  Above  Khartum, 
hippopotami  are  still  to  be  found  in  large  numbers.  Generally,  it  may  be  stated 
that  at  the  present  day  the  hippopotamus  inhabits  most  of  the  African  rivers  and 
lakes  lying  between  the  17th  parallel  of  north  and  the  25th  of  south  latitude ;  that 
is  to  say,  in  the  south  it  is  found  in  the  upper  course  of  the  Limpopo.  Formerly, 
however,  its  distribution  embraced  the  greater  part  of  the  Cape  Colony.  In  East, 
South,  and  West  Africa  the  hippopotamus  comes  much  nearer  to  the  coast  than  in 
the  north,  and  in  many  districts  it  is  to  be  found  quite  close  to,  or  even  in  the  sea 
itself.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Abyssinia  these  animals  are  found  dwelling  in  Lake 


HIPPOPOTAMI. 


447 


Tzana-Dembea,  at  an  elevation  of  over  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.     The 
existing  species  is  unknown  in  Madagascar ;  but  from  the  reference  to  it  in  the 


A  FAMILY  PARTY  OF   HIPPOPOTAMI  (»'„  nat.  size). 


Bible,  under  the  name  of  Behemoth,  it  is  just  possible  that  it  may  have  inhabited 
Palestine  within  the  historic  period. 

In  the  Pleistocene  and  upper  portion  of  the  Pliocene  epoch  a  large  hippopotamus 


448  UNGULATES. 

which  appears  specifically  indistinguishable  from  the  living  kind  was  widely  spread 
over  Europe,  extending  from  Italy  in  the  south  to  England  in  the  north.  These 
fossil  hippopotami  were,  however,  of  considerably  larger  dimensions  than  at  least 
the  average  of  the  existing  race.  In  England  the  range  of  the  animal  extended  as 
far  north  as  Yorkshire;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  in  several  English 
localities  remains  of  the  hippopotamus  are  found  lying  side  by  side  with  those  of 
the  reindeer.  It  has  been  attempted  to  explain  this  association  of  such  southern 
and  northern  types  by  assuming  that  in  the  Pleistocene  period  the  summers  were 
very  hot  and  the  winters  very  cold,  and  that  during  the  summer  the  hippopotami 
wandered  northwards  into  regions  tenanted  in  winter  by  the  reindeer.  There  are, 
however,  difficulties  in  the  way  of  accepting  this  explanation,  not  the  least  being 
the  circumstance  that  the  living  African  hippopotamus  is  not  a  migratory  animal. 
We  may,  however,  be  pretty  confident  that  wherever  remains  of  hippopotami  are 
found,  there  the  rivers  must  have  been  free  from  ice  throughout  at  least  the  greater 
part  of  the  year. 

The  hippopotamus  is  more  essentially  an  aquatic  animal  than  any 
other  Ungulate,  the  greater  portion  of  its  time  being  spent  in  the 
water,  where  its  movements  are  far  more  rapid  and  natural  than  they  are  on  land. 
As  the  carcase  of  a  hippopotamus  when  freshly  killed  sinks  rapidly  to  the  bottom, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  animal  when  the  lungs  are  inflated  with  air  cannot  be 
far,  if  at  all,  below  that  of  water,  and  the  animal  is  consequently  enabled  to  stay 
without  difficulty  at  the  bottom  of  a  river  or  lake,  where  it  can  run  with  ease  and 
speed.  Sir  S.  Baker  states  that,  when  undisturbed,  the  average  duration  of  time 
during  which  a  hippopotamus  remains  under  water  does  not  exceed  five  minutes ; 
but  in  regions  where  these  animals  are  much  hunted  the  length  of  the  immersion 
is  often  much  greater,  sometimes  extending  to  as  much  as  ten  minutes.  The  same 
writer  also  mentions  that  when  on  the  upper  Nile  in  a  steamer  that  was  travelling 
about  ten  knots  an  hour,  it  was  not  till  the  engineer  increased  the  pace  by  putting 
on  full  steam,  they  were  able  to  overtake  a  hippopotamus  swimming  about  a 
hundred  yards  in  advance  of  the  vessel.  When  a  hippopotamus  comes  to  the 
surface  it  generally  spouts  up  a  column  of  water  by  the  violent  blowing-out  of  air 
through  the  nostrils,  accompanied  by  a  loud  snorting  noise ;  but,  as  we  shall  again 
notice,  these  animals  learn  caution  in  these  respects  when  much  persecuted.  A 
peculiarity  of  the  hippopotamus  is  that  when  swimming  in  the  water  and  about  to 
dive,  it  gradually  subsides  by  slowly  sinking  the  hind-quarters  and  afterwards  the 
rest  of  the  body,  instead  of  sinking  down  head-foremost.  When  on  a  high  bank 
and  suddenly  frightened,  it  will  not,  however,  hesitate  to  precipitate  itself 
headlong  into  the  water. 

As  the  giraffe  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  characteristic  and  striking  animal 
in  an  African  desert-landscape,  so  the  hippopotamus  forms  the  most  distinctive 
living  feature  in  a  river-scene ;  and  nothing  can  be  more  impressive  than  to  come 
suddenly  upon  a  herd  of  these  gigantic  animals  on  the  margin  of  some  unfrequented 
lake  or  river.  Such  a  scene  is  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Selous,  who  writes 
that  on  one  occasion  his  companion  and  himself,  after  making  their  way  through  a 
thick  bush -jungle,  suddenly  emerged  upon  a  river-bank.  "  Upon  a  spit  of  white 
sand  which  jutted  into  the  pool  from  the  opposite  bank,  stood,  high  and  dry,  a  herd 


HIPPOPOTAMI.  449 

of  at  least  twenty  hippopotami,  their  huge,  bulky  carcases  looking,  as  they  stood 
all  huddled  together,  like  so  many  black  rocks."  After  mentioning  that  a  water- 
buck  standing  on  the  further  shore  soon  took  alarm,  Mr.  Selous  continues  that  the 
hippopotami,  "  though  we  were  in  full  view  and  only  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  from  them,  did  not  seem  to  notice  us,  but  stood  quite  motionless  and  appar- 
ently asleep,  except  that  now  and  then  one  would  move  his  enormous  head  slowly 
to  the  one  side  or  the  other.  ...  At  length  they  heard  us  talking,  and  commenced, 
one  after  the  other,  to  walk  into  the  river.  When  their  bodies  were  half  immersed 
they  let  themselves  down  with  a  splash,  and  either  swam  into  deep  water  with  just 
the  tips  of  their  heads  out,  or  dived  out  of  sight  at  once  ;  I  suppose  there  must  have 
been  a  ledge  beside  which  the  water  deepened  suddenly.  There  were  some  quite 
small  calves  amongst  them,  and  these  little  beasts  all  ran  into  the  water  with  a 
splash,  whilst  the  full-grown  animals  stepped  in  slowly  and  sedately."  Similar 
testimony  as  to  the  ease  with  which  hippopotami  may  be  approached  in  undisturbed 
districts  is  afforded  by  Sir  J.  Willoughby  in  East  Africa.  When  stealthily  punting 
on  a  raft  towards  a  small  herd,  this  writer  observes  that  the  hippopotami,  "  did  not 
seem  to  mind  our  approach  in  the  least  degree,  but  continued  to  enjoy  themselves 
by  puffing  and  snorting  and  blowing  water  in  jets  from  their  nostrils,  and  now  and 
again  sinking  down,  to  reappear  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  minutes,  and,  with  their 
heads  half  out  of  the  water,  to  take  a  look  round.  When  we  were  within  thirty 
yards,  they  ceased  their  gambols  to  gaze  with  astonishment  at  what  I  suppose  was 
the  first  attempt  to  navigate  these  waters." 

On  the  White  Nile  Sir  S.  Baker  states,  that  during  the  dry  season  he  has  seen 
a  bend  of  the  river  so  crowded  with  hippopotami,  that  it  seemed  impossible  that 
his  steamer  would  be  able  to  make  its  way  without  coming  into  collision  with  some 
of  the  monsters.  All,  however,  managed  to  steer  clear  of  the  path  of  the  vessel, 
which  passed  through  a  perfect  crowd  of  snorting  and  blowing  heads. 

Kegarding  the  general  habits  and  haunts  of  the  hippopotamus,  Dr.  Livingstone 
states,  that  on  the  Chobi  and  other  large  rivers,  the  banks  are  marked  by  numerous 
furrows  made  by  these  animals  in  ascending  during  the  night  to  graze  on  the 
herbage  of  the  adjacent  lands;  and  he  adds  that  as  they  are  guided  back  to  these 
paths  solely  by  scent,  if  a  heavy  rain  comes  on  during  their  nocturnal  excursions 
they  are  unable  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  river,  and  stand  helpless  on  the  land. 
The  males  generally  remain  in  company  with  the  females,  although  a  few  very 
aged  individuals  of  the  former  sex  may  lead  more  or  less  solitary  lives.  "  The  still 
reaches,"  continues  the  same  observer,  "  are  their  favourite  haunts,  as  elsewhere  the 
constant  exertion  necessary  to  keep  themselves  from  being  carried  down  the  stream 
disturbs  their  nap.  They  remain  by  day  in  a  drowsy  yawning  state,  taking  little 
notice  of  things  at  a  distance.  The  males  utter  loud,  snorting  grunts,  which  may 
be  heard  a  mile  off.  The  young  ones  stand  on  the  necks  of  their  dams,  and  their 
small  heads  appear  first  above  the  surface  as  they  rise  to  breathe.  The  dam, 
knowing  the  more  urgent  need  of  her  calf,  rises  more  frequently  when  it  is  in  her 
care.  In  the  rivers  of  Londa,  where  they  are  in  danger  of  being  shot,  the  hippo- 
potami gain  wit  by  experience ;  for  while  those  in  the  Zambesi  expose  their  heads, 
the  others  keep  their  noses  among  the  water-plants,  and  breathe  so  quickly  as  to 
elude  all  observation." 

VOL.  n. — 29 


45° 


UNGULATES. 


On  the  banks  of  the  White  Nile,  Sir  S.  Baker  states  that  the  favourite  haunts 
of  hippopotami  are  the  dense  masses  of  tall  reeds  fringing  the  river.  There 
they  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  in  marshy  retreats  among  the  canes ; 
such  dens  would  be  impervious  to  human  beings,  and  would  not  be  observed 
unless  from  a  vessel  upon  the  river.  The  tangled  mass  of  vegetation  is  pierced 
in  numerous  places  by  dark  tunnels,  which  have  been  bored  out  by  their  bulky 
forms,  and  these  gloomy  routes  form  their  channels  of  retreat,  where  they  retire 
to  sleep.  Females,  with  their  calves,  are  especially  fond  of  these  impervious 
bowers,  where  they  are  secure  from  all  chances  of  molestation  by  man  or  beast. 

The  hippopotamus  is  a  purely  herbivorous  animal,  and  from  its  gigantic  bulk 
consumes  an  enormous  amount  of  food.  The  capacious  stomach,  which,  when 
extended,  measures  some  11  feet  in  length,  is  indeed  capable  of  containing  between 
five  and  six  bushels,  which  gives  some  idea  of  the  vast  quantity  of  nutriment  the 
creature  requires.  In  uncultivated  districts,  grass  and  various  water-plants — more 
especially  the  lotus  and  papyrus — afford  the  chief  food-supply;  but  where  the 
land  adjoining  the  rivers  is  under  cultivation,  the  damage  done  to  growing  crops  of 
rice,  millet,  maize,  and  sugar  by  hippopotami  is  incalculable.  It  is  not  only  the 
amount  they  actually  eat  (although  this  is  large  enough),  but  the  quantity  damaged 
in  their  passage  from  one  part  of  a  field  to  another.  Water-plants  are  dragged 
up  by  the  roots  from  the  beds  of  rivers  and  lakes,  when  not  too  deep,  by  the 
hippopotamus  in  its  capacious  mouth,  and  after  being  brought  to  the  surface, 
are  devoured  at  leisure.  When  starting  for  their  nocturnal  excursions  in  the 
fields,  these  animals  seldom  leave  the  river  till  about  an  hour  after  sunset,  and  do 
not  return  till  dawn.  On  such  expeditions  they  make  a  prodigious  snorting  and 
grunting,  which  may  be  heard  for  long  distances. 

There  is  usually  but  a  single  offspring  produced  at  a  birth,  and  Sir  S.  Baker 
says  that  he  has  never  seen  a  female  hippopotamus  accompanied  by  more  than  two 
calves.  The  period  of  gestation  is  a  little  short  of  eight  months,  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  young  may  be  brought  forth  at  any  season  of  the  year.  The  mother,  as 
we  have  already  noticed,  is  sedulous  in  her  attention  to  her  offspring,  but  the  male 
is  apt  to  be  evilly  disposed  towards  it.  Males,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker's 
account,  are  constantly  fighting  among  themselves  at  night,  and  apparently  irre- 
spective of  any  particular  pairing-season  ;  and  it  is  also  stated  by  the  same  observer 
that  a  wounded  animal  may  be  furiously  attacked  by  a  comrade. 

The  full  age  attained  by  the  hippopotamus  in  its  wild  state  has  not  been 
ascertained,  but,  since  a  calf  brought  to  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens 
in  1850  survived  till  1878,  the  span  of  life  must  be  considerable. 

In  disposition  the  hippopotamus  is  generally  described  as  comparatively  timid, 
but  when  a  boat  passes  unexpectedly  into  the  middle  of  a  sleeping  herd,  or  comes 
close  to  a  solitary  individual  at  night,  the  results  are  apt  to  be  serious.  Sir  S. 
Baker  says  that,  when  travelling  by  night  in  an  ordinary  boat  on  the  Nile,  "  there 
is  no  possibility  of  escape  should  a  hippopotamus  take  into  his  head  that  your 
vessel  is  an  enemy.  The  creature's  snort  may  be  heard  at  a  few  yards'  distance 
in  the  darkness,  and  the  next  moment  you  may  be  overturned  by  an  attack  from 
beneath,  where  the  enemy  was  unseen."  Dr.  Livingstone  relates  how  that  on  the 
Chobi  a  solitary  male  issued  from  its  lair  and  charged  some  of  his  company  with 


HIPPOPOTAMI.  451 

considerable  speed,  and  it  was  reported  to  him  that  another  had  completely  smashed 
a  canoe  with  a  single  blow  from  its  hind  foot.  On  another  occasion  a  female 
hippopotamus,  whose  young  had  been  speared  the  previous  day,  rose  suddenly 
beneath  the  canoe  containing  Livingstone  and  seven  natives,  and  with  her  head 
lifted  one  half  of  it  completely  out  of  the  water,  so  as  nearly  to  overturn  it.  On 
the  White  Nile  one  of  these  animals  boldly  charged  one  of  Sir  S.  Baker's  steamers, 
and,  not  content  with  breaking  several  floats  from  one  of  the  paddle-wheels,  actually 
knocked  two  large  holes  with  its  tusks  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  same 
writer  also  relates  that  a  hippopotamus  once  struck  the  bottom  of  a  "  dug-out ;' 
canoe  measuring  twenty-seven  feet  in  length  with  such  force  as  to  lift  it  partially 
out  of  the  water.  The  most  extraordinary  incident  of  wanton  maliciousness  on 


HIPPOPOTAMI   AT   HOME. 


Hunting. 


the  part  of  these  animals  is,  however,  one  also  recorded  by  Sir  S.  Baker.  His 
natives  were  swimming  a  herd  of  about  twenty  cattle  across  the  Nile,  when  they 
were  suddenly  attacked  by  a  party  of  hippopotami,  some  of  which  seized  with  open 
jaws  several  of  the  cows  and  dragged  them  beneath  the  water,  never  to  reappear. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  in  the  habit 
of  harpooning  the  hippopotamus,  and  this  custom  is  still  kept  up  by 
the  Sudanis  on  the  upper  Nile.  The  usual  plan  when  a  party  of  these  animals 
has  been  observed  in  the  river,  is  for  a  couple  of  hunters,  each  armed  with  a 
harpoon  to  which  a  line  is  attached,  to  enter  the  river  some  distance  above,  and 
swim  cautiously  down  on  the  herd.  When  within  striking  distance,  both  men  hurl 
their  weapons  at  the  same  time.  To  each  line  is  attached  a  wooden  float,  which 
marks  the  position  of  the  animal  while  below  the  surface,  and  the  chase  is  taken 
up  by  other  hunters  on  the  bank  armed  with  harpoons  and  lances.  By  an  ingenious 


452  UNGULATES. 

arrangement,  the  float  is  at  length  captured  by  a  rope  and  the  animal  dragged  to 
shore,  where  it  is  despatched  with  lances.  This,  however,  Sir  S.  Baker  states,  is 
frequently  not  accomplished  without  the  death  of  one  or  more  of  the  intrepid 
hunters.  In  Central  Africa,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hippopotamus  is  harpooned 
from  canoes.  In  other  parts  the  favourite  method  is  to  suspend  a  weighted  spear, 
frequently  tipped  with  poison,  over  a  branch  of  a  tree  near  the  tracks  of  the 
hippopotamus,  and  to  make  fast  the  end  of  the  line,  to  which  it  is  attached  to  stakes 
on  either  side  of  the  path.  When  the  animal  comes  along,  it  strikes  against  the 
line,  the  stakes  are  loosened,  and  the  heavy  spear  comes  down  with  a  thud  on  its 
head  or  back.  Yet  another  plan  is  to  construct  pitfalls  in  the  paths  frequented  by 
these  animals,  and  to  cover  them  over  carefully  on  the  top  with  boughs,  reeds, 
or  grass. 

The  most  cruel  method  is,  however,  one  sometimes  employed  by  the  Kaffirs  of 
South-Eastern  Africa,  who,  as  Mr.  Selous  relates,  are  in  the  habit  of  starving  the 
unfortunate  brutes.  They  select  a  pool  in  a  river  where  the  bottom  is  sandy,  and 
consequently  where  there  is  no  vegetation ;  and  for  choice  they  prefer  a  pool  with 
a  high  bank  on  one  side.  Having  driven  or  watched  a  party  of  hippopotami  into 
such  a  pool,  the  Kaffirs  form  a  hedge  round  the  open  sides,  and  thus  render  egress 
impossible.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  came  across  such  a  pool, 
where,  so  far  as  he  could  ascertain,  the  animals  had  been  enclosed  for  about  three 
weeks.  When  his  party  reached  the  scene  of  operations  there  were  still  ten  living 
hippopotami  in  the  pool.  "  Eight  of  these  seemed  to  be  standing  on  the  bank  in 
the  middle  of  the  water,  as  more  than  half  their  bodies  were  exposed ;  the  poor 
brutes  were  all  huddled  up  in  a  mass,  each  with  his  upraised  head  resting  on 
another's  body.  Two  more  were  swimming  about,  each  with  a  very  heavily-shafted 
assegai  sticking  in  his  back ;  these  assegais  are  plunged  into  them  at  night  when 
the  starving  beasts  come  near  the  fences  seeking  for  a  means  of  exit  from  their 
horrible  prison." 

Europeans  are  in  the  habit  of  shooting  hippopotami  with  rifles,  but  most  who 
have  tried  this  sport  agree  that,  when  the  novelty  has  worn  off,  it  is  not  of  a  very 
exciting  nature.  Although  when  first  killed  the  carcase  of  a  hippopotamus  sinks 
to  the  bottom  immediately  after  death,  it  will  rise  within  twenty-four  hours,  owing 
to  the  generation  of  gases  in  the  stomach,  if  the  depth  of  water  does  not  exceed 
some  twenty-five  feet. 

Formerly  hippopotamus  ivory  was  valued  for  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  teeth,  and  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  it  fetched  as 
much  as  twenty -five  shillings  per  Ib.  Now,  however,  the  animal  is  hunted  solely 
for  its  hide  and  fat,  or  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  as  food.  The  hide  is  used  for  whips, 
arid,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  also  for  facing  revolving  wheels  employed  in 
polishing  steel.  A  good  hippopotamus  will  yield  about  200  Ibs.  of  pure  fat ;  and 
the  writer  last  named  states  that  the  flesh  of  the  hippopotamus  is  always  palatable, 
that  of  the  young  calf  being  delicious ;  the  feet  of  the  latter  making  an  excellent 
stew,  and  its  skin  soup  which  has  been  compared  to  turtle. 

in  Captivity  Hippopotami  thrive  well  in  captivity,  and  breed  not  unfrequently. 

The   first   specimen    exhibited   in   the   London   Zoological   Society's 

Gardens  was  captured  on  the  upper  Nile  in  1849,  and  brought  to  England  in 


HIPPOPOTAMI,  453 

the  following  year,  where,  as  already  mentioned,  it  lived  till  1878.  This  was  a 
male,  and  although  a  consort  was  obtained  for  it  in  1853,  no  young  were  produced 
till  1871.  The  calf  born  in  that  year  did  not,  however,  long  survive,  and  the  same 
untimely  fate  also  befell  a  second  calf  produced  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year. 
A  third  calf  was  born  in  the  autumn  of  1872,  and  is  still  living  (1894). 

Pigmy  The    Liberian    or    pigmy   hippopotamus   (H.   liberiensis)   from 

Hippopotamus.  Western  Africa  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  not  exceeding  a  pig  in 
dimensions,  and  weighing  only  about  400  Ibs.  This  species  differs  structurally  from 
the  common  one  in  having  only  a  single  pair  of  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw, 
although  a  small  representative  of  the  second  pair  may  sometimes  occur  on  one 
side.  The  colour  of  the  back  is  slaty  black,  while  that  of  the  under-parts  is  dirty 
greyish  white,  and  the  sides  greenish  slaty  grey.  The  height  at  the  shoulder  is 
about  2  feet  6  inches,  and  the  total  length  6  feet,  of  which  7  inches  are  occupied 
by  the  tail. 

This  diminutive  species  appears  to  be  confined  to  Upper  Guinea, 

and  according  to  Herr  Btittikofer  is  found  only  in  swamps  and  damp 

forests,  and  not  in  rivers.     Its  habits  are  said,  indeed,  to  be  more  like  those  of  wild 

swine  than  those  of  its  gigantic  cousin,  and,  instead  of  traversing  well-beaten  paths, 

it  wanders  great  distances  in  the  woods.     The  author  quoted  is  uncertain  whether 

the  Liberian  hippopotamus  is  nocturnal  or  diurnal  in  its  habits,  although  he  is 

inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  the  latter.     It  is,  however,  certain  that  it  lives  either 

solitary  or  in  pairs,  and  that  it  never  associates  in  troops  like  the  larger  species. 

Extinct  Among  extinct  species  of  the  genus,  the  Maltese  hippopotamus 

Hippopotami,  (jj  minutus),  of  which  the  remains  are  found  in  such  enormous 
quantities  in  the  caverns  of  Malta  and  Sicily,  appears  to  have  been  no  larger  than 
the  Liberian  species,  though  it  resembled  the  ordinary  living  African  one  in  the 
number  of  its  lower  incisor  teeth.  Intermediate  in  size  between  the  Maltese  and 
the  common  hippopotamus  was  Pentland's  hippopotamus  {H.  pentlandi),  found  in 
the  same  deposits  as  the  former.  The  vast  quantities  in  which  the  remains  of  these 
two  extinct  species  are  found  in  the  Sicilian  caves  presents  a  puzzle,  since  hippo- 
potami are  not  the  sort  of  animals  which  one  would  expect  to  frequent  such 
habitations.  Some  years  ago  many  shiploads  of  teeth  and  bones  of  these  species 
were  imported  into  England  from  Palermo  for  the  manufacture  of  charcoal. 

Although  hippopotami  are  now  quite  unknown  in  India,  during  the  Pleistocene 
and  Pliocene  epochs  they  were  abundant  in  that  country.  In  the  Pleistocene  of  the 
Narbada  Valley  in  Central  India  remains  of  two  species  of  the  genus  are  met  with ; 
one  of  these  (H.  palceindicus)  being  characterised  by  the  presence  on  each  side  of 
the  lower  jaw  of  a  small  incisor  tooth  between  the  two  larger  ones,  corresponding 
to  those  of  the  common  African  hippopotamus ;  while  in  the  second  Narbada 
species  (H.  namadicus)  both  upper  and  lower  jaws  were  provided  with  three 
nearly  equal-sized  pairs  of  incisor  teeth.  The  same  condition  also  obtains  in  the 
Siwalik  hippopotamus  (H.  sivalensis)  from  the  Pliocene  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  likewise  in  the  Pliocene  Burmese  hippopotamus  (H.  iravadicus)  and 
the  Algerian  hippopotamus  (H.  bonariensis),  which  was  likewise  of  Pliocene  age. 
An  extinct  hippopotamus  (H.  lemerlei)  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  superficial 
deposits  of  Madagascar. 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

UNGULATES, — continued. 
TAPIRS,  RHINOCEROSES,  AND  HORSES. 

WITH  the  three  groups  of  animals  known  as  tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and  horses,  we 
come  to  an  assemblage  of  Ungulates  differing  in  many  important  respects  from  all 
those  described  in  the  preceding  chapters,  and  collectively  constituting  a  distinct 
primary  division  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong.  The  most  obvious  external 


SKELETON   OF   MALAYAN  TAPIR. 


characteristics  of  this  assemblage  of  animals  are  displayed  by  their  feet,  in  which,  as 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention  (p.  153),  the  toe  corresponding  to  the  third 
or  middle  finger  of  the  human  hand,  or  to  the  middle  toe  of  the  human  foot,  is  always 
larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  is  symmetrical  in  itself.  This  peculiarity  of 
foot-structure  is  exhibited  in  the  accompanying  figure,  and  likewise  in  the  smaller 
figures  on  p.  455  ;  and  how  essentially  different  it  is  from  the  type  of  foot  obtaining 
in  the  even-toed  Ungulates  will  be  apparent  by  contrasting  these  figures  with  the 
illustration  of  the  foot  of  the  pig  given  on  p.  422.  In  all  the  Even-toed  Ungulates, 
we  may  once  again  remind  our  readers,  instead  of  the  third  toe  being  symmetrical 
in  itself  and  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  it  is  symmetrical  to  a  line  drawn 
between  itself  and  the  fourth  toe,  and  is  equal  in  size  to  the  latter,  with  which  it 
forms  a  pair. 

Although  in  the  members  of  the  present  group  the  number  of  toes  in  the  foot 
is  frequently  three,  it  may  be  increased  to  four  or  diminished  to  one ;  yet  in  all 


ODD-TOED   GROUP. 


455 


these  variations  the  symmetry  of  the  third  digit  is  preserved.  And  it  is  on  account 
of  the  prominence  of  this  same  digit  that  the  group  has  received  the  designation  of 
the  Odd-toed,  or  Perissodactyle  Ungulates. 

Another  distinctive  feature  of  this  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  conformation  of 
the  astragalus  of  the  ankle-joint  of  the  hind-foot.  This 
bone,  which  forms  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the 
accompanying  figure  of  the  hind-foot  of  a  rhinoceros,  is 
characterised  by  its  deeply-grooved  pulley-like  superior 
surface,  while  inferiorly  it  is  abruptly  truncated ;  and, 
unlike  that  of  the  Even-toed  group,  it  has  not  a  facet  for 
articulation  with  the  fibula,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  leg. 
The  astragalus  of  an  Even -toed  Ungulate  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  more  elongated  bone,  with  its  lower  surface 
highly  convex,  and  divided  into  two  distinct  moieties. 
A  third  very  important  characteristic  of  the  limbs  of  the 
Odd -toed  Ungulates  is  that  the  femur,  or  bone  of  the 
upper  segment  of  the  hind-leg,  is  furnished  with  a  pro- 
jecting crest  on  the.  upper  part  of  its  hinder  surface 
known  as  the  third  trochanter ;  this  trochanter  (of  which 
the  position  is  clearly  shown  in  the  left  hind -limb  of 
the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  tapir)  being  quite  un- 
known among  the  Even-toed  Ungulates. 

The  foregoing  characteristics  of  the  feet  are  alone 
sufficient  to  distinguish  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates  from  the 
even-toed  group,  but  there  are  also  certain  other  features — especially  some  connected 
with  the  teeth — which  it  is  advisable  to  notice.     As  regards  the  cheek-teeth,  it 
may  be  observed  that  in  the  upper  jaw  the  premolars  (as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure)  are  generally 
as    complex    as    the    molars, 
whereas  in  most  members  of 
the  Even-toed  group  they  are 
simpler.     Then,  again,  all  the 
upper    cheek-teeth,    with    the    THE  LEFT  UPPER  CHEEK-TEETH  OF  THE  ANCHITHERE.    (From  Osborn.) 
exception  of  the  first,  in  most 

of  the  earlier  and  more  primitive  representatives  of  the  group  are  characterised 
by  carrying  six  columns  or  cusps  on  their  crowns,  of  which  the  two  innermost  pairs 
tend  to  unite  more  or  less  completely,  and  thus  form  a  pair  of  oblique  transverse 
ridges,  extending  across  the  crown  to  the  two  outer  columns ;  the  two  latter  also 
uniting  to  form  a  longitudinal  outer  wall  to  the  tooth.  From  this  primitive  type 
of  tooth  all  the  more  specialised  developments  may  be  derived,  and,  as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  notice  later  on,  while  the  earlier  forms  have  low-crowned  molar  teeth, 
like  those  represented  in  the  figure,  some  of  the  later  types  have  the  crowns  greatly 
elongated  in  the  vertical  direction.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  the  Odd-toed 
Ungulates  have  developed  in  a  manner  exactly  paralleled  among  the  Even-toed 
group,  a  similar  parallelism  being  also  noticeable  in  respect  to  the  reduction  of 
the  number  of  toes  on  the  feet.  Moreover,  as  we  find  in  the  Even-toed  Ungulates 


BONES  OF  THE   RIGHT    HIND-FOOT 
OF  AN   EXTINCT   RHINOCEROS. 

(From  Osborn.) 


456  UNGULATES. 

an  increased  length  in  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  those  forms  in  which 
but  two  functional  bones  remain,  so  in  the  present  group  there  is  a  similar  elonga- 
tion of  the  single  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  (cannon)  bones  in  its  one-toed  repre- 
sentatives, namely,  the  horses.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  the  great  importance 
played  by  parallelism  in  the  development  of  allied  groups  of  animals  has  been 
fully  recognised,  and  fresh  instances  of  it  are  being  constantly  discovered.  In  no 
group  are  there  better  examples  of  this  phenomenon  than  among  the  Ungulates, 
where  it  is  displayed  among  several  groups,  and  affects  totally  different  parts  of 
the  skeleton. 

The  lower  cheek-teeth  of  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates  very  generally  differ  from 
those  of  the  other  main  group  in  that  the  last  of  the  series  resembles  those  in 
advance  of  it  in  having  two  lobes,  this  feature  being  distinctive  of  the  whole  of  the 
existing  members  of  the  group.  On  the  other  hand,  in  all  the  living  representatives 
of  the  even-toed  group,  with  the  single  exception  of  one  small  antelope  (Neotragus, 
p.  309),  the  corresponding  tooth  has  three  distinct  lobes.  Generally,  the  lower 
cheek-teeth  of  the  present  group  carry  either  two  transverse  ridges  or  a  pair  of 
crescents,  one  in  front  of  the  other,  on  their  crowns.  It  may  be  added  that  all  the 
Odd-toed  Ungulates  have  simple  stomachs,  and  that  in  all  cases  the  liver  is  not 
provided  with  a  gall-bladder. 

The  whole  of  the  living  Odd-toed  Ungulates  may  be  divided  into  three  well- 
marked  family  groups,  which  are  commonly  designated  as  tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and 
horses  (the  latter  term  including  zebras,  asses,  etc.);  and  according  to  the  classifica- 
tion adopted  in  this  work,  each  of  these  three  families  is  now  represented  only  by 
a  single  genus.  With  the  exception  of  the  tapirs,  which  are  common  to  the 
Malayan  region  and  Central  and  South  America,  all  the  existing  Odd-toed  Ungulates 
are  Old  World  animals.  Moreover,  all  the  three  groups  are  represented  by  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  species,  while,  with  the  exception  of  the  horses,  these 
species  are  far  inferior  in  the  number  of  individuals  by  which  they  are  represented 
to  the  majority  of  the  Even-toed  Ungulates.  All  these  circumstances  point  to  the 
conclusion  that,  as  a  whole,  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates  are  a  waning  group ;  and  this 
conclusion  is  fully  supported  by  the  discoveries  of  pala3ontology.  Thus,  in  the 
first  place,  both  rhinoceroses  and  horses  were  abundantly  represented  during  former 
epochs  in  the  New  World ;  while,  in  the  second  place,  the  rocks  of  both  hemispheres 
have  yielded  fossil  remains  of  an  enormous  number  of  extinct  generic,  and  even 
family,  types  of  Odd-toed  Ungulates,  several  of  which  serve  to  connect  very  closely 
together  the  three  living  groups.  What  may  have  been  the  reason  of  this  gradual 
waning  of  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates,  and  the  enormous  development  of  the  Even-toed 
group  during  the  later  geological  epochs,  it  is  not  easy  to  divine.  Perhaps,  however, 
it  may  be  that  the  former  group  is  one  of  a  lower  and  less  adaptive  nature  than  the 
latter.  The  horses  are,  however,  an  exception  to  the  other  members  of  the  present 
group,  both  as  regards  the  number  of  species  and  individuals  (irrespective  of  those 
bred  by  man),  and  belong  to  a  specialised  branch  which  has  been  raised  to  a  platform 
of  evolution  as  high  as  that  occupied  by  the  Ox  family  in  the  other  group.  Even  here, 
however,  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  horses  (until  reintroduced  by  the  Spaniards) 
became  extinct  throughout  the  New  World,  unless  indeed  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson's 
suggestion  that  they  were  exterminated  by  pumas  should  prove  to  be  well  founded. 


TAPIRS.  457 

THE  TAPIRS. 
Family  TAPIRID^E. 

The  tapirs  are  the  least  specialised  of  all  the  existing  Odd-toed  Ungulates, 
and  their  peculiarly  antediluvian  appearance  would  indeed  suggest  this  even  to  the 
unscientific  observer.  Their  generalised  character  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance 
that  they  differ  from  all  other  living  members  of  the  same  great  group  by  having 
four  toes  to  their  fore-feet,  although  their  hind-feet  resemble  those  of  the  rhinoceroses 
in  being  tridactyle.  In  the  fore-feet  the  three  main  toes  correspond  to  the  three 
middle  fingers  of  the  human  hand,  while  the  small  external  one  represents  the 
fifth,  or  little  finger.  The  tapirs  are  further  characterised  by  the  production  of  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle  into  a  short  cylindrical  proboscis  or  trunk,  at  the  extremity 
of  which  are  situated  the  nostrils.  The  general  form  of  the  body  is  heavy  and 
ungainly,  the  limbs  being  relatively  short  and  stout,  and  the  tail  scarcely  more 
than  a  rudiment.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head,  and 
the  erect  and  oval  ears  of  moderate  size.  The  thick  skin  is  smooth  and  covered 
with  a  rather  scanty  coat  of  short  hair,  which  is  usually  of  uniform  colour. 

The  skull,  as  seen  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on  p.  454,  is  rather  short, 
narrow,  and  high,  its  most  distinctive  features  being  the  enormous  size  of  the 
aperture  of  the  nose,  and  the  absence  of  any  bony  bar  dividing  the  socket  of  the 
eye  from  the  great  channel  on  the  side  of  the  brain-case.  The  teeth  are  forty- 
two  in  number,  or  two  less  than  the  full  typical  number,  the  missing  ones  being  the 
first  premolar  on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  short-crowned  cheek-teeth  are 
separated  from  those  in  the  front  of  the  jaws  by  a  long  gap,  and  the  tusks,  or 
canines,  are  small,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  being  inferior  in  dimensions  to  the 
outermost  pair  of  incisors.  The  upper  cheek-teeth  have  two  transverse  ridges 
and  an  outer  longitudinal  wall,  while  those  of  the  lower  jaw  carry  a  pair  of 
transverse  ridges  alone.  In  the  limbs  all  the  bones  are  fully  developed  and  quite 
distinct  from  one  another.  It  may  be  added  that  the  toes  are  encased  in  long  and 
rather  oval  hoofs,  while  inferiorly  the  foot  is  furnished  with  a  large  callous  pad, 
which  takes  a  share  in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body.  Except  when  the  soil 
is  soft  and  yielding,  the  small  outermost  toe  of  the  fore-foot  scarcely  touches  the 
ground. 

The  existing  tapirs,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the  one  genus 
Distribution. 

Tapirus,  have  a  most  remarkable  geographical  distribution,  a  solitary 

species  being  found  in  the  Malayan  region,  while  the  whole  of  the  other  four  are 
restricted  to  Central  and  South  America.  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  circumstance 
that,  instead  of  all  the  American  species  being  closely  allied,  two  of  them  are 
nearly  related  to  the  Malayan  tapir,  while  the  other  two  form  a  totally  distinct 
group.  A  flood  of  light  on  this  remarkable  instance  of  what  is  known  as  dis- 
continuous distribution  is,  however,  thrown  by  palaeontology,  remains  of  extinct 
tapirs  having  been  discovered  in  the  middle  and  upper  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe 
(including  those  of  England)  and  China,  while  nearly-allied  or  identical  forms  occur 
in  those  of  the  United  States.  Such  remains  are  also  found  in  the  cavern-deposits 
of  Brazil,  which  belong  to  the  later  Pleistocene  epoch.  Since  these  extinct  forms 


458  UNGULATES. 

belong  to  the  existing  genus,  tapirs  may  be  regarded  as  among  the  oldest  of  living 
Mammals.  It  was  considered  by  Mr.  Wallace  that  the  Old  World  was  the  original 
home  of  the  group,  from  whence  they  migrated  to  North  America ;  but  subsequent 
discoveries  have  rendered  this  doubtful.  Probably,  however,  they  are  but  com- 
paratively recent  immigrants  into  Central  and  South  America.  And  it  is  interesting 
to  notice,  as  Mr.  Wallace  observes,  that  while  in  the  Old  World,  where  they  were 
once  so  abundant,  they  have  dwindled  down  to  a  single  species,  existing  in  small 
numbers  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo  only,  in  the  western 


THE  MALAYAN  TAPIR  (T 


continent  they  occupy  a  much  larger  area,  and  are  represented  by  several  distinct 
species.  With  regard  to  the  probable  ancestors  of  the  tapirs,  we  shall  have  some 
remarks  to  make  at  the  conclusion  of  this  chapter. 

Save  for  the  circumstance  that  the  Malayan  species  differs  from  all  the  rest  in 
coloration,  the  various  kinds  of  tapirs  are  remarkably  alike,  both  in  respect  of 
bodily  form  and  habits.  Whereas,  however,  four  of  the  species  are  found  at  or  near 
the  sea-level,  the  fifth  inhabits  comparatively  high  elevations  in  the  Cordilleras. 

Speaking  of  tapirs  in  general,  Sir  W.  H.  Flower  remarks  that 
"  they  are  solitary,  nocturnal,  shy,  and  inoffensive,  chiefly  frequenting 


Habits. 


TAPIRS.  459 

the  depths  of  shady  forests  and  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  to  which  they  frequently 
resort  for  the  purpose  of  bathing,  and  in  which  they  often  take  refuge  when 
pursued.  They  feed  on  various  vegetable  substances,  as  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes, 
buds  and  leaves." 

The  Malayan  tapir  (T.  indicus)  is  the  largest  of  the  whole  group, 
'  and  differs  from  all  the  others  in  its  parti-coloured  skin.  In  height 
this  animal  stands  from  3  to  3|  feet  at  the  withers,  and  about  4  inches  more  at  the 
rump,  its  length  along  the  curves  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail 
being  about  8  feet.  In  the  adult  the  colour  of  the  head  and  front  of  the  body,  as 
well  as  the  limbs,  is  dark  brown  or  black,  while  the  body  from  behind  the  shoulders 
to  the  rump  and  the  upper  part  of  the  thighs  is  greyish  white,  as  are  also  the  ears. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  newly-born  young  are  brownish  or  velvety  black,  marked 
with  spots  and  longitudinal  streaks  of  brownish  yellow  on  the  sides,  and  of  white 
beneath ;  the  change  from  the  young  to  the  adult  coloration  taking  place,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Blanford,  between  four  and  six  months  after  birth. 

The  Malayan  tapir  is  found  in  the  peninsula  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
extending  northwards  to  Tenasserim,  and  it  also  occurs  in  the  island  of  Sumatra, 
and  perhaps  in  Borneo.  Although  one  of  its  skulls  had  been  sent  to  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal  in  Calcutta  as  far  back  as  the  year  1806,  it  was  not  till  Diard 
in  1817  sent  to  Cuvier  a  portrait  and  description  of  a  specimen  then  living  in  the 
viceroy's  menagerie  in  Barrakpur,  near  Calcutta,  that  it  was  recognised  in  Europe 
as  a  distinct  species.  Apart  from  a  notice  by  Wahlfeldt  in  1772,  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  had,  however,  knowledge  of  the  creature's  existence  in  1805,  and  in  1816 
Major  Farquhar  sent  a  description  of  the  animal  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 

Owing  to  its  retiring  nature,  the  Malayan  tapir  is  but  seldom  seen  in  its 
native  haunts,  and  our  information  as  to  its  habits  is  consequently  meagre  in  the 
extreme.  Indeed,  nothing  is  known  as  to  its  breeding-habits,  although  it  seems  to 
be  ascertained  that  but  one  young  is  produced  at  a  birth.  Mr.  Mason  writes  that, 
"  though  seen  so  rarely,  the  tapir  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the  interior  of  the 
Tavoy  and  Mergui  provinces.  I  have  frequently  come  upon  its  recent  footmarks, 
but  it  avoids  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  country."  When  taking  to  the  water,  it  is 
reported  to  plunge  in  and  walk  along  the  bottom,  instead  of  swimming.  In  spite 
of  its  shy  and  retiring  habits,  this  tapir,  if  captured  at  a  sufficiently  early  period, 
can  be  readily  tamed,  and  is  said  to  exhibit  considerable  attachment  to  its  master. 

Of  the  New  World  tapirs  the  best  known  species  is  the  common 
American  Tapirs.  .  .  .  v       •    •      «     j         «v  j  v    T  • 

South  American  tapir  (T.  amencanus),  originally  described  by  Lmna3us 

as  a  terrestrial  species  of  hippopotamus.  In  common  with  the  other  American 
kinds,  the  adult  is  of  a  uniform  dark  brown  or  blackish  colour,  although  the  young 
are  striped  and  spotted  after  the  manner  of  the  Asiatic  species.  The  snout  is 
shorter  than  in  the  latter,  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  more  elevated,  and  the  crown 
of  the  head  and  neck  furnished  with  a  short,  stiff,  upright  mane.  The  margins  of 
the  ears  are  white.  This  species  inhabits  the  forest-districts  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and 
the  northern  part  of  Argentina.  The  second  member  of  this  group  is  Roulin's  tapir 
(T.  roulini),  which  is  a  mountain  species  inhabiting  the  Cordilleras  of  Ecuador  and 
Colombia  at  an  elevation  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the 
Hea,  and  locally  known  as  the  pinchaque.  It  has  a  less  vaulted  skull  and  a  rounder 


460 


UNGULATES. 


neck,  without  distinct  crest,  than  the  lowland  species,  from  which  it  is  further 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  long  white  spot  on  the  chin. 

The  two  remaining  species  are  Baird's  tapir  (T.  bairdi),  ranging  from  Mexico 
to  Panama,  and  Dow's  tapir  (T.  dowi),  restricted  to  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Eica,  which  constitute  a  second  group  of  the  genus  distinguished  by  the 
characters  of  the  skull.  In  all  the  three  species  of  the  first  group,  as  seen  in  the 
figure  of  the  skeleton  given  on  p.  454,  the  nasal  cavity  is  perfectly  open  in  advance 
of  the  roofing  bones  of  the  skull ;  but  in  those  of  the  second  group  this  cavity  is 


Habits. 


THE   AMERICAN   TAPIR  (^  nat.  size). 


divided  by  a  vertical  partition  in  the  middle  line,  similar  to  one  shown  later  on  in 
the  figure  of  the  skull  of  an  extinct  rhinoceros. 

The  following  notes  on  the  habits  of  the  American  tapirs  refer 
mainly  or  exclusively  to  the  common  species.  These  tapirs  confine 
themselves  exclusively  to  the  thickest  parts  of  the  forests,  carefully  avoiding  all 
open  spaces,  and  forming  regular  pathways  along  which  they  travel  in  search  of 
food  and  water.  In  the  forest  itself  it  is  generally  difficult  to  come  across  them, 
but  Humboldt  and  others  state  that,  when  travelling  on  the  rivers  by  boat,  tapirs 
may  be  often  seen  in  the  early  morning,  when  they  come  to  the  bank  for  the 
purpose  of  drinking.  Although  mainly  nocturnal,  it  is  stated  that  in  the  densest 
and  darkest  portions  of  the  forest  tapirs  may  be  encountered  abroad  during  the 


TAPIRS.  461 

daytime.  They  are  fond  of  gamboling  in  the  water  and  rolling  in  soft  mud,  their 
hides  being  often  thickly  plastered  with  the  latter,  probably  as  a  protection  against 
the  bites  of  insects.  Indeed,  in  many  respects  their  mode  of  life  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  swine,  although  in  their  more  solitary  habits  they  present  a  closer 
resemblance  to  their  cousins  the  rhinoceroses.  Thus  the  males,  except  during  the 
pairing-season,  are  said  to  be  completely  solitary,  and  even  family  parties  are  but 
rarely  met  with ;  and,  except  when  several  have  been  temporarily  collected  by  the 
attraction  of  unusually  good  pasture,  it  is  but  very  seldom  that  more  than  three 
individuals  are  seen  in  company.  Tapirs  commence  to  feed  in  the  evening,  and 
probably  continue  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  night. 

These  animals  are  slow  and  deliberate  in  their  movements,  usually  walking 
with  their  snouts  close  to  the  ground,  and  by  the  aid  of  scent  or  sound  detecting 
the  presence  of  foes  with  extreme  acuteness.  When  frightened,  however,  they  rush 
blindly  forwards,  crashing  through  bushes  or  splashing  through  water  in  precipitate 
flight.  The  American  tapir  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  crossing  the  largest  rivers 
with  facility,  and  even  diving  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  although  with  what 
object  is  not  ascertained.  Not  improbably  it  may  also  walk  along  the  beds  of 
shallow  rivers  and  lakes,  as  was  observed  to  be  the  habit  of  a  specimen  of  the 
Malayan  species  kept  in  captivity  at  Barrakpur. 

The  chief  sound  uttered  by  the  American  tapir  is  a  peculiar  shrill  whistle, 
which,  according  to  Azara,  has  but  little  volume  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the 
animal  by  which  it  is  emitted.  This  whistle  is  uttered  at  all  seasons,  and  is  not, 
as  has  been  supposed,  restricted  to  the  pairing -season;  the  Malayan  species  is 
reported  to  give  vent  to  a  very  similar  sound.  When  suddenly  disturbed,  the 
American  tapir  utters  a  loud  snort. 

Although  in  general  perfectly  harmless  animals,  fleeing  precipitately  before 
the  smallest  dog,  tapirs  will  sometimes  attack  their  enemies  fiercely,  this  being 
more  especially  the  case  with  females  that  have  been  deprived  of  their  young.  In 
such  instances  they  rush  violently  at  their  foes — human  or  otherwise — and  after 
knocking  them  down  will  trample  upon  and  bite  them  after  the  manner  of  wild 
swine. 

In  Brazil,  the  food  of  the  tapir  is  largely  composed  of  palm-leaves  in  districts 
remote  from  cultivation,  but  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  these  animals  subsist 
almost  exclusively  on  fallen  fruits,  while  in  other  districts  swamp-grasses  and  water- 
plants  form  their  chief  nutriment.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  plantations  they 
frequently  do  much  harm  to  the  crops  of  sugar-cane,  melons,  etc.,  and  they  are 
especially  dreaded  by  the  proprietors  of  cacao-plantations  for  the  amount  of 
damage  they  inflict  on  the  young  plants.  Salt  seems  especially  grateful  to  their 
palate,  and  in  order  to  obtain  it  they  will  eat  the  saline  earth  found  in  many  parts 
of  South  America.  In  captivity  they  are  fond  of  any  sweet  substances,  and  it  is 
also  said  that  in  this  condition  they  frequently  become  almost  as  omnivorous  as 
swine.  The  American  species  can  be  as  easily  tamed  as  their  Asiatic  cousin,  and 
tame  individuals  may  sometimes  be  seen  at  large  in  the  streets  of  some  of  the 
South  American  towns. 

Although  on  account  of  their  affording  no  trophies  in  the  shape 
of  horns,  antlers,  or  tusks,  tapirs  offer  no  attraction  to  European 


462  UNGULATES. 

sportsmen,  yet  they  are  much  sought  after  by  the  native  South- American  hunters 
for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  hide.  The  flesh  is  said  to  be  juicy  and  well- 
flavoured,  and  both  in  appearance  and  taste  resembles  beef.  The  skin,  which  is  of 
great  thickness  and  strength,  is  cut  into  long  thongs,  which,  after  being  rounded 
and  treated  with  fat,  are  used  for  reins  and  bridles.  It  is,  however,  unsuited  for 
shoe-leather,  as  it  becomes  very  hard  and  unyielding  when  dry,  and  very  soft  and 
spongy  when  wetted.  The  hairs,  hoofs,  and  certain  other  parts  are  used  by  the 
natives  as  medicine ;  the  hoofs  being  sometimes  hung  round  the  neck  as  charms, 
and  in  other  cases  ground  to  powder  and  taken  internally. 

In  South  America  tapirs  are  generally  hunted  with  the  aid  of  dogs,  which 
chase  the  animals  through  the  forest  until  they  enter  the  water.  Here  they  are 
attacked  by  the  hunters,  who  have  lain  concealed  among  the  reeds  on  the  river 
bank,  and  by  them  they  are  pursued  as  they  dive  and  swim  in  the  water.  When 
the  area  of  water  is  not  too  large,  the  chase  is  frequently  of  no  great  duration,  and 
the  animal  is  before  long  despatched  either  with  a  club  or  a  hunting-knife.  Some- 
times, however,  the  hunt  is  more  protracted,  the  tapir  leaving  the  water  and 
breaking  away  from  the  dogs  among  the  dense  reeds  or  bushes,  until  again  brought 
to  bay  in  another  pool  or  river.  The  traveller  Schomburgk  gives  a  graphic  account 
of  a  tapir  hunt  he  once  witnessed  when  in  South  America.  As  his  vessel  rounded 
a  headland  on  the  river,  a  female  tapir  with  her  young  came  into  view  standing  on 
a  sandbank.  Scarcely,  however,  had  his  Indians  time  to  utter  the  word  "  Maipuri  " 
(the  native  name  of  the  common  species),  than  the  two  animals  caught  sight  of  the 
party,  and  dashed  into  the  thick  cover  on  the  bank.  This  cover  was  in  the  form 
of  giant  reeds  and  grass,  with  sharp-cutting  edges,  some  seven  feet  in  height, 
which  offered  a  formidable  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Europeans.  The  Indians, 
however,  wriggled  their  way  between  the  stems  like  snakes ;  and  soon  two  shots 
in  quick  succession,  followed  by  a  shout  of  triumph,  told  that  they  had  come  up 
with  their  quarry.  When  Schomburgk  reached  the  scene,  he  passed  the  female 
tapir  lying  dead  with  a  bullet  through  the  lungs.  The  dogs  then  took  up  the  trail 
of  the  young  one,  which  was  concealed  among  the  reeds.  As  soon  as  the  creature 
perceived  that  it  was  discovered  by  the  dogs,  it  uttered  the  peculiar  whistling 
cry,  mentioned  above,  by  which  the  hunters  were  guided  to  its  place  of  con- 
cealment. Eventually  the  young  tapir,  which  was  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
full-grown  pig,  broke  cover,  and  after  an  exciting  although  short  chase  was 
despatched. 

In  some  parts  the  South  American  Indians  track  the  tapir  to  its  lair,  and 
shoot  it  as  it  lies.  In  Paraguay,  when  the  hunters  capture  a  young  tapir  of  too 
large  a  size  to  be  carried  on  a  horse  in  front  of  the  rider,  they  bore  a  hole  in  one 
side  of  the  snout  through  which  they  pass  a  thong,  and  the  animal  will  then  follow 
readily  enough  when  led. 

Next  to  man,  the  worst  foes  of  the  tapir  are  the  larger  cats ;  the 
jaguar  preying  largely  on  the  American  species  (as  depicted  in  the 
coloured  Plate  in  the  first  volume),  and  the  tiger  attacking  its  Malayan  cousin. 
It  is  said  that  when  an  American  tapir  is  attacked  by  a  jaguar,  it  immediately 
rushes  into  the  thickest  cover  in  the  hope  of  dislodging  its  assailant,  which  from 
the  thickness  of  the  animal's  hide  is  unable  to  obtain  a  firm  hold  on  its  back. 


RHINOCEROSES.  463 

It  is  further  reported  that  the  tapir  is  not  unfrequently  successful ;  and,  in 
an}T  case,  many  of  these  animals  are  killed  with  the  marks  of  jaguar's  claws 
on  their  backs. 

succession  of  Before   leaving  these   animals,  it   may   be   mentioned  that  the 

Teeth.  whole  of  the  four  premolar  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  are 
preceded  by  milk-teeth,  whereas  in  the  pig  and  other  Even-toed  Ungulates  the  first 
of  these  teeth  never  has  a  deciduous  predecessor,  as,  indeed,  is  the  case  with  other 
groups  of  Mammals.  Some  rhinoceroses,  however,  resemble  the  tapirs  in  having 
the  first  premolar  preceded  by  a  milk-tooth,  although  this  seems  to  be  merely 
an  individual,  and  not  a  specific  peculiarity. 


THE  RHINOCEROSES. 
Family  RHINOCEROTID^:. 

Although  inferior  in  length  of  body,  and  probably  also  in  weight,  to  the 
hippopotamus,  the  larger  species  of  rhinoceros  exceed  it  in  height,  and,  there- 
fore, vie  with  it  in  claiming  the  position  of  being  the  Mammals  next  in  point 
of  size  to  the  elephants.  Unlike  the  tapirs,  the  various  species  of  rhinoceros,  all 
of  which  are  now  confined  to  the  Old  World,  differ  very  markedly  from  one 
another  in  structure — so  much  so,  indeed,  that  by  many  writers  they  are  divided 
into  several  genera ;  and  there  is  also  considerable  disparity  in  point  of  size.  In 
spite,  however,  of  these  minor  differences,  all  these  animals  are  so  much  alike  in 
general  appearance,  that  it  seems  preferable  to  include  the  whole  of  them  in  the 
single  genus  Rhinoceros.  All  the  existing  rhinoceroses  differ  from  tapirs  in  having 
but  three  toes  on  both  fore  and  hind-feet,  but  since  there  are  some  extinct  species 
with  four  toes  to  the  front  limbs,  this  point  of  distinction  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
very  important  one.  The  presence  of  one  or  two  horns  in  the  middle  line  of  the 
front  of  the  head  might  at  first  sight  be  regarded  as  a  more  valuable  diagnostic 
character,  but  since  these  appendages  are  always  or  frequently  absent  in  the 
female  of  one  of  the  living  Indian  rhinoceroses,  and  are  invariably  wanting  in 
certain  extinct  kinds,  it  will  be  obvious  that  other  features  must  be  sought  that 
will  distinguish  these  animals  from  the  tapirs. 

Such  characteristics  are  to  be  found  in  the  cheek-teeth,  of  which 
Teeth. 

two  from  the  upper  jaws  of  certain  extinct  species  are  represented 

in  the  figures  on  next  page.  In  the  molar  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  the  two  outer 
columns  have  completely  coalesced  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  external  wall  to 
the  crown ;  this  wall  being  sinuous,  and  in  some  cases  (as  in  the  upper  figure) 
forming  a  prominent  buttress  at  the  front  outer  angle  of  the  crown.  From  this 
outer  wall  proceed  two  continuous  oblique  transverse  ridges,  separated  from  one 
another  by  a  deep  valley,  interrupted  by  projecting  processes  from  one  or  both 
ridges,  and  sometimes  also  from  the  outer  wall.  This  middle  valley  is  usually 
quite  free  from  cement ;  and  its  form,  as  likewise  the  relative  height  of  the  whole 
crown,  varies  considerably  in  the  different  species.  Instead  of  having  the  simple 
transverse  ridges  found  in  those  of  the  tapirs,  the  lower  cheek-teeth  of  the 
rhinoceroses  have  a  pair  of  crescents,  placed  one  in  front  of  the  other.  On  each 


464 


UNGULATES. 


side  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  there  are  seven  cheek-teeth ;  but  the  last  molar 
in  the  upper  jaw  differs  from  the  rest  in  having  its  hinder  ridge  more  or  less 
aborted,  so  that  the  form  of  the  crown  is  generally  triangular. 

As  regards  their  front  teeth,  the 
different  species  of  rhinoceros  present 
a  considerable  amount  of  variation, 
some  of  them  having  such  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  while  in  others  they  are 
totally  absent ;  but  there  are  never 
any  canine  teeth  or  tusks  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  the  number  of  upper  incisor 
teeth  never  exceeds  two  pairs.  In 
the  lower  jaw  there  may  be  a  pair 
of  large  pointed  and  nearly  horizontal 
tusks,  and  between  them  a  small  pair 
of  incisor  teeth. 

All  the  living  rhin- 
Form.  .  & 

oceroses  are  animals  or 

large  size  and  heavy  build,  with  the 
legs  comparatively  short  and  stout, 
although  less  so  than  in  the  hippo- 
potamus. Each  of  the  toes  is  furnished 
with  a  relatively  small,  but  broad  and 
well-defined  hoof -like  nail.  The  head 
is  large  and  elongated,  with  a  concave 
profile,  and  the  erect  oval  ears  placed 
very  far  back.  The  eyes  are  very 
small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
head ;  and  the  upper  lip  is  generally, 
although  not  invariably,  prehensile, 
and  prolonged  beyond  the  extremity 
of  the  lower  one.  The  thick  skin  is 
either  naked,  or  but  sparsely  clad  with 
hair,  and  may  be  thrown  in  certain 
parts  of  the  body  into  a  series  of  deep 
folds.  The  tail  is  thin  and  of  moderate 
length. 

The  horns,  which 
form  the  characteristic 
feature  of  the  physiognomy  of  the 
living  species,  are  composed  of  a 
closely-packed  mass  of  horny  fibres, 
growing  from  the  skin,  and  having  no  connection  with  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  although  there  are  prominences  on  the  latter  beneath  each  horn.  The 
skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  that  of  an  extinct  species  given  in  the  sequel, 
is  characterised  by  its  elevated  occipital  region,  long  curved  profile,  the  absence  of 


LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR  TEETH   OF  TWO  EXTINCT  SPECIES 
OF  RHINOCEROS. 

Both  considerably  worn  by  use. 


RHINOCEROSES.  465 

any  bony  bar  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  socket  of  the  eye,  and  the  large  size  of  the 
nasal  bones,  which  are  completely  fused  together.  In  those  species  with  but  one 
horn  this  is  carried  upon  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  front  horn  of  those  with  two  of 
these  appendages  has  a  similar  situation ;  but  the  second  horn,  when  present,  is 
placed  on  the  frontal  bones. 

Rhinoceroses  are  stupid  and  somewhat  timorous  beasts,  generally 
striving  to  escape  from  man,  although  when  brought  to  bay  exceed- 
ingly fierce,  and  consequently  from  their  great  size  very  dangerous.  Although  the 
African  species  are  entirely  dependent  on  their  enormous  horns,  as  weapons  of 
offence  and  defence,  the  Asiatic  kinds,  in  which  the  horns  are  smaller,  seem  to  rely 
chiefly  upon  their  sharply-pointed  lower  tusks,  which  are  capable  of  inflicting 
terrific  gashes.  All  are  mainly  nocturnal ;  and  while  some  resemble  the  tapirs  in 
frequenting  tall  grass-jungles  and  swampy  districts,  others  seem  to  prefer  more  or 
less  open  plains.  Their  food  is  entirely  vegetable ;  but  whereas  some  species 
subsist  almost  exclusively  on  grass,  the  food  of  others  consists  mainly  of  twigs  and 
small  boughs  of  trees ;  this  difference  in  diet  being  correlated  with  a  difference  in 
the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth.  At  the  present  day  these  animals  are  restricted 
to  South-Eastern  Asia  and  Africa ;  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups 
according  to  their  geographical  distribution,  the  Asiatic  group  being  again  sub- 
divided into  two  minor  groups. 

THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES. 

The  whole  of  the  three  species  of  rhinoceroses  inhabiting  Asia  are  character- 
ised by  the  skin  being  thrown  in  places  into  thick  folds,  and  by  the  presence  of 
teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws ;  the  horns  being  either  one  or  two  in  number. 

Indian  By  far  the  largest  of  these  three  is  the  great  one-horned  Indian 

Rhinoceros,  rhinoceros  (R.  unicornis),  which  may  be  conveniently  designated  as 
the  Indian  rhinoceros  par  excellence,  and  is  the  one  which  has  been  longest 
known  in  Europe  from  living  examples,  a  specimen  having  been  sent  to  Portugal 
as  long  ago  as  the  year  1513.  In  this  species  there  is  but  a  single  nasal  horn ;  and 
the  skin,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  tail  and  ears,  is  naked,  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  body  studded  with  a  numbe*  of  large  convex  tubercles,  reminding  one  of 
the  rivets  in  an  iron  boiler,  which  are  largest  on  the  fore  and  hind-quarters,  where 
they  may  be  as  much  as  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  skin  of  the  body  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  shield-like  pieces  by  the  aforesaid  folds.  Thus  there  is  a  fold 
before  and  behind  each  shoulder,  marking  off  a  large  triangular  shield  covering  the 
shoulder;  and  another  in  front  of  each  thigh  dividing  the  large  saddle-shaped 
body-shield  from  the  one  on  the  hind-quarters.  The  folds  behind  the  shoulder 
and  in  front  of  the  hind-quarters  continue  completely  across  the  back,  but  the  one 
in  front  of  the  shoulder  inclines  backwards  and  dies  out  close  to  the  second  great 
fold.  Other  folds  form  great  rolls  of  skin  on  the  neck,  while  there  are  others  below 
the  shields  on  the  fore  and  hind-quarters  and  one  situated  behind  the  buttocks 
which  forms  a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  tail.  The  head  is  very  large  in 
proportion  to  the  body,  with  the  occipital  region  of  the  skull  very  much  elevated ; 
and  the  ears  are  large,  with  their  tips  fringed  with  hairs.  The  horns  are  large  in 

VOL.  ii. — 30 


466 


UNGULATES. 


both  sexes ;  and  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  a  uniform  blackish  grey.  In  height  the 
Indian  rhinoceros  stands  from  5  feet  to  5|  feet  at  the  shoulder.  In  a  male  standing 
5  feet  9  inches  at  the  shoulder,  measured  by  General  Kinloch,  the  length  from  the 
tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  was  10  feet  6  inches,  the  length  of  the  tail 
2  feet  5  inches,  and  the  girth  of  the  body  9  feet  8  inches.  The  length  of  the  horn 
is  seldom  more  than  a  foot,  although  Jerdon  says  that  there  are  instances  on 
record  of  horns  of  2  feet  in  length,  and  one  in  the  British  Museum  measures 

19  inches. 

The  Indian  rhinoceros  is  further  characterised  by  its  teeth.     As 
a  rule,  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  broad  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw, 
although  in  some  cases  there  may  be  a  smaller  pair  behind  them.     In  the  lower 


Teeth. 


GREAT  INDIAN  RHINOCEROS  IN  THE  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS. 

jaw  there  is  one  pair  of  long,  triangular,  pointed  tusks,  and  between  them  a  pair 
of  small  cylindrical  incisors  which  can  be  of  no  functional  importance.  The  upper 
molar  teeth  have  tall  crowns,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  buttress  at  their  front  outer 
angle,  and  the  flat  plane  formed  by  their  worn  surface,  resemble  the  one  represented 
in  the  lower  figure  on  p.  464.  They  are,  however,  distinguished  from  the  latter 
by  the^  presence  of  a  small  vertical  plate,  projecting  from  the  outer  wall  into  the 
extremity  of  the  middle  valley.  It  will  be  obvious  that  this  flat  plane  of  wear  of 
the  cheek-teeth  implies  that  the  jaws  have  a  backwards-and-forwards  grinding 
motion,  and  not  a  champing  action;  such  a  mode  of  mastication  being  similar  to 
that  existing  in  horses  and  cattle. 


RHINOCEROSES,  467 

This   rhinoceros  is   exclusively  confined   to  India,  and   at   the 
Distribution. 

present  day,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  is  almost  restricted  to  the 

Assam  plain,  being  rarely,  if  ever,  found  to  the  westward  of  the  Tista  River. 
Twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  it  was,  however,  still  common  in  the  so-called  terai 
country  at  the  foot  of  the  Sikhim  Himalaya,  while  some  years  earlier  it  frequented 
the  sub-Himalayan  districts  of  Nipal,  and  ranged  as  far  west  as  Rohilcund ;  while 
the  writer  last  quoted  believes  that,  about  the  year  1850,  it  also  occurred  in  the 
grass-jungles  of  the  Ganges  valley  at  the  north  end  of  the  Rahmahal  Hills  in 
Bengal.  In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  ranged  over  the  Punjab  as  far 
westwards  as  Peshawur ;  and  since  its  fossilised  remains  are  found  in  the  North- 
West  Provinces,  the  Narbada  valley,  and  Madras,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
Indian  rhinoceros  formerly  ranged  over  the  greater  part  of  Peninsular  India,  in 
localities  suited  to  its  habits. 

The  Indian  rhinoceros  is  a  denizen  of  the  great  grass-jungles  that 
cover  such  a  large  portion  of  the  plains  of  India,  and  from  this 
circumstance,  coupled  with  the  general  resemblance  of  its  molar  teeth  to  those  of 
the  African  Burchell's  rhinoceros,  which  is  known  to  be  a  grass-eater,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  its  food  is  chiefly  grass.  Regarding  the  density  and  height  of  these 
jungles,  General  Kinloch  writes  that,  "  year  after  year,  in  the  short  space  of  two  or 
three  months,  these  giant  grasses  shoot  up  to  a  height  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet, 
forming,  with  the  wild  cardamum,  various  other  broad-leaved  plants,  and  numerous 
creepers,  a  tangled  cover  which  shelters  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the 
buffalo,  as  effectually  as  a  field  of  standing  corn  affords  concealment  to  the 
partridge  or  the  quail.  I  have  seen  a  line  of  about  fifteen  elephants  beating  a 
strip  of  reeds  not  more  than  two  hundred  yards  in  width,  and  I  could  hardly 
see  the  grass  shake.  There  was  not  as  much  commotion  or  indication  of  what 
was  going  on,  as  would  be  caused  by  a  pack  of  beagles  drawing  a  gorse-cover. 
Runs  or  tunnels  among  the  high  reeds,  like  magnified  '  meuses '  of  hares  and 
rabbits,  show  that  the  same  paths  through  the  thick  jungle  are  generally  made 
use  of." 

The  rhinoceros  chiefly  frequents  such  portions  of  these  grass-jungles  as  are  on 
swampy  ground ;  and  although  it  is  in  general  a  solitary  animal,  the  writer  just 
quoted  states  that  he  has  known  half  a  dozen  individuals  roused  from  a  belt  of  not 
more  than  half  a  mile  in  length  by  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  yards  in  width. 
Like  tapirs,  the  Indian  rhinoceros  is  fond  of  a  mud-bath.  Although  there  are 
many  stories  extant  as  to  its  ferocity,  and  more  especially  its  enmity  to  the 
elephant,  it  appears  that  this  animal  is  generally  quiet  and  harmless.  Even  when 
wounded,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  it  is  but  seldom  that  it  charges  home ;  but 
when  it  does  attack,  the  sharp  lower  tusks  are  used  much  after  the  same  manner 
as  those  of  a  wild  boar.  The  only  sound  that  this  rhinoceros  utters  is  a  peculiar 
grunt,  which  is  repeated  at  frequent  intervals  during  excitement.  The  usual  gait 
of  this  rhinoceros  is  a  long  swinging  trot,  but  when  disturbed,  it  can  break  into  an 
awkward  but  very  rapid  gallop.  Only  a  single  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  but 
there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  length  of  the  period  of  gestation,  an  old  writer 
stating  that  it  is  nine  months,  while  a  more  recent  authority  affirms  that  it  is 
nearly  or  quite  double  as  long.  Since  rhinoceroses,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  have 


468 


UNGULATES. 


not  bred  in  captivity  in  Europe,  the  point  is  one  not  likely  to  be  soon  cleared 
up.  The  Indian  rhinoceros  thrives  well  in  confinement,  and  frequently  lives  in 
that  state  for  a  long  period.  One  specimen  acquired  by  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens  in  1834  lived  till  1849,  while  a  second,  purchased  in  1850,  died  in  1874, 
and  a  third  presented  in  1864  is  still  (1894)  flourishing.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that 
he  has  heard  of  captive  specimens  living  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and  Mr.  Brian 
Hodgson  was  of  opinion  that  the  natural  term  of  this  animal's  life  is  upwards 
of  a  century. 

From  the  immense  thickness  and  apparent  toughness  of  its  enormous  folds,  it 
was  long  considered  that  the  hide  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros  was  bullet-proof,  and 
that  the  only  places  where  the  animal  was  vulnerable  were  the  joints  of  the 
armour.  General  Kinloch  relates  an  amusing  story  of  a  soldier  in  India,  who  had 
heard  of  this  legend,  firing  point-blank  at  a  tame  rhinoceros  which  had  been 
captured  by  his  regiment  during  the  Mutiny,  in  order  to  obtain  ocular  proof  of  its 


GREAT  INDIAN   RHINOCEROS. 


truth.  Needless  to  say,  as  the  shot  was  well  aimed,  the  unfortunate  animal  fell 
dead,  which  meant  a  considerable  loss  to  the  regimental  prize-fund.  And  we  may 
mention  here  that  the  Indian  rhinoceros,  like  all  its  kindred,  when  shot  sinks  down 
in  its  tracks,  and  lies  as  if  asleep,  instead  of  falling  over  on  its  side  like  most 
other  mammals. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  skin  of  the  living  animal  is  quite  soft,  and  can  readily 
be  penetrated  in  any  place  by  a  bullet,  or  easily  pierced  by  a  hunting-knife.  When 
dried  it  becomes,  however,  exceedingly  hard ;  and  it  was  formerly  employed  by 
the  Indian  princes  in  the  manufacture  of  shields  for  their  soldiery.  General 
Kinloch  states  that  if  polished  the  hide  "  is  very  handsome  and  semi-transparent, 
and  when  held  up  to  the  light  looks  exactly  like  tortoise-shell,  the  tubercles  giving 
it  a  beautiful  mottled  appearance." 

The  horn  is  used  by  the  Hindus  (to  whom  in  common  with  the  natives  of 
most  parts  of  India,  the  animal  is  known  by  the  name  of  gainda)  in  some  of  their 
religious  ceremonies ;  when  manufactured  into  cups  it  is  considered  by  the  Chinese 
to  possess  the  property  of  indicating  the  presence  of  poison. 


RHINOCEROSES.  469 

There  are  two  modes,  according  to  General  Kinloch,  of  hunting 
the  Indian  rhinoceros — "  one  by  quietly  tracking  up  the  animal  on  a 
single  elephant  until  he  is  at  last  found  in  his  lair,  or  perhaps  standing  quite 
unconscious  of  danger;  the  other,  by  beating  him  out  of  jungle  with  a  line  of 
elephants,  the  guns  being  stationed  at  the  points  where  he  is  most  likely  to  break 
cover.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  necessary  to  have  reliable  men  with  the  beaters, 
who  can  exercise  authority  and  keep  them  in  order,  for  both  mahouts  and 
elephants  have  the  greatest  dread  of  the  huge  brute,  who  appears  to  be  much  more 
formidable  than  he  really  is." 

The  same  writer  gives  his  experience  of  rhinoceros-hunting  as  follows.  On  a 
certain  occasion  the  General  and  his  party  "  had  tracked  a  wounded  buffalo  into  a 
large  and  very  thick  cover,  into  which  it  was  useless  to  follow  him  with  any  chance 
of  getting  a  shot.  The  three  guns,  therefore,  went  on  ahead,  and  took  up  their 
positions  at  the  other  end  of  the  cover,  while  the  pad-elephants  were  ordered  to 
form  line  and  beat  steadily  through  the  jungle.  After  waiting  a  long  time  at  my 
post  I  heard  some  large  animal  crashing  through  the  reeds,  and  as  the  line  of 
beaters  advanced  the  waving  of  the  grass  betrayed  its  movements.  It  came  on 
very  slowly,  occasionally  stopping  for  some  time  to  listen,  and  again  making  a 
cautious  advance.  I  remained  still  as  death,  but  I  was  in  a  great  state  of  anxiety 
lest  my  elephant  should  become  uneasy  and  give  the  alarm.  Fortunately,  he 
remained  silent,  and  at  length  the  rhinoceros,  anticipating  no  danger  ahead,  and 
pressed  by  the  steadily  advancing  line  of  elephants  behind  him,  poked  his  ugly 
head  out  of  the  reeds  within  twenty  yards  of  me.  I  could  only  see  his  snout  and 
his  horn,  and  aimed  above  the  latter  for  his  forehead.  I  either  took  a  bad  aim,  or 
my  elephant  moved  slightly  as  I  fired,  for,  as  I  afterwards  found,  my  bullet  merely 
grazed  the  snout,  cutting  a  deep  furrow  along  the  base  of  the  horn.  As  the 
rhinoceros  wrheeled  round,  I  gave  him  another  bullet  in  the  centre  of  his  ribs,  and 
he  rushed  back  into  the  reeds  and  through  the  beaters  with  an  angry  grunt."  On 
search  being  made  in  the  jungle,  it  was  found  that  the  second  bullet  had  done  its 
work,  the  huge  animal  lying  dead  with  its  legs  folded  beneath  the  body  in  the 
usual  recumbent  posture. 

Javan  The  Javan,  or  lesser  one-horned  rhinoceros  (R.  sondaicus),  is  an 

Rhinoceros,  altogether  smaller  animal  than  the  preceding,  with  the  head  relatively 
less  large  in  proportion  to  the  body,  although  its  height  at  the  shoulder  is  scarcely, 
if  at  all,  inferior.  The  skin,  which  is  nearly  or  quite  naked,  lacks  the  large 
tubercles  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros ;  while  the  fold  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  instead 
of  inclining  backwards,  is  continued  right  across  the  body  like  the  other  two  main 
folds.  Superficially,  the  skin  is  divided  by  a  network  of  cracks  into  a  number  of 
small  mosaic-like  discs.  The  great  folds  of  skin  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  the 
neck  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros  are  in  this  species  much  less  strongly  developed. 
The  general  colour  is  a  uniform  dusky  grey.  The  skull  is  less  elevated  than  in 
the  larger  species  in  the  occipital  region ;  but  there  are  the  same  number  of  front 
teeth.  In  structure  the  upper  molar  teeth  are,  however,  simpler,  resembling  the 
lower  of  the  two  figured  on  p.  464 ;  and  their  crowns  are  not  so  tall.  Measure- 
ments of  wild  individuals  appear  to  be  very  few ;  but  in  a  large  female  the  height 
at  the  shoulder  was  5|  feet.  The  female  is  generally  or  invariably  hornless. 


4?0  UNGULATES. 

This  species  has  a  much  more  extensive  distribution  than  its 
larger  cousin.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  ever  occurred  in  Peninsular 
India,  but  it  is  found  in  the  Bengal  sundarbans  and  portions  of  Eastern  Bengal, 
while  it  has  been  met  with  in  the  Sikhim  "  terai."  From  the  valley  of  Assam 
it  ranges  eastwards  through  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Sumatra,  Java, 
and  Borneo ;  its  partially  fossilised  remains  occurring  in  the  latter  island. 

Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  this  species  "  is  more  an  inhabitant 
of  the  forest  than  of  grass,  and  although  it  is  found  in  the  alluvial 
swamps  of  the  sundarbans,  its  usual  habitat  appears  to  be  in  hilly  countries.  It 
has  been  observed  at  considerable  elevations  both  in  Burma  and  Java."  Indeed, 
there  is  evidence  that  it  probably  ascends  occasionally  to  as  much  as  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  This  species  being  a  forest-dwelling  one,  while  its  molar 
teeth  are  of  the  same  pattern  as  those  of  the  leaf  and  branch-eating  common 
African  rhinoceros,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  its  food  must  be  of  the  same  general 
nature  as  that  of  the  latter.  In  disposition  the  Javan  rhinoceros  is  said  to  be 
more  gentle  than  the  large  Indian  species,  and  it  is  not  unfrequently  tamed 
by  the  Malays.  The  horns  are  never  large,  and  afford  but  poor  trophies  to  the 
sportsman. 

Allied  siwalik  In  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the 

Rhinoceroses.  Himalaya  there  occur  remains  of  a  single  -  horned  rhinoceros 
(R.  sivalensis),  which  appears  to  have  been  closely  allied  to  the  Javan  species,  of 
which  the  original  home  may  accordingly  have  been  India.  More  remarkable, 
however,  is  the  occurrence  of  a  fossil  rhinoceros  in  the  interior  of  the  Himalaya, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  sixteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  which  likewise 
seems  to  have  been  related  to  the  same  species.  It  may  be  added  that  another 
fossil  Indian  rhinoceros  (R.  palceindicus),  of  which  an  upper  molar  teeth  is  repre- 
sented in  the  lower  figure  on  p.  464,  appears  to  have  been  the  forerunner  of  the 
living  great  Indian  rhinoceros ;  its  molar  teeth  approximating  to  those  of  the 
latter,  although  of  a  rather  less  complex  structure. 

sumatran  Reverting  to  the  living  Asiatic  species,  the  last  of  all  is  the 

Rhinoceros.  Sumatran  rhinoceros  (R.  sumatrensis),  which  is  mainly  characteristic 
of  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  occurring  but  rarely  in 
Assam,  although  a  single  example  has  been  obtained  from  Bhutan.  From  Assam 
it  ranges  through  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Siam,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo ; 
but  it  is  quite  unknown  in  Java. 

Characters  ^n*s  *s  ^e  smallest  of  all  the  living  species  of  rhinoceros,  and 

differs  from  the  preceding  kinds  in  carrying  two  horns.  It  is  further 
distinguished  by  its  hairiness,  although  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  individual 
variation  in  this  respect.  As  a  rule,  the  greater  part  of  the  body  is  thinly  covered 
with  brown  or  black  hair  of  considerable  length,  while  there  are  larger  or  smaller 
fringes  of  hair  on  the  ears  and  tail.  The  skin,  which  is  rough  and  granular,  and 
varies  in  colour  from  earthy  brown  almost  to  black,  has  the  folds  much  less 
developed  than  in  the  single-horned  species,  and  only  the  one  behind  the  shoulders 
is  continuing  right  across  the  back.  The  two  horns  are  placed  some  distance  apart, 
and  when  fully  developed  are  thick  and  massive  at  the  base,  but  very  slender 
above,  the  front  and  longer  one  sweeping  backwards  in  a  graceful  curve.  In 


RHINOCEROSES.  471 

many  specimens  the  horns  are,  however,  very  short,  and  in  examples  kept  in 
confinement  like  the  one  from  which  our  figure  is  taken,  they  become  worn  down 
to  mere  stumps.  The  Sumatran  rhinoceros  differs  from  its  two  Asiatic  cousins  in 
having  lost  the  pair  of  small  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  in  the  front  of  which 
only  the  tusks  remain,  and  even  these  are  sometimes  shed  in  old  age.  In  these 
respects,  therefore,  this  species,  concomitantly  with  the  presence  of  two  horns, 
shows  an  indication  of  approximating  to  the  African  rhinoceroses. 

In  addition  to  the  variation  in  the  degrees  of  development  of  the  hair,  this  species 


THE   8UMATHAN   RHINOCEROS.1 

The  horns,  as  in  most  captive  specimens,  are  abnormally  short. 

shows  considerable  individual  differences  in  colour,  and  also  in  the  relative  breadth  of 
the  skull.  A  specimen  purchased  in  1872  by  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  for 
over  a  £1000,  and  exhibited  in  their  gardens,  differed  from  the  ordinary  form  by 
its  superior  size,  paler  and  browner  colour,  smoother  skin,  shorter  and  more  thickly- 
tufted  tail,  and  the  longer,  finer,  and  more  reddish-coloured  hair;  the  latter 
forming  a  long  fringe  on  the  ears,  of  which  the  insides  were  naked.  This  animal 
had  also  a  much  wider  head  than  ordinary.  It  was  accordingly  regarded  as  a 
distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  the  hairy-eared  rhinoceros  (R.  lasiotis) ;  but 
there  is  little  doubt  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  anything  more  than  a  well- 
marked  variety  of  the  Sumatran  species. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  this  species,  but 

1  Messrs.  Macmillau  &  Co.  have  favoured  the  Editor  with  this  figure. 


472  UNGULATES. 

Mr.  Blanford  considers  that  from  4  feet  to  4£  feet  will  represent  about  the 
average  height  at  the  shoulder.  In  the  above-mentioned  specimen  the  height  at 
the  shoulder  was  4  feet  4  inches,  and  the  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the 
root  of  the  tail  8  feet ;  the  weight  of  the  animal  being  about  2000  Ibs.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  an  adult  female  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  shoulder-height  was 
only  3  feet  8  inches.  There  is  also  great  variation  in  regard  to  the  length  of  the 
horns,  the  hinder  one  being  in  some  cases  reduced  to  an  almost  invisible  knob. 
Mr.  E.  Bartlett  gives  the  following  particulars  of  Bornean  specimens.  In  one 
example  the  front  horn  was  4|  and  the  second  2  inches  in  length ;  in  a  second, 
while  the  front  horn  measured  5  inches,  the  hind  one  was  a  mere  knob ;  and  in  a 
third,  the  front  horn  had  a  length  of  19  inches  with  a  girth  of  16  inches,  the 
second  horn  being  fairly  developed,  although  not  more  than  about  3  inches  in 
height.  A  single  specimen  of  a  front  horn  had  a  length  of  11  inches,  with  a  basal 
girth  of  11 1  inches;  but  the  maximum  recorded  length  is  upwards  of  32  inches 
along  the  curve. 

The  molar  teeth  of  this  species  are  almost  indistinguishable  from 
those  of  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  and  as  its  habits  appear  to  be  very 
much  the  same  as  those  of  the  latter,  the  diet  of  the  two  is  probably  also  similar. 
The  Sumatran  rhinoceros  inhabits  hilly  forest-districts,  and  it  has  been  observed 
in  Tenasserim  at  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  good 
swimmer,  and  is  reported  to  have  been  seen  swimming  in  the  sea  in  the  Mergui 
Archipelago.  Although  shy  and  timid  in  the  wild  state,  in  captivity  it  soon 
becomes  tame. 

Mr.  E.  Bartlett  states  that  in  Borneo  the  dyaks  are  very  partial  to  the  flesh  of 
this  species  as  an  article  of  diet.  And  he  adds  that  the  kyans — a  race  very 
distinct  from  the  dyaks — procure  the  horns  for  barter,  for  which  they  receive  a 
high  price  from  the  Chinese,  who  import  them  to  China  for  medicine.  The  horns 
are  ground  into  powder  for  some  diseases,  while  others  are  cut  into  minute 
fragments  to  carry  about  the  person.  The  same  writer  further  states  that  this 
rhinoceros  is  becoming  extremely  rare  in  the  province  of  Sarawak,  on  account 
of  the  value  set  upon  its  horns,  but  in  Central  and  North  Borneo  in  the  very  old 
jungle  it  is  more  plentiful. 

In  1872  a  Sumatran  rhinoceros,  recently  imported  into  London,  gave  birth  to 
a  calf;  and  this  event  afforded  Mr.  A.  D.  Bartlett  data  for  considering  that  the 
period  of  gestation  was  a  little  over  seven  months.  This  however,  as  Mr.  Blanford 
points  out,  seems  a  very  short  period  for  such  a  large  animal,  and  contrasts  very 
markedly  with  the  length  of  time  assigned  by  Hodgson  to 'the  great  Indian 
rhinoceros. 

Allied  Extinct  No  fossil  species  allied  to  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros  has  hitherto 

species.  been  obtained  from  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  India,  whence  we  may 
conclude  that  the  latter  is  probably  a  comparatively  recent  immigrant  into  North- 
Eastern  India.  Schleiermacher's  rhinoceros  (R.  schleiermacheri)  of  the  Miocene 
and  lower  Pliocene  deposits  of  France  and  Germany  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  very  closely  allied  to  the  Sumatran  species;  and  thus  affords,  in  common 
with  some  other  fossil  mammals,  evidence  of  an  eastward  migration  of  types 
formerly  inhabiting  Western  Europe. 


RHINOCEROSES. 
AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES. 


473 


Although  it  is  commonly  reported  by  hunters,  who  in  many  cases  derive  their 
information  from  native  sources,  that  there  are  several  kinds  of  rhinoceros 
inhabiting  Africa,  we  have  at  present  definite  acquaintance  with  only  two  species, 
namely,  the  common  African  rhinoceros,  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  black 


THE   COMMON   AFRICAN   RHINOCEROS  (^  liat.  size). 

rhinoceros,  and  the  square-mouthed,  or  Burchell's  rhinoceros,  commonly  termed 
the  white  rhinoceros.  Since  there  is  but  little,  if  any,  marked  difference  in  the 
colour  of  the  two  animals,  the  names  founded  on  this  character  are  best  discarded. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  a  third  species  may  inhabit  East  Africa. 

Both   species   are   furnished   with   two    horns,  which   attain  a 
greater  development  than  in  either  of  their  Asiatic  relatives.     From 


Characters. 


474 


UNGULATES. 


all  the  latter  the  African  rhinoceroses  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  any 
permanent  folds  in  the  skin,  and  also  by  the  want  of  both  incisor  teeth  and  tusks 
in  the  adult  state ;  such  teeth  if  they  occur  even  in  the  young  being  rudimentary 
and  functionless.  In  consequence  of  this  want  of  front  teeth,  the  extremities 
of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  Asiatic  species. 
Moreover,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  nasal  bones  are  narrow  and  terminate  in  a 
point,  in  the  African  rhinoceroses  they  are  rounded  and  truncated  in  front.  In 
both  kinds  the  skin  of  the  body  is  almost  entirely  naked  and  comparatively 
smooth ;  but  there  is  generally  a  little  fringe  or  tuft  of  hairs  on  the  ears  and  tail, 
common  African  The  common  African  rhinoceros  (R.  bicornis)  is  the  smaller  of 
Rhinoceros.  fae  two  species,  and  is  also  the  one  wThich  has  by  far  the  wider 
distribution,  extending,  in  suitable  districts,  through  Eastern  and  Central  Africa, 
from  Abyssinia  in  the  north  to  the  Cape  Colony  in  the  south.  From  the  character 

of  the  upper  lip 
this  species  is 
sometimes  spoken 
of  as  the  pre- 
hensile -  lipped 
rhinoceros,  while 
in  Southern  and 
Eastern  Africa  it  is 
variously  termed 
the  boreli  or 
upetyani,  the 
keitloa,  and  the 
kulumani ;  these 
different  native 
names,  as  we 
shall  notice  later, 

referring  to  differences  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the  two  horns.  This 
species  is  best  characterised  by  the  pointed  and  slightly  prehensile  upper  lip, 
the  small  and  rounded  nostrils,  and  the  position  of  the  eyes  being  a  little  behind 
the  continuation  of  the  axis  of  the  second  horn.  The  ears  are  of  moderate 
length,  and  furnished  with  a  fringe  of  hair  along  the  upper  edge,  while  in  some 
cases  they  are  rounded  above,  although  in  others  more  pointed.  There  is  a 
considerable  amount  of  individual  variation  as  to  the  length  and  amount  of  the 
fringe  of  hairs  on  the  margins  of  the  ears.  The  molar  teeth  of  this  rhinoceros  are 
of  the  type  of  the  uppermost  of  the  two  represented  on  p.  464.  That  is  to  say,  they 
have  comparatively  low  crowns,  a  well-marked  buttress  at  their  front  outer  angle, 
the  middle  valley  not  divided  into  two  moieties  by  a  cross-partition,  and  the  surface 
of  the  crown  when  worn  raised  into  two  distinct  ridges.  The  latter  feature  shows 
that  the  jaws  have  a  somewhat  champing,  instead  of  a  completely  grinding  action ; 
and  since  we  know  that  this  species  feeds  almost  exclusively  on  twigs  and  leaves, 
it  may  be  assumed  that  molar  teeth  of  this  pattern  always  indicate  a  similar  diet 
for  their  owners.  The  horns  are  well  developed  in  both  sexes. 

As  regards  dimensions,  in  an  adult  female  from  Abyssinia,  described  by  Mr. 


HEAD  OF  THE   COMMON   AFRICAN   RHINOCEROS. 


RHINOCEROSES.  475 

Blanford,  the  length  of  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail  measured  along 
the  curves  was  6  feet  9  inches,  of  which  1  foot  9i  inches  was  occupied  by  the  tail, 
and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  4  feet  8£  inches.  These  dimensions  are,  however, 
exceeded  by  males,  which,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  may  stand  from  5  feet  6 
inches  to  5  feet  8  inches  at  the  shoulder. 

The  proportions  of  the  two  horns  to  one  another  vary  greatly,  the  front  one 
being  in  some  cases  much  longer  than  the  hinder,  while  in  others  the  two  are 
nearly  or  quite  equal,  and,  more  rarely,  the  second  horn  may  be  the  longer  of  the 
two.  The  native  name  boreli  is  applied  to  those  individuals  in  which  the  second 
horn  is  the  shorter,  while  keitloa  is  restricted  to  such  as  have  horns  of  equal 
length,  or  the  second  longer  than  the  first.  Mr.  Selous  has  shown  that  there  is  a 
complete  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other  type,  and  consequently  that  such 
differences  cannot  have  any  specific  value. 

f  „  In  regard  to  the  length  attained  by  the  horns  of  this  species,  it 

Size  of  Horns.  .  °  * 

appears  that  in  Abyssinia  and  other  parts  of  North-East  Africa,  from 
Sir  S.  Baker's  experience,  the  front  horn  rarely  or  never  exceeds  23  or  24  inches, 
but  much  larger  dimensions  are  recorded  in  South  and  East  African  specimens. 
Thus  examples  of  the  front  horn  are  described  as  measuring  44,  43,  41,  40,  and  38| 
inches  in  length ;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  in  which  its  length  is  21 
inches,  in  none  of  these  examples  are  the  dimensions  of  the  second  horn  recorded. 
In  one  specimen  the  length  of  the  first  and  second  horns  were  respectively  31  and 
19£  inches,  in  another  28f  and  15£,  in  a  third  28J  and  8f,  in  a  fourth  27  and  16£, 
in  a  fifth  21£  and  18f,  and  in  a  sixth  14f  and  14f  inches.  The  front  horn  is 
generally  nearly  circular  in  section  and  slightly  curved  backwards,  while  the  second 
is  nearly  straight,  much  compressed,  and  with  its  hinder  edge  often  sharper  than 
the  front  one.  Sir  J.  Willoughby  killed  in  East  Africa  an  example  of  this  rhinoceros 
having  a  small  rudimental  third  horn  behind  the  normal  pair. 

In  Abyssinia  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  this  rhinoceros  is  confined 

to  the  lower  elevations,  not  ascending  above  some  five  thousand  feet. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Anseba  he  writes  that  it  "  inhabits  the  dense  thickets  on  the 
bank  of  the  stream,  which  are  intersected  in  all  directions  by  the  paths  made  by 
these  animals.  In  the  densest  parts,  where  roots  and  stems  render  the  jungle 
almost  impervious,  there  are  places  known  by  the  inhabitants  as  rhinoceros-houses. 
The  stems  and  branches  have  generally  been  broken  away  or  pushed  back,  so  as  to 
leave  a  clear  space,  about  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
the  ground  has  been  worn  into  a  hollow  by  the  trampling  and  rolling  of  the  animal 
in  wet  weather.  These  houses  are  used  as  retreats  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  On 
two  or  three  occasions  we  disturbed  a  rhinoceros  from  one  of  these,  and  he  rushed 
off  with  much  noise  and  loud  snorts  through  the  bushes.  So  far  as  we  could  learn 
from  our  observations,  these  animals  enter  the  thick  jungle  early  in  the  morning 
and  rest  until  one  or  two  o'clock  in  the  day,  then  they  leave  their  thickets  and  go 
out  to  feed,  usually  remaining,  however,  amongst  high  bushes.  At  the  time  of  year 
in  which  we  visited  the  country,  rain  generally  set  in  in  the  afternoon,  and,  even  if 
it  did  not  rain,  the  sky  was  overcast.  In  the  clear  weather  the  rhinoceroses  are 
said  never  to  appear  before  evening.  They  are  great  browsers,  feeding  chiefly  on 
the  young  shoots  and  branches  of  acacia  and  other  trees,  or  on  fruits ;  so  far  as  I 


476  UNGULATES. 

could  see,  they  do  not  generally  eat  grass.  Their  movements  are  very  quick,  their 
usual  pace  being  a  smart  trot,  and  the  numerous  tracks  show  that  they  move  about 
a  good  deal."  After  expressing  his  doubts  as  to  the  statements  of  the  natives  that 
a  man  on  horse  cannot  escape  from  one  of  these  animals,  Mr.  Blanford  adds  that 
"  they  are  easily  eluded  by  turning,  as  they  are  not  quick  of  sight,  and,  like  most 
mammals,  they  never  look  for  enemies  in  trees ;  consequently,  a  man  two  or  three 
feet  from  the  ground  will  remain  unnoticed  by  them  if  he  keeps  quiet.  They  are 
said  to  be  extremely  savage,  and  unquestionably  the  first  one  killed  by  us  charged 
most  viciously.  ...  I  cannot  help  thinking,  however,  that  their  savage  disposition 
has  been  somewhat  exaggerated."  Most  of  these  animals  seen  by  the  members  of 
the  Abyssinian  Expedition  were  in  pairs, — an  old  female  with  a  nearly  full-grown 
calf^ — but  on  one  occasion  four  were  observed.  Mr.  Blanford  compares  the  snort 
of  alarm  or  rage  uttered  by  these  animals  when  disturbed  to  the  noise  of  a  loco- 
motive rather  than  to  the  sound  of  any  other  animal. 

The  foregoing  account  is  confirmed  in  all  essential  particulars  by  the  observa- 
tions of  Mr.  Selous  in  South-Eastern  Africa,  who  writes  that  this  species  of  rhinoceros 
"  lives  exclusively  upon  bush  and  roots,  eating  not  only  the  young  leaves  as  they 
sprout  from  the  end  of  a  twig,  but  also  chewing  up  a  good  deal  of  the  twig  itself. 
It  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  this  species  lives  upon  bush  that  its  range  is  very  much 
more  extended  than  that  of  the  square-mouthed  rhinoceros;  for  there  are  many 
large  districts  of  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Zambesi  to  the  eastward  of 
the  Victoria  Falls  covered  almost  entirely  with  an  endless  succession  of  rugged 
hills,  almost  devoid  of  grass,  though  well  wooded,  in  all  of  which  districts  the 
prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros  is  numerous,  as  it  thrives  well  upon  the  scrubby  bush 
with  which  the  hillsides  and  valleys  are  covered;  whereas  the  square -mouthed 
species,  though  common  in  the  forest -clad  sand -belts  and  broad  grassy  valleys 
which  always  skirt  the  hills,  is  seldom  or  never  found  among  the  hills  themselves, 
which  is  doubtless  because  the  pasturage  is  too  scanty  to  enable  it  to  exist." 

The  same  writer  also  tells  us  that  this  rhinoceros,  like  the  larger  African 
species,  exhibits  extraordinary  activity  in  getting  over  hilly  and  rocky  ground, 
and  that  it  can  traverse  places  which  at  first  sight  appear  utterly  impracticable  for 
an  animal  of  its  bulky  and  apparently  clumsy  build.  We  also  learn  from  the  same 
observer  that  while  the  present  species  of  rhinoceros  always  walks  with  its  nose 
carried  high  in  the  air,  the  other  kind  walks  with  its  muzzle  close  to  the  ground. 
Again,  whereas  in  the  common  species  the  calf  invariably  follows  its  mother,  the 
offspring  of  Burchell's  rhinoceros  as  constantly  precedes  its  parent. 

Mr.  Selous  agrees  with  Mr.  Blanford  that  the  ferocity  of  the  prehensile-lipped 
rhinoceros  has  been  much  exaggerated,  and  he  is,  indeed,  inclined  to  regard  it  as 
an  animal  of  a  rather  cowardly,  if  not  exactly  peaceable,  disposition.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  those  sportsmen  who  have  attributed  a  ferocious 
disposition  to  this  species,  always  make  a  distinction  in  this  respect  between  the 
boreli  and  the  keitloa,  and  give  to  the  latter  a  much  better  character  than  they 
assign  to  the  former.  Whether  any  difference  in  this  respect  is  really  associated 
with  the  variations  to  which  these  names  refer,  we  are  not  prepared  to  say  (although 
it  seems  most  unlikely);  but  it  is  important  to  notice  that  even  those  who  attribute 
extreme  ferocity  of  disposition  to  some  individuals  of  this  species  have  never 


RHINOCEROSES.  477 

asserted  that  this  applies  to  all.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  he  was  only  once  charged 
by  a  common  rhinoceros,  and  this  after  strong  provocation,  and  even  then  the 
animal  did  not  charge  home ;  and  he  considers  that  vicious  individuals  are  com- 
paratively few  and  far  between.  "  These  animals,"  writes  the  same  observer,  "  are 
very  quick  and  restless  in  their  movements,  and  either  very  inquisitive  or  mistrust- 
ful of  their  eyesight,  for  usually,  when  disturbed  by  anyone  approaching  from  below 
the  wind,  they  will  jump  up  with  a  snort,  gaze  fixedly  at  the  intruder,  then,  with 
another  snort,  trot  quickly  a  few  steps  nearer,  stand  again,  move  their  heads  with 
a  quick  motion,  first  to  one  side  then  to  the  other,  advance  again  perhaps,  and 
finally,  when  shouted  at,  whisk  quickly  round  and  trot  away  in  grand  style,  with 
tail  screwed  up  over  their  backs."  Recounting  his  experiences  in  Mashonaland, 
where  he  sometimes  met  with  five,  six,  or  even  eight  in  a  day,  Mr.  Selous  says 
that  whenever  these  animals  met  his  wind,  they  invariably  made  off  at  once,  but 
when  they  only  saw  him,  they  acted  in  the  manner  above  described.  On  occasions 
of  the  latter  kind  the  Kaffirs  would  take  refuge  up  the  nearest  tree,  and  would  urge 
their  master  to  do  likewise.  He,  however,  always  stood  his  ground,  and  found  that 
although  the  rhinoceroses  would  sometimes  advance  in  his  direction  from  about 
forty  to  twenty  yards'  distance,  yet,  that  if  he  threw  stones  or  assegais  at  them,  or 
even  simply  shouted,  they  always  eventually  turned  tail  and  fled.  If,  however,  a 
rhinoceros  is  fired  upon  when  thus  facing  a  man,  it  will,  after  dropping  upon  its 
knees,  very  often  spring  up  and  rush  straight  forwards ;  but  Mr.  Selous  attributes 
such  action  not  to  any  intention  of  making  a  charge,  but  merely  to  the  animal 
being  maddened  by  the  shock  and  rushing  blindly  ahead ;  and  he  considers  that 
it  is  thus  that  many  of  the  accounts  of  its  fierceness  and  aggressiveness  have 
originated.  He  adds,  however,  that  one  of  these  animals  when  in  full  career,  and 
either  wounded  or  tired,  will  not  hesitate  to  charge  any  obstacle  that  may  be  in  its 
path,  even  a  waggon  and  a  team  of  oxen.  Finally,  Mr.  Selous  states  that  he  believes 
the  pursuit  of  the  common  African  rhinoceros  to  be  attended  with  less  danger  than 
that  of  either  the  lion,  elephant>  or  buffalo;  and  he  supports  this  opinion  by 
observing  that  both  Kaffirs  and  Hottentots,  who  but  seldom  care  to  molest  a  lion, 
never  have  the  slightest  hesitation  in  attacking  a  rhinoceros.  The  foregoing 
account  is  confirmed  in  all  essential  particulars  by  Sir  John  Willoughby,  who 
suggests,  however,  that  the  rhinoceros  is  apt  to  be  dangerous  at  certain  seasons. 

In  South-Eastern  Africa  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  both  species  of  rhinoceros 
generally  leave  their  lairs  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  or,  in  districts  where 
there  are.  many  human  beings,  somewhat  later.  They  commence  feeding  in  the 
direction  of  their  drinking-places,  to  which  they  travel  by  regular  beaten  paths, 
and  arrive  at  the  same  somewhere  about  dark.  If  the  drinking-place  is  a  mud- 
hole  they  frequently  refresh  themselves  with  a  roll,  after  drinking  their  fill.  They 
then  start  for  their  favourite  thorn  feeding-grounds,  where  they  remain  till  day- 
break, when  they  generally  again  drink.  At  an  earlier  or  later  hour  after  this,  the 
time  being  to  some  extent  dependent  on  the  freedom  of  the  district  from  human 
intrusion,  they  retire  to  their  sleeping-places,  which  they  reach  at  any  rate  before 
the  heat  of  the  day.  The  lair  is  always  in  an  extremely  sheltered  and  deeply- 
shaded  spot,  and  so  heavily  do  they  slumber  that  a  practised  stalker  could  almost 
touch  them  with  the  muzzle  of  a  gun,  unless  they  are  awakened  by  the  birds  which 


478  UNGULATES. 

accompany  them  in  search  of  the  ticks  with  which  they  are  infested.  Mr.  Hunter 
states,  however,  that  in  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  rhinoceroses  lie  out  in  the  open 
plain  during  the  day. 

The  common  rhinoceros  is  met  with  in  Southern  Africa  generally  either 
solitary  or  in  family-parties  of  two  or  three.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  usually  a 
female  accompanied  by  her  calf ;  but  Sir  J.  Willoughby  met  a  male,  female,  and 
half -grown  calf  together,  and  as  in  this  instance  the  horns  of  the  male  were  much 
shorter  than  those  of  the  female,  it  may  be  that  the  longer  horns  generally  belong 
to  the  latter  sex.  Occasionally  several  full-grown  individuals  are  seen  together, 
Mr.  Drummond  stating  that  on  one  occasion  he  met  with  a  party  of  six  or  seven. 
Sir  J.  Willoughby  relates  that  once  he  shot  one  of  a  pair  of  these  rhinoceroses, 
which  was  immediately  fiercely  attacked  and  rolled  over  by  its  companion.  When 
a  cow  rhinoceros  is  killed,  the  calf  generally  remains  by  the  dead  body  of  its 
parent,  from  which  it  can  with  difficulty  be  dragged  away. 

Like  most  other  large  African  animals,  the  common  rhinoceros  is 
Hunting. 

rapidly  decreasing  in  numbers  from  the  incessant  pursuit  to  which  it 

is  subjected  in  the  southern  and  eastern  portion  of  the  continent.  Writing  in 
1881,  Mr.  Selous  said  that  it  was  still  fairly  common  in  South-Eastern  Africa, 
although  it  had  been  nearly  exterminated  in  the  regions  to  the  westward.  Only  a 
few  then  remained  on  the  Chobi,  while  between  that  river  and  the  Zambesi  there 
were  none,  and  the  natives  said  that  there  never  had  been  any  in  that  district. 
Northwards  of  the  Zambesi  they  were,  however,  again  met  with,  and  from  thence 
they  doubtless  extend  through  the  whole  of  Central  Africa  to  Abyssinia  and  the 
Sudan.  In  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  Sir  J.  Willoughby 's  party  found  these 
rhinoceroses  very  plentiful  in  1886,  having  on  one  occasion  seen  as  many  as 
sixteen  head  during  a  single  day's  march. 

In  Southern  Africa  the  common  rhinoceros  is  hunted  either  by  being  followed 
up  when  out  feeding  on  the  plains,  or  by  the  hunter  lying  in  wait  at  its  drinking- 
places.  In  the  Sudan  the  Hamram  Arabs  are,  however,  in  the  habit  of  chasing 
the  rhinoceros  on  horseback,  and  of  ham-stringing  it  by  a  dexterous  stroke  of  a 
long  two-handed  sword.  This  sport,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  tries  the  speed  of 
the  best  horses,  and  that  writer's  account  of  the  chase  of  a  couple  of  these  animals, 
which,  after  running  more  than  two  miles,  defied  further  pursuit  by  escaping  into 
thick  cover,  is  probably  known  to  many  of  our  readers.  An  Arab  hunter  explained 
to  Sir  S.  Baker,  "  that  at  all  times  the  rhinoceros  was  the  most  difficult  animal  to 
sabre,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  swiftness,  and,  although  he  had  killed  many 
with  the  sword,  it  was  always  after  a  long  and  fatiguing  hunt,  at  the  close  of 
which  the  animal  becoming  tired  generally  turned  to  bay,  in  which  case  one 
hunter  occupied  his  attention,  while  another  galloped  up  behind  and  severed  the 
hamstring.  The  rhinoceros,  unlike  the  elephant,  can  go  very  well  upon  three  legs, 
which  enhances  the  danger,  as  one  cut  will  not  disable  him."  A  less  sporting 
method  adopted  by  the  Arabs  of  the  same  regions  is  to  dig  a  hole  about  two  feet 
deep  by  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  in  the  animal's  run,  and  to  place  in  the  centre  a 
rather  elaborately -constructed  snare,  to  which  is  attached  a  rope  with  a  heavy  log 
of  wood  at  the  other  end.  When  the  rhinoceros  steps  on  the  pit,  one  of  its  feet  is 
caught  in  the  running  noose.  When  caught,  the  first  effort  of  the  rhinoceros  is  to 


RHINOCEROSES.  479 

escape,  and  he  forthwith  pulls  the  log  from  the  trench  in  which  it  was  buried. 
This  log,  writes  Sir  S.  Baker,  "  acts  as  a  drag,  and,  by  catching  in  the  jungle  and 
the  protruding  roots  of  trees,  it  quickly  fatigues  him.  On  the  following  morning 
the  hunters  discover  the  rhinoceros  by  the  track  of  the  log  that  has  ploughed  along 
the  ground,  and  the  animal  is  killed  by  lances  or  by  the  sword." 

The  same  writer  adds  that  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros  will  produce  seven 
shields ;  these  being  worth  about  two  dollars  each,  as  simple  hide  before  manufacture. 
The  horn  is  sold  in  Abyssinia  for  about  two  dollars  per  pound,  for  the  manufacture 
of  sword-hilts,  which  are  much  esteemed  if  of  this  material.  In  South  Africa  the 
flesh  of  the  common  rhinoceros  is  much  appreciated  by  the  natives  as  food ;  but  as 
the  animal  never  has  any  fat,  the  meat  is  somewhat  dry. 

Like  other  members  of  the  genus,  this  rhinoceros  appears  to  be  long-lived 
even  in  captivity,  a  specimen  from  Nubia,  acquired  by  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  in  1868,  having  lived  in  the  menagerie  till  1891. 

The  immediate  ancestor  of  this  species  appears  to  have  been  the 
Extinct  Ally 

extinct  thick-jawed  rhinoceros  (R.  pachygnathus),  of  which  a  series 

of  finely -preserved  remains  have  been  obtained  from  the  well-known  fresh-water 
deposits  of  Pikermi,  near  Attica,  belonging  to  the  Pliocene  period. 

Burcheii's  The  largest  of  the  group  is  the  square-mouthed,  or  Burchell's, 

Rhinoceros,  rhinoceros  (R.  simus),  commonly  known  as  the  white  rhinoceros, 
which  is  now,  alas,  practically  exterminated.  In  addition  to  its  great  size,  this 
species  is  characterised  by  its  bluntly -truncated  muzzle  and  the  absence  of  a 
prehensile  extremity  to  the  upper  lip,  as  well  as  by  the  great  proportionate  length 
of  the  head,  which  in  large  specimens  is  more  than  a.  foot  longer  than  in  the 
common  species.  Moreover,  the  nostrils  form  long  narrow  slits ;  the  eye  is  placed 
entirely  behind  the  line  of  the  second  horn ;  and  the  ear  is  very  long,  sharply 
pointed  at  the  extremity,  where  it  has  but  a  very  small  tuft  of  hairs,  and  has  its 
lower  portion  completely  closed  for  some  distance,  so  as  to  form  a  tube.  The  front 
horn  attains  a  greater  length  than  in  the  common  species.  In  the  skull  the 
extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  forms  a  much  wider  and  shallower  channel  than  in 
the  R.  bicornis,  and  the  structure  of  the  upper  cheek-teeth  is  different.  These 
teeth  resemble  in  general  structure  those  of  the  great  Indian  rhinoceros,  having 
very  tall  crowns,  with  flat  grinding  surfaces,  no  distinct  buttress  at  the  front  outer 
angle,  and  the  outer  portion  of  the  middle  valley  cut  off  by  a  partition.  They  are, 
however,  quite  peculiar  among  existing  species,  in  having  a  large  amount  of  cement 
investing  the  interior  and  filling  up  the  valleys  of  the  crown.  Moreover,  the  third 
molar  in  the  upper  jaw,  instead  of  being  triangular  in  shape,  closely  resembles  the 
tooth  in  front  of  it;  a  peculiarity  found  elsewhere  only  among  certain  extinct 
hornless  species.  In  colour  Burchell's  rhinoceros  differs  but  little  from  the  common 
species,  the  general  hue  of  both  being  a  slaty  grey. 

In  height  this  rhinoceros  is  known  to  reach  6|  feet  at  the 
shoulder,  and  it  is  said  that  specimens  were  formerly  obtained  which 
slightly  exceeded  these  dimensions.  As  regards  length,  our  information  is  far  from 
satisfactory.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  length  may  be  something  between  18  and 
19  feet;  but  this  seems  quite  incredible,  more  especially  as  the  proportions  of  our 
figure  indicate  that  the  length  was  rather  more  than  double  the  height,  which 


UNGULATES. 

would  make  it  about  14  feet.     One  of  the  specimens  referred  to  below  has  a  length 
of  12  feet  1  inch,  and  a  height  at  the  shoulder  of  6  feet  2  inches. 

There  is  fully  as  much  variation  in  the  relative  length  of  the  horns  as  in  the 
common  species,  the  second  horn  being  sometimes  a  mere  stump,  and  at  others 
attaining  a  length  of  2  feet,  while  in  some  instances  both  are  comparatively 
short.  The  front  horn  is,  moreover,  liable  to  considerable  variation  in  shape.  Thus, 
in  the  typical  form  of  the  species,  it  curves  backwards  in  a  more  or  less  bold  sweep, 
as  shown  in  our  figure  of  the  head,  the  individuals  exhibiting  this  form  being 


BURCHELL'S  RHINOCEROS  (^  nat.  size). 

known  to  the  Bechuanas  by  the  name  of  mohohu.  In  other  cases,  as  shown  in  our 
illustration  of  the  entire  animal,  the  front  horn  is  nearly  straight,  with  a  forward 
inclination,  specimens  with  this  type  of  horn  being  designated  by  the  natives  as 
the  kabaoba.  When  the  anterior  horn  is  straight  and  attains  the  length  of  about 
a  yard,  the  point  touches  the  ground  as  the  animal  walks  along  when  feeding,  and 
such  horns  consequently  always  show  a  flat  surface  on  the  front  of  the  tip  pro- 
duced by  friction.  It  was  at  one  time  considered  that  the  mohohu  and  the  kabaoba 
were  distinct  species,  but  Mr.  Selous  has  shown  not  only  that  they  consort  together, 
but  that  there  is  a  complete  transition  from  the  one  type  of  horn  to  the  other.  As 
a  rule,  the  horns  of  females  are  longer  and  more  slender  than  those  of  males. 


RHINO  CER  OSES.  48 1 

The  longest  known  horn  is  one  of  the  kabaoba  type  in  the  British  Museum,  of 
which  the  total  length  is  56^  inches.  The  history  of  this  specimen  is  unknown, 
but  it  has  been  in  the  collection  for  a  very  long  period.  Next  to  this  is  an  example 
of  the  mohohu  type  recorded  by  Mr.  Selous,  of  which  the  length  is  given  as  54 
inches.  Other  fine  specimens  of  the  front  horn  measure  44,  42|,  40,  and  38|  inches. 
In  examples  where  both  horns  have  been  preserved,  the  length  of  the  front  one  in 
one  case  is  37f  and  that  of  the  hinder  17|  inches,  while  in  another  these  dimensions 
are  33  and  13  inches.  At  the  time  when  these  rhinoceroses  were  abundant  it  was 
the  ambition  of  every  South  African  chief  to  possess  a  long  staff,  or  kerrie,  made 
from  a  front  horn ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  as  Mr.  H.  A.  Bryden  suggests,  highly  probable 
that  the  largest  dimensions  recorded  above  may  have  been  considerably  exceeded. 

The  range  of  this  rhinoceros  was  always  limited,  and  apparently 

Distribution.  » 

never  extended  north  of  the  Zambesi;  this  restricted  distribution  being, 

as  already  mentioned,  largely  due  to  the  creature's  grass-eating  habits.  For  the  last 
seventy  or  eighty  years  it  has  been  unknown  to  the  south  of  the  Orange  Kiver, 
but,  according  to  Mr.  Bryden,  there  is  a  tradition  that  it  formerly  roamed  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  Cape  Colony.  About  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  when 
Gordon  Gumming,  and  afterwards  Andersson,  made  their  well-known  hunting- 
tours,  Burchell's  rhinoceros  was  comparatively  common  in  parts  of  the  Kalahari 
Desert,  Ngamiland,  and  various  districts  between  the  Orange  and  Zambesi  Rivers. 
Indeed,  Gordon  Gumming  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  saw  upwards  of  twelve  of 
these  magnificent  animals  together  in  long  grass,  while  Andersson  and  Chapman 
speak  of  having  shot  as  many  as  eight  in  a  single  night,  while  they  were  drinking 
at  a  water-hole  during  the  dry  season.  Mr.  Selous  remarks,  however,  that  the 
numbers  thus  met  with  were  probably  drawn  together  from  over  a  large  tract  of 
country,  as  at  such  times  drinking-places  are  few  and  far  between.  In  1874  Mr. 
Selous  met  with  a  considerable  number  of  these  rhinoceroses  on  the  Chobi,  but  on 
again  visiting  the  same  district  in  1877  he  only  came  across  traces  of  two,  while  in 
1879  they  had  completely  disappeared.  In  North  Mashonaland  there  were,  how- 
ever, still  a  considerable  number  between  1878  and  1880,  while  others  were  to  be 
met  with  in  a  small  tract  on  the  Sabi  River  in  South-East  Africa.  About  ten  years 
ago  Mr.  Selous  was,  however,  only  able  to  find  a  single  specimen  in  Mashonaland, 
and  it  was  then  thought  that  this  animal,  which  fell  to  his  rifle,  was  actually  the 
last  of  its  race.  In  a  remote  corner  of  Mashonaland  this  indefatigable  hunter 
found,  however,  some  half-dozen  individuals  still  living  in  1892,  two  of  which  were 
subsequently  shot  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Coryndon.  In  the  north  Kalahari  Desert  the 
species  had  been  completely  exterminated  some  years  previously  to  1890. 

The  extirpation  of  this  rhinoceros  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  since  our  museums 
are  very  badly  off  for  specimens.  It  is,  however,  fortunate  that  Mr.  Coryndon 
has  succeeded  in  bringing  home  the  skeletons  and  skins  of  two  adult  examples, 
which  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  and  the  Rothschild  Museum  at  Tring ; 
while  there  is  also  a  stuffed  specimen  in  the  Museum  at  Leyden.  In  addition  to  a 
magnificent  skull,  with  horns,  the  British  Museum  likewise  possesses  a  fine  series 
of  detached  horns. 

In  treating  of  the  common  African  rhinoceros,  we  have  already 
had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  exclusively  grass-eating  habits  of  this 

VOL.  ii. — 31 


482 


UNGULATES. 


species,  and  the  consequent  restriction  of  its  habitat  to  open  grassy  plains.  We 
have  also  alluded  to  its  habit  of  walking  with  its  head  carried  close  to  the  ground ; 
and  likewise  to  the  circumstance  that  the  calf  always  precedes  its  mother  when 
walking.  It  may  be  added  that  the  mother  appears  to  direct  the  course  of  her 
offspring  with  her  long  front  horn.  As  regards  its  time  of  feeding  and  taking 
repose,  the  animals  of  this  species  closely  resemble  those  of  the  ordinary  kind. 
Mr.  Selous  states  that  "  their  sight  is  very  bad,  but  they  are  quick  of  hearing  and 
their  scent  is  very  keen;  they  are,  too.  often  accompanied  by  rhinoceros-birds, 
which,  by  running  about  their  heads,  flapping  their  wings,  and  screeching  at  the 


HEAD  OF  BUECHELL'S  RHINOCEROS.— After  Sclater. 

same  time,  frequently  give  them  notice  of  the  approach  of  danger.  When 
disturbed,  they  go  off  at  a  swift  trot,  which  soon  leaves  all  pursuit  from  a  man  on 
foot  far  behind ;  but  if  chased  by  a  horseman  they  break  into  a  gallop,  which  they 
can  keep  up  for  some  distance.  However,  although  they  run  very  swiftly,  when 
their  size  and  heavy  build  are  considered,  they  are  no  match  for  an  average  good 
horse.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  very  easy  to  shoot  on  horseback,  as,  if  one  gallops  a 
little  in  front  of  and  on  one  side  of  them,  they  will  hold  their  course,  and  come 
sailing  past,  offering  a  magnificent  broadside  shot,  while  under  similar  circum- 
stances a  prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros  will  usually  swerve  away  in  such  a  manner 
as  only  to  present  his  hind-quarters  for  a  shot." 

These  animals  were  generally  found  in  pairs  or  in  parties  of  three,  although, 


RHINOCEROSES.  483 

as  already  mentioned,  sometimes  considerably  more  were  seen  together.  Although, 
as  we  have  seen,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  temper  and 
disposition  of  the  other  species,  all  sportsmen  agree  that  Burchell's  rhinoceros  was 
generally  a  harmless  and  inoffensive  creature.  Still,  sometimes  it  would  when 
wounded  make  a  charge ;  and  from  the  enormous  size  of  the  animal  such  a  charge 
was  a  serious  matter  for  those  against  whom  it  was  directed.  On  one  occasion 
Mr.  Oswell  caught  sight  of  one  of  these  rhinoceroses,  and,  putting  spurs  to  his 
horse,  soon  came  up  alongside.  He  fired  with  good  effect,  but  the  animal,  instead 
of  attempting  to  escape,  eyed  its  adversary  for  a  moment,  and  then  deliberately 
advancing,  made  a  sudden  rush  at  his  horse,  thrusting  the  long  front  horn 
completely  through  the  animal's  body,  so  that  the  point  of  the  weapon  struck  the 
rider's  leg  through  the  flap  of  the  saddle  on  the  other  side.  Fortunately,  Mr. 
Oswell  was  so  little  injured,  that  he  was  enabled  to  disengage  himself  from  the 
body  of  his  dead  horse,  and  kill  his  formidable  opponent. 

When  shot  through  the  heart  or  both  lungs  this  rhinoceros,  like  the  other 
species,  Mr.  Selous  tells  us,  is  quickly  killed.  If,  however,  the  bullet  penetrates  but 
one  lung,  they  will  go  on  for  miles,  although  blood  may  be  streaming  from  their 
mouth  and  nose.  Similarly,  they  will  hold  on  their  course,  at  first  at  a  gallop  and 
then  at  a  trot,  with  a  broken  shoulder,  for  more  than  a  mile  ;  but  a  broken  hind-leg 
brings  them  immediately  to  a  stop.  The  latter  circumstance  is  somewhat  at 
variance  with  Sir  S.  Baker's  account  of  hunting  the  common  rhinoceros  in  the 
Sudan,  referred  to  on  p.  478. 

Burchell's  rhinoceros  differed  from  the  other  African  species  in  that  during 
the  autumn  and  winter  months,  that  is  to  say  from  March  till  August,  it  accumu- 
lated an  enormous  quantity  of  fat ;  and  at  such  times  its  flesh  is  stated  to  have 
been  of  excellent  quality,  somewhat  resembling  beef,  but  with  a  peculiar  and 
characteristic  flavour  of  its  own.  The  favourite  dish  was  the  hump  on  the  withers, 
which  was  cut  out  and  cooked  with  the  skin  on  in  a  hole  in  the  ground.  The 
flesh  of  the  calf  was  excellent  at  any  season,  and  has  been  compared  to  very 
tender  veal. 

Hoimwood's  Certain  very  remarkable  front  horns  of  a  rhinoceros  obtained 

Rhinoceros,  from  traders  at  Zanzibar,  and  doubtless  belonging  to  an  East  African 
form,  may  possibly  indicate  a  third  species,  which  may  be  known  as  Hoimwood's 
rhinoceros.  These  horns,  one  of  which  measures  42  inches,  are  characterised  by 
their  great  length  and  slenderness,  coupled  with  the  small  size  of  the  base.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  they  are  abnormal  horns  of  the  female  of  the  common  species, 
but  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  belong  to  a  totally  different  animal,  which  may 
be  more  nearly  allied  to  Burchell's  rhinoceros. 

EXTINCT  RHINOCEROSES. 

In  the  course  of  the  preceding  paragraphs,  some  reference  has  been  made  to 
certain  extinct  species  of  rhinoceroses  which  approximate  closely  to  some  of  the 
existing  members  of  the  group.  Besides  these,  there  are,  however,  a  multitude  of 
extinct  species,  which  ranged  not  only  over  Europe  and  Asia,  but  likewise  North 
America.  It  has,  indeed,  been  suggested  that  America  was  the  original  home  of 


484 


UNGULATES. 


these  animals,  from  whence  they  migrated  to  Asia  and  Europe ;  but  it  appears  to 
us  that  the  evidence  is  equally  in  favour  of  the  migration  having  been  in  the 
opposite  direction.  These  rhinoceroses  occur  throughout  the  Tertiary  period  as 
far  down  as  the  upper  Eocene  division ;  and  even  at  that  low  horizon  many  of  the 
species  may  be  referred  to  the  living  genus,  although  in  most  cases  they  were 
unprovided  with  horns,  while  some  of  them  had  four  toes  to  each  fore-foot. 
Rhinoceroses  are,  therefore,  even  more  ancient  animals  than  tapirs. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  a  rhinoceros  from  Greece,  which  was 
closely  allied  to  the  common  living  African  species ;  but  there  were  also  several 
other  extinct  Old  World  kinds  resembling  the  existing  African  rhinoceroses  in 
the  presence  of  two  horns  and  in  the  absence  of  front  teeth,  while  in  some 
cases  there  is  evidence  to  prove  that  their  skins  were  of  the  smooth  type. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  species  is  the  broad -nosed  rhinoceros 
(R  platyrhinus)  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  which  was  an 

enormous  animal, 
with  upper  molar- 
teeth  resembling 
in  structure  those 
of  Burchell's  rhin- 
oceros, although 
the  last  one  was 
of  the  ordinary 
triangular  shape. 
The  other  species, 
with  molar  teeth 
of  similar  type, 
is  the  woolly 
rhinoceros  (R. 
antiquitatis),  so 
called  from  the 

thick  coat  of  woolly  hair  with  which  its  body  was  covered.  Skeletons,  bones,  and 
teeth  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial  deposits 
of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  including  England,  while  entire  carcases  occur 
frozen  in  the  ice  of  the  Siberian  "  tundra."  From  these  frozen  specimens  it  has 
been  ascertained  not  only  that  the  skin  was  covered  with  woolly  hair,  but  likewise 
that  it  was  devoid  of  the  permanent  folds  characterising  the  Asiatic  species.  The 
horns  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros  appear  to  have  rivalled  in  size  those  of  the  living 
African  Burchell's  rhinoceros.  From  the  structure  of  their  upper  molar  teeth  it 
may  be  inferred  that  both  the  broad-nosed  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  were  grass- 
eaters.  In  Siberia,  however,  portions  of  needles  of  conifers  and  of  twigs  of  other 
trees  have  been  found  in  the  interstices  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  latter;  from 
which  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  animal  was  a  branch-eater.  It  is,  however, 
quite  probable  that  while  in  Siberia  it  may  have  been  compelled  from  lack  of  its 
proper  food  to  take  to  feeding  upon  leaves  and  twigs,  yet  that  in  the  more  southern 
portion  of  its  range  it  resembled  its  allies  in  being  entirely  a  grass-eater. 

During  the  Pleistocene  period  there  were  three  other  species  of  two-horned 


SKULL  OF  EXTINCT  RHINOCEROS  FROM   THE  BRICK-EARTH  OF  ESSEX. 


RHINOCEROSES,  485 

rhinoceroses  without  front  teeth,  inhabiting  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
which  had  upper  molar  teeth  of  the  general  type  of  those  of  the  common  African 
species,  although  their  skulls  were  very  different.  Of  these,  the  Leptorhine 
rhinoceros  (R.  leptorhmus)  and  the  Megarhine  rhinoceros  (R.  megarhinus)  are 
found  in  the  brick-earths  of  the  Thames  valley  and  other  superficial  deposits; 
while  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros  (R.  etruscus)  occurs  in  the  somewhat  older  "  forest- 
bed  "  of  the  Norfolk  coast,  and  likewise  in  the  upper  Pliocene  beds  of  Italy  and 
France.  The  Leptorhine  and  Megarhine  species  have  tall-crowned  cheek-teeth, 
and  (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure)  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a 
vertical  bony  partition  in  the  skull  dividing  the  two  chambers  of  the  cavity  of 
the  nose.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  the  woolly  rhinoceros ;  a  rudiment  of  the 
same  feature  also  occurring  in  the  living  Javan  rhinoceros.  The  Etruscan 
rhinoceros,  on  the  other  hand,  has  shorter-crowned  cheek-teeth,  and  no  such  bony 
septum  in  the  nasal  cavity.  That  all  these  three  species  browsed  on  leaves  and 
twigs  may  be  pretty  confidently  asserted  from  the  structure  of  their  upper  molar 
teeth ;  while  a  carcase  found  embedded  in  the  ice  of  Siberia  belonging  to  either  the 
Leptorhine  or  the  Megarhine  species,  shows  that  these  had  smooth  skins  like  the 
living  rhinoceroses  of  Africa.  The  Deccan  rhinoceros  (R.  deccanensis)  and  the 
Karnul  rhinoceros  (R.  karnuliensis),  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  Southern 
India,  indicate  that  smaller  representatives  of  the  two-horned  branch-eating  group 
likewise  inhabited  that  country. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  occurrence  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of 
Europe  of  an  extinct  two-horned  rhinoceros  provided  with  upper  and  lower  front 
teeth,  which  was  allied  to  the  living  Sumatran  species.  Throughout  the  middle 
Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  of  India,  there 
are  found,  however,  a  number  of  rhinoceroses  differing  from  any  living  species  in 
the  total  absence  of  horns,  while  in  those  cases  where  their  limbs  are  known  the 
fore-feet  were  provided  with  four  toes.  Some  of  these  animals  were  of  very  large 
size,  and  all  of  them  had  molar  teeth  of  the  type  of  that  represented  in  the  upper 
figure  on  p.  464  (which  belongs  to  one  of  the  Indian  species),  and  their  jaws  were 
furnished  with  large  front  teeth.  Moreover,  in  one  of  the  Indian  representatives 
of  this  hornless  group,  the  last  molar  tooth  was  of  nearly  the  same  form  as  that 
in  front  of  it,  instead  of  being  triangular.  That  all  these  species  subsisted  on 
leaves  and  boughs,  may  be  inferred  from  the  structure  of  their  short-crowned 
molar  teeth ;  and  it  may  be  observed  here  that  all  the  older  Ungulates  had  short- 
crowned  cheek-teeth,  adopted  for  champing  twigs  and  leaves  rather  than  for 
masticating  grass ;  whence  it  may  be  concluded  that  grassy  plains  are  probably  a 
comparatively  recent  feature  in  the  history  of  our  globe.  Hornless  rhinoceroses 
also  occur  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  North  America,  but  at  least  the  majority  of 
these  resembled  existing  types  in  having  but  three  toes  on  each  fore-foot ;  while 
their  limbs  were  relatively  shorter  than  in  their  Old  World  allies,  and  their  bodies 
more  elongated.  Finally,  there  were  certain  other  small  rhinoceroses  from  the 
lower  Miocene  of  both  Europe  and  the  United  States,  in  which  the  front  of  the 
skull  carried  a  very  small  pair  of  horns  placed  transversely  instead  of  longi- 
tudinally. 

The  above  are  all  the  forms  which  can  be  included  in  the  genus  Rhinoceros. 


486  UNGULATES. 

There  are,  however,  a  number  of  allied  extinct  animals  which  connect  the  true 
rhinoceroses  with  more  generalised  extinct  types  of  Odd-toed  Ungulates.  Such  for 
instance  is  the  Amynodon,  from  the  Miocene  Tertiary  of  North  America,  which 
was  a  rhinoceros-like  animal  with  no  horn,  and  the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four 
teeth.  That  is  to  say,  there  were  three  incisors,  a  tusk,  and  seven  cheek-teeth  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws  ;  the  front  teeth  being  like  those  of  ordinary  mammals,  and 
not  having  the  peculiarly  modified  form  presented  by  those  of  the  true  rhinoceroses. 
Moreover,  the  whole  of  the  three  upper  molar  teeth  were  alike  ;  and  none  of  them 
had  the  processes  projecting  into  the  middle  valley  which  are  found  in  those  of  all 
true  rhinoceroses.  Probably  the  Amynodon  also  occurred  in  the  lower  Miocene 
and  upper  Eocene  rocks  of  France.  There  were  other  allied  types,  but  the  above 
example  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  earlier  rhinoceroses  were  far  less  different 
from  tapirs  and  some  extinct  generalised  forms  to  be  noticed  later  on  than  are 
their  modern  representatives. 

We  must  not,  however,  take  leave  of  the  rhinoceros  family  without  referring 
to  a  most  remarkable  creature  known  as  the  elasmothere,  which  flourished  during 
the  Pleistocene  period  in  Siberia.  This  creature  was  probably  as  large  as  Burchell's 
rhinoceros,  and  like  that  species  had  no  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws.  The  skull 
had  a  bony  partition  in  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  and  carried  on  the  forehead  an 
enormous  protuberance  which,  during  life,  doubtless  supported  a  horn  of  very  large 
size.  The  most  remarkable  feature  about  the  elasmothere  is,  however,  to  be  found 
in  the  structure  of  its  cheek-teeth,  which  while  formed  on  the  type  of  those  of  the 
rhinoceroses,  are  greatly  elongated,  and  have  their  enamel  so  much  folded  as  to 
present  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  horse.  Indeed,  the  elasmothere  may  be 
regarded  as  a  highly-specialised  grass-eating  creature,  presenting  a  relationship  to 
an  ordinary  rhinoceros  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  the  horse  exhibits  to 
certain  extinct  Ungulates  noticed  in  the  sequel. 

THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 
Family 


Under  the  general  title  of  horses,  zoologists  include  not  only  the  animals  to 
which  that  name  is  restricted  in  ordinary  language,  but  likewise  the  asses,  zebras, 
and  quaggas,  together  with  certain  nearly-allied  extinct  animals.  All  these  are 
characterised  by  having  very  high-crowned  cheek-teeth,  in  which  the  enamel  is 
thrown  into  a  series  of  complicated  foldings,  and  the  deep  valleys  between  the 
component  columns  completely  filled  up  with  cement.  In  the  upper  cheek-teeth, 
as  shown  in  B  and  C  of  the  accompanying  figure,  the  outer  columns  (pa,  me)  of 
each  tooth  are  flattened,  and  the  premolars  somewhat  exceed  the  molars  in  size  ; 
while  in  the  lower  jaw  the  ridges  are  crescent-like,  although  much  complicated  by 
the  foldings  of  the  enamel.  So  different,  indeed,  are  the  molars  of  the  horses  from 
those  of  other  Odd-toed  Ungulates,  that  it  is  at  first  sight  somewhat  difficult  to 
realise  their  fundamental  unity  of  structure.  A  comparison  of  the  three  figures  in 
the  accompanying  illustration  will,  however,  clearly  indicate  how  the  structure  of 
the  tall-crowned  molar  of  the  horse  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  low- 


HORSES.  487 

crowned  molar  of  the  extinct  anchithere,  while  that  of  the  latter  does  not  differ 
very  widely  from  the  molars  of  the  rhinoceros  represented  on  p.  481.  Remembering 
that  the  figured  molar  of  the  anchithere  belongs  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  jaws  to 
those  of  the  horses,  it  will  be  apparent  that  it  would  only  require  a  heightening  of 
its  columns  and  ridges,  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  a  series  of  foldings  in 
their  investing  enamel,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  deepened  intervening  valleys 
with  cement,  to  produce  a  very  similar  type  of  tooth.  It  is  almost  superfluous 
to  add  that  the  tall-crowned  molars  of  the  horse,  with  their  completely  filled 
valleys,  and  their  alternating  ridges  of  harder  and  softer  constituents,  are  far 
more  efficient  instruments  of  mastication  than  the  low-crowned  teeth  of  the 
anchithere,  with  their  perfectly  open  valleys.  Indeed,  while  the  horse's  are 
adapted  for  a  grinding  action,  and  have  nearly  flat  surfaces,  the  anchithere's 
molars  are  suited  to  a  champing  motion,  and  have  ridged  surfaces. 

incisors  Another  peculiarity  in  the  dentition  of  the  horses  is  that  the 

incisor  or  front  teeth  in  both  jaws  have  an  infolding  of  the  enamel 

at  the  summit   of  their  crowns,   as   shown   in  the   figures  A,  B,  C,   on   p.    490. 


p     pi 


UPPER  MOLAR  TEETH  OP  THE  ANCHITHERE  (A),   THE  HORSE  (B),   AND  THE  HIPPARION  (C). 
A  is  from  the  left,  and  B  and  C  from  the  right  side  of  the  jaw. 

This  peculiar  structure,  of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  in  the  sequel,  may 
be  imitated  by  taking  the  finger  of  a  glove  and  pushing  in  the  top,  and  afterwards 
filling  the  whole  of  the  inside  with  wax. 

The  skull  of  the  horses  differs  from  that  of  all  other  living  Odd- 
other  Characters. 

toed  Ungulates  in  having  the  socket  of  the  eye  completely  surrounded 

by  bone.  In  all  existing  horses  the  number  of  toes  on  each  foot  is  reduced  to 
one,  which  is  enclosed  in  a  large  solid  hoof.  This  toe,  which  corresponds  in  the 
fore-limb  to  the  human  middle  finger,  is  supported  by  a  single  long  cannon-bone. 
On  the  sides  of  this  cannon-bone  there  are,  however,  small  splints  representing 
the  remnants  of  the  second  and  fourth  toes  ;  and  in  certain  extinct  forms  (as 
shown  in  the  figures  on  p.  153)  these  lateral  toes  were  complete  and  furnished 
with  hoofs,  although  they  were  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  middle  toe,  and 
could  have  been  of  little,  if  any,  functional  importance.  In  defining  the  horse 
family,  it  must  accordingly  be  stated  that  although  the  toes  may  vary  from 
one  to  three  in  number,  it  is  only  the  middle  one  that  is  functionally  important. 
Another  distinctive  feature  of  the  family  is  that  in  the  fore-limb  the  ulna  is 
represented  only  by  its  upper  extremity,  which  becomes  united  with  the  radius  ; 


488 


UNGULATES. 


while  in  the  hind-limb  the  remnant  of  the  fibula  becomes  similarly  fused  with 

the  tibia. 

So  far  as  their  extremely  specialised  organisation  is  concerned 

the  horses  hold  a  position  among  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates  precisely 

analogous  to  that  occupied  by  the  true  Ruminants,  or  Pecora,  in  the  Even-toed 

division  of  the  order;    and   it   is   curious   to  observe  how  the  two  groups  have 

undergone  an  almost 
exactly  parallel  de- 
velopment, although 
differing  so  essentially 
from  one  another  in 
the  structure  of  their 
limbs  and  teeth.  In 
both,  for  instance,  the 
cheek-teeth  have  ac- 
quired tall  crowns, 
with  complicated  fold- 
ings of  the  enamel,  and 
the  front  teeth  are 
separated  by  a  long 
gap  from  those  of  the 
cheek  -  series.  Then, 
again,  both  have  the 
feet  supported  by  a 
long  cannon -bone, 

although  in  the  Ruminants  this  is  formed  by  the  fusion  of  two  distinct  elements, 
and  in  the  horses  of  but  one  original  constituent.  Moreover,  both  groups  have 
the  two  bones  of  the  lower  segment  in  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  fused  together, 
and  in  both  the  process  by  which  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck  articulates 
with  the  first  has  assumed  a  spout-like  form. 

The  whole  of  the  existing  representatives  of  the  horses  are 
included  in  the  genus  Equus,  of  which  the  following  are  dis- 
tinctive characteristics.  In  the  upper  cheek-teeth  the  portion  called  the  anterior 
pillar  (marked  p  in  the  middle  figure  on  p.  487)  is  connected  by  a  narrow  neck  of 
enamel  and  ivory  with  the  adjacent  crescent  in  the  middle  of  the  same  side  of 
the  tooth;  and  each  foot  has  but  a  single  toe.  The  total  number  of  teeth 
in  the  males  of  all  the  living  species  is  42 ;  these  comprising  |  incisors, 
j  canines,  and  £  cheek-teeth.  The  first  upper  tooth  of  the  cheek -series,  that 
is  to  say  the  first  premolar,  is,  however,  very  small  in  all  the  living  species, 
and  is  frequently  wanting,  thus  reducing  the  number  of  teeth  to  40.  It  is, 
however,  larger  in  many  fossil  species,  and  a  few  of  these  also  have  a  small 
first  premolar  in  the  lower  jaw,  thus  bringing  up  the  number  to  the  typical 
44.  The  canines  of  the  males  are  rather  small  and  pointed,  and  in  the 
females  are  either  rudimentary  or  wanting.  When  present,  they  are  placed 
near  to  the  incisors,  but  are  separated  by  a  long  gap  from  the  teeth  of  the 
cheek-series. 


SIDE   AND   PALATAL  VIEWS  OF  SKULL  OF  EXTINCT  THREE-TOED 

HORSE.— After  Zittel. 


Equus. 


HORSES. 


489 


I  The  horses  are  such  well-known  and  familiar  animals,  that  it 

Form. 
would  be  superfluous  to  describe  their  form  and  appearance  in  detail. 

It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  the  ears  are  long,  and  that  the  tail  is  likewise 
elongated,  but  may  be  either  clothed  with  long  hairs  throughout  its  length,  or 
merely  tufted  at  the  extremity.  The  neck  carries  a  mane,  which  may  be  either 
erect  or  pendent,  and  the  fore-limb  has  a  hard  naked  callosity  above  the  wrist 
joint.  In  most  wild  species  some  portions,  or  the  whole,  of  the  body  and  limbs  are 


SHIRE  STALLION  ("MARS  VICTOR").  —  The  property  of  Sir  Walter  Gilbey,  Bart. 

marked  with  transverse  dark  stripes,  but  these  disappear  more  or  less  completely 
in  the  domesticated  breeds. 

With  the  exception  of  those  that  have  been*  introduced  by  man 
into  other  regions,  horses  are  now  confined  to  the  Old  World,  and  are 
especially  characteristic  of  Africa.  They  may  be  divided  into  true  horses,  zebras, 
and  asses. 

Before,  however,  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  these  groups, 
mav  be  well  to  mention  that  the  terms  commonly  applied  to  the 
various  segments  of  the  limbs  of  the  members  of  the  horse  family  are  not  the 
same  as  those  used  by  the  zoologist  and  anatomist.  For  instance,  what  is  commonly 
designated  the  knee  of  the  horse  is  really  its  wrist,  while  the  so-called  hock  in  the 
hind-limb  is  the  ankle-joint.  The  true  knee  is,  of  course,  in  the  hind-limb,  and  is 
commonly  known  as  the  stifle-joint,  while  in  the  fore-limb  the  elbow  -joint  is 
situated,  as  in  other  animals,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus.  The  fore  and  hind 
cannon-bones  respectively  correspond  to  the  human  middle  metacarpal  and  meta- 
tarsal  bones,  and  the  so-called  pastern  and  coronet  bones  to  the  three  joints  of  the 


Distribution. 


Nomenclature 
of  Limbs. 


49° 


UNGULATES. 


middle  finger  and   toe;    the  fetlock  being   the  joint  at   the   lower   end   of   the 
cannon-bone. 

It  will  thus  be  evident  that  the  horse  is  an  animal  which  is  supported  ex- 
clusively by  a  bone  in  each  fore-foot  corresponding  to  the  terminal  joint  of  the 
human  middle  finger,  and  in  the  hind-foot  by  the  representative  of  the  same  joint 
of  the  middle  toe.  In  this  respect  the  members  of  this  family  differ  from  all 
other  mammals.  Indeed,  as  is  well  remarked  by  Sir  W.  H.  Flower,  had  we  not 
become  so  thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  horse,  we  should  regard  it  as  a  very 
strange  and  wonderful  animal,  as  in  truth  it  is. 

indications  In  this  place  it  will  be  convenient  to  refer  briefly  to  the  changes 

of  Age.        which  take  place  in  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  horse,  with  age.     As 

already  mentioned,  the  summits  of  these  incisors  are  characterised  by  an  infolding 


THE   UPPER  INCISOR  AND   CANINE  TEETH   OF  THE   HORSE   AT  VARIOUS  AGES. 

A  at  30  days ;  B  at  3  years  ;  C  at  6  years  ;  D  at  8  years  ;  E  at  15  years  ;  F  at  30  years. 

of  the  enamel,  deeper  in  those  of  the  upper  than  in  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
common  to  both  the  milk  and  the  permanent  series.  When  the  teeth  are  first 
protruded,  as  in  A  of  the  accompanying  figure,  the  whole  of  the  fold  is  covered 
with  enamel,  but  when  the  teeth  are  worn  (as  in  C)  the  edges  are  cut  through, 
and  the  centre  of  the  crown  is  occupied  by  a  pit  surrounded  with  a  ring  of  enamel, 
this  being  technically  known  as  the  "  mark."  In  the  figures,  A  shows  the  jaw  of  a 
very  young  colt,  with  only  the  first  and  second  milk-incisors  protruded,  both  being 
unworn ;  the  third  milk-incisor  would  appear  later.  In  B,  which  indicates  a  horse 
about  three  years  old,  the  first  permanent  incisor  has  just  appeared,  after  pushing 
out  the  corresponding  milk-tooth.  Between  three  and  a  half  and  four  years  the 
second  permanent  incisor  would  have  likewise  appeared,  and  about  half  a  year 
later  the  tusk  protrudes  from  the  gum.  At  five  years  the  third  incisor  would  have 
displaced  its  predecessor,  and  the  dentition  would  then  be  complete.  This  state  is 


HORSES.  491 

shown  at  C,  which  represents  the  jaw  of  a  six-year-old  horse,  in  which  the  third 
incisor  is  partly  worn,  although  still  retaining  a  large  mark.  Up  to  five  years 
the  age  of  a  horse  can  consequently  be  determined  with  accuracy,  and  also  approxi- 
mately for  some  years  longer.  As  a  rule,  the  mark  disappears  in  the  first 
incisor  of  the  lower  jaw  at  six  years,  in  the  second  at  seven,  and  in  the  third  at 
eight,  while  in  the  corresponding  upper  teeth  it  persists  about  two  years  longer. 
D  shows  the  upper  jaw  of  a  horse  about  eight  years  of  age,  when  the  mark  has 
nearly  disappeared  in  the  first  incisor.  After  the  mark  has  been  lost  in  all  the 
incisors  no  indications  of  age  are  afforded.  In  old  horses,  as  in  E,  a  kind  of  spurious 
mark  is,  however,  produced,  owing  to  the  tooth  having  become  so  much  worn  down 
that  the  pulp-cavity  of  its  basal  portion  is  exposed.  Such  spurious  marks  have, 
however,  no  ring  of  enamel,  and  cannot  be  made  to  counterfeit  the  true  mark, 
although  attempts  to  make  them  pass  for  this  were,  and  perhaps  still  are,  made  by 
unscrupulous  dealers.  When  the  spurious  mark  makes  its  appearance,  the  section 
of  each  incisor  forms  a  wide  triangle,  the  broad  and  flattened  crown  having  been 
completely  worn  away ;  and  in  extreme  old  age,  when  the  teeth  are  ground  down 
to  their  very  roots,  as  at  F,  they  become  very  narrow. 

THE  HORSE  (Equus  caballus). 

The  horse  differs  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus  in  having  the  tail 
thickly  covered  with  long  hairs  from  the  root  to  the  extremity,  and  also  by  the 
mane  being  longer  and  more  flowing.  It  has  also  a  bare  callosity  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  hind-limb  a  little  below  the  heel -joint,  or  hock,  so  that  such  callosities 
are  present  in  all  the  four  limbs.  Moreover,  the  head  is  smaller,  the  ears  are 
shorter,  the  limbs  proportionately  more  elongated,  and  the  hoofs  broader  than  in 
any  of  the  other  species.  In  colour,  domesticated  horses  vary  greatly,  but  they 
seldom  show  any  definite  markings  beyond  a  more  or  less  distinct  dappling.  The 
wild  horses  of  the  Asiatic  steppes  are,  however,  of  a  dun  colour ;  and  since  domesti- 
cated dun-coloured  individuals — especially  in  India  and  Argentina — frequently  show 
a  dark  streak  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  sometimes  two  or  even  three 
transverse  shoulder-stripes,  and  likewise  dark  bands  on  the  limbs,  it  has  been 
inferred  that  originally  the  horse  was  a  dun-coloured  animal,  more  or  less  marked 
with  dark  stripes.  The  height  among  the  domesticated  breeds  is  no  less  varied  than 
the  coloration.  Thus,  while  cart-horses  frequently  attain  the  height  of  17  or  18 
hands  (5  feet  8  inches  or  6  feet)  at  the  withers,  the  Shetland  pony  seldom 
exceeds  11  hands  (3  feet  8  inches),  and  is  occasionally  as  low  as  8|  hands  (2 
feet  10  inches).  The  Asiatic  wild  horses  are  of  medium  stature. 

From  what  is  known  of  the  present  wild  or  half- wild  races,  it  is  probable  that 
the  horse  was  originally  an  inhabitant  of  open  steppes,  where  it  dwelt  in  large 
droves  headed  by  an  old  stallion.  And  from  the  habit  displayed  by  domestic  horses 
of  clearing  away  the  snow  from  their  pasture  in  winter  by  scraping  with  the  front 
hoof,  Darwin  was  of  opinion  that  the  original  habitat  of  the  species  was  in 
regions  where  the  ground  is  covered  during  a  portion  of  the  year  with  snow. 

So  far  as  we  know  at  present,  the  true  horse  in  its  original  wild 
Distribution. 

state  was  mainly  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia,  although  it  extended 


492 


UNGULATES. 


eastwards  from  the  latter  continent  into  Alaska.  It  has,  indeed,  been  stated  that 
certain  wild  horses  found  in  the  Argentine  in  1530  could  not  have  been  introduced, 
and  must  accordingly  have  been  indigenous.  Even,  however,  if  this  be  so  (and  the 
story  is  denied  by  Dr.  Trouessart),  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  horses  in 
question  were  identical  with  E.  caballus,  of  which  fossil  remains  appear  to  be 
unknown  in  the  New  World  south  of  Alaska. 

Fossilised  remains  of  horses  are  extremely  common  in  the  brick-earths,  cavern- 
deposits,  etc.,  of  England  and  the  Continent,  and  since  these  are  indistinguishable 
from  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  existing  species,  it  may  be  pretty  confidently  con- 
sidered thev  indicate  the  former  existence  of  that  animal  in  a  wild  state.  And  it 


ENGLISH   HACK-HOUSE  ("  DONCASTER  "). 

may  be  observed  that  the  researches  of  Dr.  Nehring  have  afforded  reason  to  believe 
that  during  part  of  the  Pleistocene  period  there  existed  in  Western  Europe  a 
condition  very  similar  to  that  now  obtaining  in  the  Russian  steppes,  where  wild 
horses  now  live.  Further  evidence  of  the  identity  of  these  Pleistocene  horses  with 
the  living  species  is  afforded  by  certain  rude  drawings  incised  on  fragments  of  slate, 
bone,  or  antler,  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe 
during  the  later  Stone  Implement  period.  These  drawings  show  that  the  Pleistocene 
horse  was  a  rather  small,  heavily -built  animal,  with  a  large  head,  and  a  rough  mane 
and  tail,  in  all  of  which  respects  it  agreed  with  the  under-mentioned  tarpan  or  wild 
horse  of  the  steppes. 

Dr.  Nehring  is  of  opinion  that  the  wild  horse  of  Western  Europe  was  domesti- 
cated and  tamed  by  the  men  of  the  later  Stone  Implement  period  at  a  time  when 


HOUSES. 


493 


steppe-like  conditions  still  prevailed  in  those  regions ;  and  there  can  be  but  little, 
if  any,  doubt  that  the  horses  used  by  the  ancient  Britons  and  Germans  in  the  time 
of  Caesar  were  derived  from  the  same  native  stock.  It  is,  however,  probable  that 
the  existing  domesticated  horses  of  Europe  have  a  twofold  origin,  and  that,  while 
the  so-called  thorough-bred  and  half-bred  races  have  an  Asiatic  or  perhaps  partially 
North  African  descent,  the  breeds  denominated  by  the  Germans  "  cold-blooded  "  are 
derived  from  the  primitive  European  stock. 

To  how  late  a  date  the  original  wild  horses  of  Western  Europe  existed  as  such, 
cannot  now  be  definitely  ascertained.  It  is  true  that  Strabo  relates  that  wild  horses 
existed  in  his  time  in  Spain  and  the  Alps,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  their  existence 
throughout  a  great  part  of  the  north  of  Europe.  The  occurrence  of  these  animals 
in  the  Ardennes  is  alluded  to  by  Venantius  Fortunatus,  and  in  Italy  a  reference  to 
them  is  made  by  Pope  Gregory  III.  in  the  year  732.  There  is  also  evidence  that 
about  the  year  1000  the  monks  of  St.  Gall  were  in  the  habit  of  using  the  flesh 
of  wild  horses  as  an  article  of  diet,  while  so  late  as  1316  a  document  alludes  to  their 
existence  in  Westphalia.  Moreover,  Rosslin,  in  the  year  1593,  states  that  wild 
horses,  which  were  more  shy  and  difficult  to  approach  than  stags,  were  found  in 
the  Vosges,  and  were  captured  and  tamed  by  the  inhabitants  of  those  districts. 
In  all  these  cases  it  is,  however,  quite  probable  that  these  horses  were  feral  rather 
than  truly  wild ;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  were  derived  from  tamed  races  which 
had  again  taken  to  a  wild  life.  This  view  is  rendered  the  more  probable  from  the 
circumstance  that,  during  the  historic  period  the  greater  part  of  Western  Europe 
had  become  a  forest-clad  region  quite  different  from  the  open  steppes  which  we  have 
reason  to  believe  were  the  original  home  of  the  horse ;  but  it  is  not  impossible 
that  a  certain  number  of  troops  of  wild  horses  might  have  adapted  themselves  to  the 
changed  conditions  of  their  surroundings,  and  have  lived  on  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

Although  at  the  present  day  the  tarpan,  or  wild  horse  of  the 
steppes,  is  now  confined  to  Central  Asia,  there  is  evidence  that  in  the 
time  of  Pallas  (circa  1760)  its  range  extended  westward  to  the  region  of  the  Urals 
and  Volga.  This  explorer  states  that  at  that  period  the  tarpan  abounded  in  the 
steppes  of  Tartary  and  Mongolia,  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Altai,  and  thence  through- 
out Central  Asia,  in  small  droves  seldom  exceeding  fifty  head.  The  majority  are 
of  a  reddish  grey  (dun)  or  pale  grey  colour ;  but  from  intermixture  with  individuals 
which  have  escaped  from  captivity,  these  colours  are  not  invariable.  In  the  pure- 
bred race,  the  mane,  a  streak  along  the  back,  and  the  tail,  are  reddish  brown,  while 
the  nose  is  whitish,  and  the  rest  of  the  muzzle  nearly  black.  They  are  smaller 
than  the  average  domestic  horse,  and  have  thinner  limbs,  larger  heads,  with  a 
convex  profile,  and  longer  ears  which  at  their  summits  are  bent  backwards  in  a 
sickle-like  manner.  The  hoofs  are  small  and  cylindrical;  and  the  mane,  which 
extends  far  on  to  the  forehead  and  backwards  on  to  the  shoulders,  is  comparatively 
short,  thick,  and  half-erect.  In  winter  the  coat  is  long,  rough,  and  shaggy ;  and  the 
bushy  tail  rather  short.  Young  colts  are  easily  tamed,  but  the  adults  are  utterly 
intractable.  Tarpan  exhibit  wonderful  speed,  and  strenuously  avoid  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  man.  They  frequent  the  open  steppes,  and  are  never  found  in  forests 
and  mountainous  districts. 

Since  the  time  of  Pallas  the  tarpan  has  been  steadily  driven    back   to   the 


494 


UNGULATES. 


more  remote  parts  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  was  met  with  by  Colonel  Prejevalski. 
The  troops  there  are  under  the  leadership  of  an  old  stallion,  and  they  always  move 
against  the  wind,  with  their  ears  and  nostrils  alert  to  detect  the  least  trace  of 
danger.  During  the  winter  the  tarpan  scrapes  away  the  snow  with  its  front 
hoofs  in  order  to  reach  the  scanty  herbage  beneath ;  and  its  coat  at  this  season 
becomes  so  thick  as  to  form  a  kind  of  thin  fur. 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  that  tarpan  are  feral  rather  than  truly  wild 


THE  TAKPAN  (jg  nat.  size). 

horses.  This  opinion  is,  however,  vehemently  opposed  by  Dr.  Nehring,  who 
believes  that  in  these  animals  we  have  the  last  survivors  of  the  ancient  prehistoric 
wild  horses  of  Europe,  which  have  been  more  or  less  modified  by  an  infusion  of 
domesticated  blood  through  the  intermixture  of  individuals  escaped  from  captivity. 
Darwin  be  right  in  concluding  that  the  primitive  horse  was  more  or  less  striped, 
it  is  possible  that  this  infusion  of  domesticated  blood  has  led  to  the  nearly  uniform 
coloration  of  the  tarpan. 

Prejevaiski's  It  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place  that  a  wild  horse  from  Central 

Asia,  described  as  E.  prejevalskii,  has  been  regarded  as  indicating 


Horse. 


UOJtSES. 


495 


a  distinct  species.  It  is  of  dun  colour,  becoming  darker  on  the  back,  where,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  distinct  stripe,  and  nearly  white  on  the  under-parts.  Although 
agreeing  in  most  respects  with  the  horse,  it  differs  by  the  mane  being  erect  and 
without  a  forelock  on  the  forehead,  and  by  the  hairs  on  the  tail  being  confined  to 
the  lower  half.  Sir  W.  H.  Flower  suggests  that  this  animal  may  prove  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  the  tarpan  and  the  kiang. 

„    . .  We  have  seen  that  in  Europe  the  horse  was  probably  domesticated 

Domestication.          .  .  .       *• 

during  the  prehistoric  period;   and  we  turn   now  to  the  evidence 

afforded  by  the  Egyptian  monuments  as  to  the  date  of  its  first  use  in  that  ancient 
country.  It  appears  that  no  pictorial  representations  of  the  animal  occur  in  the 
frescoes  of  the  so-called  old  kingdom ;  and  that  such  are  seen  for  the  first  time  at 
about  the  18th  dynasty  (1800  or  1900  B.C.),  when  the  reign  of  the  Asiatic 
Hyksos,  or  shepherd-kings,  who  had  for  so  long  a  period  ruled  over  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  came  to  an  end.  At  this  period  the  horse  seems  to  have  only  been  used 
in  war ;  and  it  is  possible  that  it  may  have  been  introduced  by  the  kings  of  the 
18th  dynasty  from  Syria.  Both  in  Egypt  and  in  Europe  it  was  only  at  a  com- 
paratively late  period  that  the  horse  replaced  the  ox  as  a  beast  of  draught. 

In  regard  to  Western  Asia,  it  appears  that  the  horse  is  of  comparatively  recent 
introduction  into  Arabia,  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  nomads  of  the  Arabian  deserts 
referring  only  to  their  possessing  camels  and  asses ;  while  the  Arabs  in  the  army 
of  Xerxes  are  stated  to  have  been  mounted  on  camels.  The  sculptures  of  Nineveh 
show,  however,  that  the  war-horse  was  known  at  a  very  early  date  in  Assyria ; 
and  it  is  hence  probable  that  it  was  from  Mesopotamia  that  the  horse  was  intro- 
duced at  first  to  the  Syrians  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  them  to  the  Egyptians 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  It  is  a  somewhat  curious  circumstance  that  in  all  the 
Assyrian  sculptures  in  which  mounted  warriors  armed  with  the  bow  are  depicted, 
the  horse  is  invariably  led  by  a  second  horseman,  thus  suggesting  that  at  this  date 
the  Assyrians  were  by  no  means  such  good  riders  as  the  Persians  and  Parthians 
subsequently  became.  The  Greeks  may  have  derived  their  war-horses  from  the 
same  Asiatic  stock ;  and  from  Greece  and  Italy  these  Asiatic  horses  probably 
became  intermingled  with  the  native  breed  originally  domesticated  in  Western 
Europe.  From  Mesopotamia  the  horse  probably  spread  westwards  as  a  domesti- 
cated animal  into  Persia  and  India,  in  neither  of  which  countries  is  there  any 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  an  original  wild  breed. 

Apart  from  the  question  whether  an  indigenous  species  may  have 
still  lingered  on  in  Argentina,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest 
horses  were  unknown  in  at  least  the  greater  part  of  America.  When  introduced, 
from  Europe,  they  soon  multiplied,  and  reverted  to  a  semi-wild  condition,  and 
spread  over  large  areas  of  the  country,  where  they  now  exist  in  vast  numbers  in 
the  open  plains.  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  states,  however,  that  in  certain  parts  of 
Patagonia  wild  horses  are  unable  to  exist  owing  to  the  number  of  pumas ;  and  he 
suggests  that  it  may  have  been  these  animals  which  led  to  the  practical  if  not 
total  extinction  of  the  indigenous  horses  of  the  New  World.  In  the  Falkland 
Islands  the  horses  introduced  by  the  French  in  1764  have  become  thoroughly  wild, 
and  have  multiplied  to  a  considerable  extent,  although  not  so  much  so  as  might 
have  been  expected.  At  the  time  of  Darwin's  visit  these  wild  horses  were,  for 


496 


UNGULATES. 


some  unknown  reason,  restricted  to  the  eastern  corner  of  the  island;  and  their 
comparatively  slow  rate  of  increase  is  attributed  to  the  wandering  habits  of  the 
stallions,  which  compel  the  mares  to  accompany  them,  whether  or  no  the  foals  are 
able  to  follow.  These  Falkland  horses  have  roan  and  grey  for  their  predominating 
colours ;  and  in  one  part  of  the  island  are  small  and  pony-like.  The  late  Prof. 
Moseley  was,  however,  informed  that  their  small  stature  in  this  locality  was  due 
to  the  inferior  size  of  the  stock  from  which  they  are  descended.  In  the  peninsula 
of  Lafonia,  where  the  wild  horses  of  the  Falklands  are  of  larger  size,  Prof.  Moseley 
writes  that  "the  strong  and  active  horses  each  guard  their  own  herd  of  mares. 
They  keep  the  closest  watch  over  them,  and  if  one  strays  at  all,  drive  her  back 
into  the  herd  by  kicking  her.  The  younger  horses  live  in  herds  apart,  but  the 

more  vigorous  ones 
are  always  on  the 
look-out  to  pick  up 
a  niare  from  the 
herds  of  the  older 
ones,  and  drive  her 
off  with  them,  and 
they  sometimes 
gather  a  few  mares 
for  a  short  time 
and  hold  them,  till 
they  are  recap- 
tured. When  they 
think  they  are 
strong  enough,  they 
try  the  strength  of 
the  old  horses  in 
battle,  and  eventu- 
ally each  old  horse 
is  beaten  by  some 

rival  and  displaced.  The  fighting  is  done  mainly  with  the  tusks,  and  front  to 
front,  not  with  the  heels.  Thus  the  most  active  and  strongest  males  are  constantly 
selected  naturally  for  the  continuation  of  the  herds."  As  in  the  continent  of 
South  America,  these  wild  horses  are  captured  either  by  the  lasso  or  the  bolas. 
When  caught,  Moseley  states  that  they  "  are  often  broken  in  by  tying  them  with 
a  raw-hide  halter  to  a  post,  and  leaving  them  for  several  days  without  food  or 
water.  After  long  ineffectual  struggles  to  break  loose,  the  animals  become  con- 
vinced of  the  absolute  power  over  them  of  the  halter,  and  in  future  become  cowed 
and  docile  directly  a  halter  or  lasso  is  over  their  heads.  The  wild  horses,  when 
broken  in,  are  very  tame  and  quiet  to  ride." 

The  habits  of  the  wild  horses  of  continental  South  America  appear  to  be  very 
similar  to  the  above.  There  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  cimarrones ;  and  are 
captured  and  tamed  by  the  Gauchos,  who  generally  mount  them  at  once  and  ride 
them  till  they  are  tired  out.  The  Gaucho  rides  with  a  loose  rein,  and  his  horse's 
head  almost  at  liberty ;  and  so  well  are  the  animals  broken,  that  merely  pressing 


ENGLISH  RACE-HORSE  ("BEND-OR"  by  "  DONCASTER  "). 


HOUSES.  497 

the  part  of  the  reins  next  to  the  hand  against  that  side  of  the  neck  from  which 
the  horse  is  required  to  turn  is  sufficient,  without  making  him  feel  the  bit  at  all. 
Australia.  Feral  horses  are  as  abundant  in  Australia,  where  they  are  known 

as  brumbies,  as  in  Southern  America,     Indeed,  so  numerous  are  they 
in  certain  districts  as  to  become  a  positive  nuisance  to  the  settlers,  by  whom  they 
are  sometimes  shot  down  in  large  numbers. 
Barbs  and  Arabs.         Proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  some  of  the  leading  breeds  of 

domesticated  horses,  we  may  commence  with  those  known  as  Barbs 
and  Arabs,  which  have  had  such  an  important  share  in  the  production  of  the 
modern  race-horse.  With  regard  to  the  Barbs,  which  take  their  name  from  their 
native  region,  Barbary,  it  may  be  premised  that  the  generality  of  African  horses 
are  distinguished  from  those  of  Asia  by  their  long  limbs  and  small  girth  at  the 
loins,  thus  resembling  the  foals  of  other  breeds.  They  display  great  powers  of 
enduring  hunger  and  thirst ;  and  are  fleet,  with  a  high  and  graceful  action.  The 
Barb  comes  nearest  to  this  general  African  type,  but  displays  some  variation 
owing  to  a  crossing  with  other  breeds.  Low  says  that  these  horses  "  are  about 
14|  hands  high.  They  are  sufficiently  deep  at  the  girth,  but  tucked  up  in  the 
belly,  giving  that  peculiar  grey  hound -aspect  which  is  characteristic  of  this  race. 
Their  necks  are  long  and  well-formed,  their  heads  moderately  fine,  the  chafron 
tending  to  the  convex;  their  shoulders  are  oblique,  and  the  withers  thin  and 
well  raised.  Their  limbs,  though  thin  and  delicate,  are  sinewy;  their  pasterns 
are  oblique,  and  the  feet  well  formed.  They  are  gentle  and  full  of  spirit ;  they  are 
somewhat  careless  in  their  paces,  but  distinguished  by  their  graceful  action.  As 
compared  with  the  Arabians,  they  are  more  swift,  but  less  enduring." 

The  Arab  horse  is  strictly  a  product  of  the  country  from  which 

it  takes  its  name ;  and  the  breed  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
horses  introduced  into  Arabia  from  the  Caucasus  or  Asia  Minor  somewhere  about 
the  Christian  era.  They  resemble  in  many  respects  the  horses  of  these  regions, 
"but,"  writes  Low,  "inhabiting  a  very  dry  and  arid  region,  their  characters 
have  become  adapted  to  these  conditions  of  climate  and  food.  They  are  more 
compact  than  the  horses  of  Barbary,  having  a  rounder  body,  shorter  limbs,  with 
more  of  sinew,  or  what  is  termed  bone.  Yet  they  are  of  the  smaller  class  of  horses, 
very  little  exceeding,  on  a  medium,  14  hands,  or  56  inches  in  height.  As  compared 
with  the  horses  of  countries  abounding  in  the  grasses,  their  aspect  is  lean,  their 
form  slender,  and  their  chest  narrow.  But  the  slimness  of  figure  of  these  horses 
is  not  inconsistent  with  muscular  force ;  and  their  movements  are  agile,  their 
natural  paces  swift,  and  their  spirit  is  unmatched.  The  power  of  their  delicate 
limbs  is  indicated  by  the  well-marked  muscles  of  the  fore-arm,  and  the  starting 
sinews  of  the  leg.  The  shoulder  is  sufficiently  oblique ;  the  withers  are  elevated  ; 
the  back  is  moderately  short ;  and  the  quarters  are  good.  The  head  is  well  formed  ; 
the  forehead  is  broad ;  the  ears  are  somewhat  long,  but  alert ;  the  eyes  full  and 
clear ;  the  veins  prominent — the  whole  rather  indicating  a  happy  union  of  gentle- 
ness and  spirit,  than  the  fiery  temper  which  is  commonly  associated  with  the  desert 
horse."  Although  not  remarkable  for  great  speed,  the  Arab  is  pre-eminent  for  its 
endurance,  hardy  constitution,  and  the  scanty  fare  on  which  it  can  exist.  On  a 
cold  morning  in  Northern  India,  when  the  horses  have  been  picketed  round  the 

VOL.  II. — 32 


498 


UNGULATES. 


camp  during  the  night,  the  Arabs  will  be  found  with  their  coats  as  sleek  as  if  they 
had  just  come  from  a  warm  stable,  while  those  of  other  breeds  will  be  all  awry. 
In  their  native  home  Arab  horses  will  subsist  on  the  scanty  herbage  found 
here  and  there  in  the  desert,  and,  in  the  absence  of  these,  on  a  little  barley,  chopped 
straw,  dates,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  camels'  milk.  They  drink  only  at  long  intervals, 
and  then  but  scantily ;  while  their  power  of  making  long  marches  under  a  scorch- 
ing sun  is  unrivalled.  The  affection  with  which  the  Arab  treats  his  horse  is  too 
well  known  to  need  comment. 

Levant  and  The  horses  of  the  Levant  and  Persia  are  more  or  less  closely 

Persian  Horses,  related  to  the  Arab,  but  are  often  of  larger  size.     Indeed,  in  Southern 

Persia  the  horses  are  very  similar  to  Arabs,  though  less  delicately  formed ;  but  in 


GERMAN  HALF-BRED  HORSE  (^  nat.  size). 


the  northern  districts  they  are  all  larger.    The  Turkoman  horses,  which  often  stand 
16  hands  in  height,  are  allied  to  those  of  Northern  Persia. 

The  English  The  English  race-horse,  of  which  examples  are  represented  in  the 

Race-Horse,  figures  on  pp.  492,  496,  has  been  produced  by  a  gradual  improvement 
of  the  original  native  breed,  which  had  been  going  on  for  several  centuries,  and 
subsequently  by  a  large  infusion  of  Eastern  and  African  blood.  The  present  breed 
is  mainly  the  product  of  three  foreign  horses  ;  of  which  the  first  was  from  the 
Levant,  belonging  to  Capt.  Byerly  in  1689,  and  hence  called  the  "  Byerly  Turk." 
From  him  was  descended  "  Herod,"  which,  as  being  the  most  celebrated  of  this 
stock,  has  given  the  name  of  the  Herod-line  to  all  his  descendants.  In  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne  the  "  Barley  Arabian  "  (so  called  from  the  name  of  its  owner)  like- 


499 

wise  exerted  great  influence  upon  the  breed  From  him  were  directly  descended 
"  Flying  Childers  "  and  "  Bartlett's  Childers  " ;  while  from  the  latter  was  derived 
"  Eclipse,"  the  fastest  horse  which  has  ever  run  on  the  turf.  The  horses  descended 
from  the  latter  are  designated  the  Eclipse-line.  The  third  horse  was  the  "  Godolphin 
Barb,"  born  about  1724;  from  whose  grandson,  "Matchem,"  is  derived  the  name  of 
the  third  great  line  of  English  race-horses.  It  should  be  remembered  that  both 
"  Herod,"  "  Eclipse,"  and  "  Matchem "  were  closely  related  to  one  another ;  and  it 
is  only  the  descendants  of  the  breed  thus  produced  to  which  the  term  "  thorough- 
bred "  applies.  The  form  of  the  race-horse  is  designed  solely  for  speed,  and  cannot 
be  taken  as  a  model  of  equine  beauty;  the  frequent  presence  of  a  "ewe-neck" 
detracting  from  perfect  symmetry.  Neither  are  such  horses  safe  to  ride.  They 
have  the  broad  forehead,  brilliant  eyes,  delicate  muzzle,  expanded  nostrils,  and  wide 
throat  of  the  Arab  and  the  Barb ;  while  the  body  is  long  and  light,  with  the  last 
rib  widely  separated  from  the  pelvis.  The  chest  is  deep  but  narrow,  thus  affording 
due  space  for  the  lungs  without  making  the  fore-limbs  too  wide  apart.  The 
obliquity  of  the  shoulder  gives  full  play  to  the  upper  part  of  the  leg ;  while  the 
extreme  length  of  the  haunch,  and  the  elongated  hind-limbs,  with  their  long  sloping 
pasterns,  are  essentially  adapted  for  the  maximum  development  of  speed.  The 
most  common  colour  is  bright  bay  or  brown,  with  black  legs,  mane,  and  tail; 
but  chestnut  is  not  unf requent.  Black  and  grey  are  rarer ;  while  dun,  roan,  or 
piebald  but  seldom  occur. 

The  English  hunter  has  been  produced  by  infusing  the  blood  of 
the  race-horse  with  the  native  races  to  a  larger  or  smaller  degree ; 
but  it  does  not  form  an  exclusive  breed  like  the  racer.  Indeed,  any  good  riding- 
horse  may  be  a  hunter.  The  requisite  qualities  of  the  hunter  are  strength,  good 
action,  and  the  power  of  enduring  fatigue,  coupled  with  a  speed  second  only  to 
that  of  the  race-horse.  The  neck  must  be  muscular,  and  the  chest  of  sufficient 
breadth  to  indicate  strength  without  being  heavy.  The  long  stride  of  the  racer 
not  being  needed,  the  body  should  be  comparatively  short  and  well  "  ribbed  home," 
that  is  to  say  the  last  rib  should  be  close  to  the  pelvis.  The  legs  should  also  be 
relatively  shorter  and  stouter.  In  fact,  the  English  hunter  may  be  described  as 
the  perfect  development  of  the  horse.  In  Germany  the  half-bred  or  three-quarter- 
bred  horse  in  use  as  a  hunter  is  commonly  known  as  the  Trakehner,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  our  illustration.  From  half-bred  horses  of  the  hunter  type  there  is  a 
complete  transition  to  the  ordinary  saddle  and  carriage-horses,  which,  although 
formerly  with  but  little  or  no  foreign  blood  in  them,  now  generally  exhibit  more 
or  less  breeding.  The  Cleveland  bay  is  the  most  highly  esteemed  English  carriage- 
breed;  and  has  been  produced  by  mingling  thorough-bred  blood  with  a  native 
horse  of  stouter  build  than  the  one  selected  as  the  stock  for  the  hunter. 

With  regard  to  the  length  a  horse  can  leap,  "  Chandler's "  big 
'jump  at  Warwick  in  1847  is  still  the  subject  of  occasional  discussion. 
The  distance  was  variously  measured ;  and  for  a  number  of  years  was  thought  to 
have  been  39  feet,  but  the  editor  of  the  sporting  paper  in  which  the  record  was  first 
published  afterwards  explained  that  this  was  a  printer's  error,  and  that  the  distance 
was  in  reality  37  feet.  This  in  itself  is  big  enough  ;  so  big,  in  fact,  that  there  are 
many  horsemen  in  England  who  will  regard  it  as  exaggerated.  The  portion  of  the 


500  UNGULATES. 

race  in  which  the  jump  occurred,  is  reported  as  follows  in  a  description  of  the  race 
in  Bell's  Life  of  March  28,  1847  :— 

This  left  the  lead  with  "  King  of  the  Valley,"  but  he  refused  at  the  top  of  the 
hill,  and  soon  after  "  Regalia  "  caught  up  with  him.  They  raced  together  to  the 
brook,  with  "  Chandler  "  following  them.  "  Chandler's  "  rider  pulled  back  as  they 
approached  it,  expecting  that  "  Regalia  "  would  bring  grief  to  somebody,  and  when 
they  arrived  at  it  sent  the  spurs  into  his  horse  and  followed  them  with  all  steam 
on.  Both  went  into  the  brook,  and  while  they  were  there  "  Chandler,"  who  was 
not  able  to  stop,  whatever  inclination  he  may  have  had  to  do  so,  made  an  extra- 
ordinary jump  and  cleared  the  brook,  horses  and  riders  together.  The  account 
goes  to  say  that  "  Chandler  "  won  the  race  with  ease.  The  length  of  the  leap  was 
immediately  measured,  but  there  was  some  doubt  as  to  where  the  animal  had 
landed,  as  the  ground  was  soft  and  a  number  of  hoofprints  had  been  made. 
Captain  Broadley,  the  rider,  said  that  the  distance  was  37  feet.  This  beats  the 
record,  so  far  as  known,  the  best  previous  record  being  that  of  "  Lottery,"  who 
cleared  between  33  feet  and  34  feet.  One  of  the  witnesses  of  the  jump  was  William 
Archer,  who  stated  that  the  distance  was  39  feet.  The  Hon.  F.  Sawley,  a  well- 
known  sporting  writer  in  England,  was  also  present,  and  declared  that  the  tape 
measured  but  34  feet.  This  is  the  minimum  estimate.  Summing  up,  it  may  be 
said  that  while  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  number  of  feet  cleared, 
"  Chandler's  "  performance  was  an  unusual  and  important  one.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  a  horse  called  "  Proceed,"  who  is  said  to  have  cleared  37  feet  while  running 
in  a  steeplechase  about  the  time  of  the  above  event.  A  horse  called  "  Culverthan  " 
is  reported  to  have  jumped  33  feet  on  one  occasion,  and  "  Lather,"  a  hunter  owned 
by  Lord  Ingestre,  is  said  to  have  jumped  37  feet  and  5  inches  over  a  pit.  None  of 
these  measurements  are  absolutely  authentic.  With  regard  to  speed  it  may  be 
noted  that  "  Flying  Childers  "  ran  a  distance  of  4  miles  1  furlong  and  138  yards 
in  seven  and  a  half  minutes ;  but  this  pace  was  considerably  exceeded  by  "  Eclipse." 

The  American  trotter  is  an  excellent   instance  of   the   results 

American  Trotter.  ,..,,,,.„  ..     ,  ,      .      ,,  .  -, 

obtained  by  breeding  for  a  particular  end ;  in  this  case,  extreme  speed 

in  trotting.  The  breed  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  the  infusion  of  both 
Barb  and  Arab  blood  on  an  English  stock ;  and  the  breeders  of  the  United  States 
strongly  controvert  the  common  opinion  that  the  trot  is  not  a  natural  pace  of  the 
horse.  The  maximum  recorded  pace  of  the  American  trotter  up  to  the  year  1885 
was  one  mile  in  2  minutes  8f  seconds. 

Shetland  and  The  Shetland  Islands  have  long  been  famed  for  the  hardihood 

other  Ponies.  an(j  docility  of  their  indigenous  ponies,  the  small  size  of  which  has 
already  been  mentioned  (p.  496).  These  ponies  are  allowed  to  run  almost  wild, 
with  no  shelter,  and  but  little  food  beyond  what  they  can  procure  for  themselves. 
Their  coats  are  very  long  and  thick,  and  in  winter  become  matted  upon  their  bodies 
in  a  manner  calculated  to  afford  them  most  efficient  protection  from  the  inclemency 
of  the  climate.  They  are  generally  bay  or  brown  in  colour,  but  sometimes  blackish, 
and  at  others  more  or  less  mixed  with  white.  From  their  agility  and  cleverness, 
these  ponies  are  in  great  request  for  equestrian  exhibitions.  The  ponies  of 
Scandinavia  and  Iceland  are  very  similar  to  those  of  Shetland ;  but  those  of  the 
Orkneys  are  larger  and  coarser,  and  of  less  pure  breed.  In  the  Hebrides  there  are 


HOUSES.  501 

two  races  of  ponies,  the  one  small  and  long-haired,  and  the  other  taller ;  and  there 
are  likewise  indigenous  breeds  in  the  hilly  and  forest-districts  of  several  parts  of 
the  British  mainland.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  hardy  and  sure- 
footed, but  coarse  and  ugly  Dartmoor  breed ;  and  the  smaller  long-haired  race  of 
Exmoor,  which  are  extremely  active,  and  run  nearly  wild.  The  New  Forest 


Cart  Horses. 


PERCHERON   CART-HORSE  (fa  nat.  size). 

ponies,  again,  form  a  race  which  although  ugly,  large-headed,  and  short-necked, 
are  hardy,  sure-footed,  and  capable  of  bearing  the  roughest  treatment. 

Under  the  title  of  cart-horses  may  be  included  all  the  heavily- 
built  European  breeds  which  originally  contained  no  admixture  of 
foreign  blood,  and  are  specially  adapted  for  heavy  draught.  In  England  there  are 
four  chief  races,  known  as  the  English  black  or  Shire  horse,  the  breeds  of  the  north- 
eastern counties,  the  Clydesdale,  and  the  Suffolk  punch. 

The  old  English  black  or  Shire  horse  was  characteristic  of  the  fen-districts  and 
some  of  the  other  midland  counties  from  whence  it  has  extended  north  and  south, 


502 


UNGULATES. 


and  it  also  occurs  in  the  so-called  Low  Countries  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent. 
Typically  the  black  horse,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  489,  has  a  round 
and  massive  body,  a  broad  chest,  a  powerful  muscular  neck,  and  short,  stout,  and 
long-haired  limbs ;  its  physical  strength  being  great,  but  its  speed  slight.  The  size 
varies  considerably ;  the  larger  and  most  powerful  races  being  produced  in  the 
fens.  The  more  modern  breed  generally  has  a  white  star  on  the  forehead,  and 
more  or  less  of  the  same  colour  on  the  feet  and  legs,  and  often  on  the  muzzle.  Low 
says  that  "the  main  defects  of  his  conformation  and  temperament  are  his  too 
great  bulk  of  body,  and  want  of  action  and  mettle.  For  a  pull  with  a  heavy 


CLYDESDALE  MARE  ("  WOODBINE"). — The  property  of  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry. 

weight  he  is  admirable ;  but  he  steps  out  short,  and  is  slow  in  all  his  motions." 
Of  recent  years  the  aim  of  breeders  has  been  to  remove  these  defects. 

To  the  north  of  the  Humber  the  native  breeds  of  cart-horses  are  of  smaller 
bulk,  and  generally  brown,  or  still  lighter  in  colour;  while  they  are  altogether 
more  active  than  the  black  horse.  This  lighter  build  appears  to  be  largely  due  to 
an  infusion  of  the  blood  of  the  higher  races  among  the  horses  of  these  districts, 
which  is  not  wanting  even  among  those  employed  solely  for  heavy  draught. 

The  Clydesdale  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  valley  of  the  Clyde 
in  Lanarkshire ;  and  is  supposed  to  have  originated  by  crossing  the 
black  horse  of  the  Low  Countries  with  the  native  breeds.  Clydesdales  may  be 
either  black,  brown,  bay,  or  grey  in  colour,  and  usually  stand  about  16  hands, 
which  is  considerably  less  than  the  height  of  the  black  horse.  They  are  also 
longer  in  the  body  and  less  weighty,  with  a  compact  and  muscular  build,  and  a 
characteristic  free  and  long  stride. 


Clydesdale. 


HORSES.  503 

Lastly,  we  have  the  well-known  Suffolk  punch  of  East  Anglia, 
famed  for  its  steadiness  of  draught,  and  the  pertinacity  with  which  it 
will  exert  itself  against  a  dead  pull.  The  original  breed  derived  its  name  from  the 
stout  and  "  punchy  "  form,  and  was  further  distinguished  by  the  colour  being  light 
dun  or  sorrel,  sometimes  darkening  to  chestnut,  with  lighter  mane  and  tail.  The 
height  was  medium,  the  pace  rather  slow,  but  the  power  of  endurance  very  great, 
and  the  constitution  hardy.  The  form  was,  however,  somewhat  ugly,  the  head 
being  large,  with  a  coarse  muzzle,  the  neck  short,  and  the  shoulder  low  and  heavy. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  limbs  were  short,  and  the  back  straight,  with  wide  loins 
and  well-developed  haunches.  The  breed,  which  has  of  late  years  been  much 
modified  by  mixture,  is  believed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Normandy ;  and 
Low  is  of  opinion  that  its  dun  or  sorrel  colour  indicates  a  near  affinity  with  the 
wild  tarpan  of  the  Asiatic  steppes. 

Among   well-known  Continental   breeds,  the   percheron,  repre- 
Foreign  Breeds. 

sented  on  p.  501,  while  somewhat   deficient  in  bulk   and   strength, 

is  remarkable  for  its  energy  and  pluck.  Belgium  possesses  two  distinct  original 
breeds  known  as  the  Ardennes  breed,  from  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  and  the  Frisian, 
from  the  sea-coast.  By  crossing  there  has  been  produced  the  Braban9on  horse, 
which  although  inferior  in  bulk  and  strength  to  the  Clydesdale,  has  more  breed 
and  energy.  Harnessed  to  heavy  country  carts,  weighing  about  3000  Ibs.,  they 
will  drag  a  load  of  from  6000  to  10,000  Ibs.  on  the  level ;  and  thus  vastly  exceed  in 
power  the  original  light  Ardennes  horse,  which  is  fast  disappearing. 

THE  ZEBRAS  (Equus  zebra,  etc.). 

The  three  species  of  zebra,  together  with  the  quagga,  form  a  group  agreeing 
in  essential  character  with  the  asses,  but  distinguished  by  their  more  or  less 
completely  striped  heads  and  bodies.  In  both  these  groups  the  mane  is  erect, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  is  free  from  long  hairs;  while  there  are  naked 
callosities  on  the  fore-limbs  only,  and  the  ears  are  longer,  the  head  relatively 
larger,  and  the  hoofs  narrower  than  in  the  horse. 

The  true   or   mountain   zebra   (E.  zebra)  is  the  typical   repre- 
True  zebra.  .  .  . 

sentative  of  the  striped  group,  and  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  hilly 

districts.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  species,  standing  from  4  feet  to  4  feet  2 
inches  (12  to  12^  hands)  at  the  withers,  and  has  relatively  long  ears  and  a  compara- 
tively short  mane,  with  the  tail  but  scantily  haired.  The  general  ground-colour  of 
the  hair  is  white,  while  the  stripes  are  black,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is 
bright  brown.  With  the  exception  of  the  under-parts  of  the  body  and  the  inner 
sides  of  the  thighs,  the  whole  of  the  head,  body,  and  limbs,  as  well  as  the  upper 
part  of  the  tail,  are  striped.  On  the  hind-quarters,  the  dark  longitudinal  stripe 
running  down  the  middle  of  the  back  is  connected  with  the  uppermost  of  the 
oblique  longitudinal  stripes  by  a  series  of  transverse  bars,  which  are  wanting  in  the 
next  species ;  and  there  may  be  a  longitudinal  stripe  running  up  the  middle  of 
the  chest.  This  species  was  originally  common  in  the  mountains  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  but  has  now  been  exterminated  except  in  some  of  the  districts  on  the 
east  side.  Here  a  few  herds  remain  on  the  summits  of  the  Zwartberg, 


5°4 


UNGULATES. 


Sneuwberg,  and  Winterhock  ranges,  where  they  are  strictly  protected  by  special 

laws. 

Burchell's  zebra  (E.  burchelli),  commonly  known  by  the  Boers 
BurcheU's  zebra.  ag  ^e  quagga,  is  a  rather  stouter  and  taller  animal  than  the  last, 
standing  from  4  feet  4  inches  to  4  feet  6  inches  (13  to  13£  hands)  at  the  shoulder. 
It  is  further  distinguished  by  its  shorter  ears,  longer  and  more  fully-developed 
mane,  and  more  thickly-haired  tail,  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  the  transverse 
bars  connecting  the  stripe  on  the  middle  of  the  back  with  the  uppermost  of  those 


BURCHELL'S  ZEBRA  (^  nat.  size). 

oii  the  haunches,  and  likewise  by  the  union  of  every  alternate  body-stripe  with  its 
fellow  on  the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  In  the  typical  form  (as 
represented  in  our  illustration)  the  tail  and  legs  are  quite  devoid  of  stripes,  but  in 
the  so-called  Chapman's  zebra,  which  is  only  a  variety  of  this  species,  both  may  be 
striped,  although  the  stripes  never  extend  on  to  the  pasterns.  The  general  ground- 
colour of  the  hair  varies  from  white  to  yellowish  brown,  and  the  stripes  may  be 
dark  brown  or  black.  The  hoofs  are  said  to  be  much  more  like  those  of  a  pony 
than  are  those  of  the  preceding  species. 

Distribution  Burchell's  zebra  is  a  plain-dwelling  animal,  which  never  appears 

and  Habits,    to  have  ranged  southwards  of  the  Orange  River.     It  now  appears  to 

be  practically  exterminated  in  the  Transvaal,  but  is  still  to  be  met  with  in  numbers 


tfe 

^J  ft 


cc 

CD 

UJ 

N 


in  the  di 
in  wet  season* 
on  the  plaiii- 
wards  it 
Me* 

be  fouiv: 
ten  to  til' 

beests,  .•  bocatft. 

they  keep  '_f 
pursued  they  rn) 
to  overtake 
remainder  <>>  op. 

whining  bar 
relished  by  < 
large  numbt 
others  fall  n 

attempt^ 
con  i 

more  or 
hippoti^ 
individr.- 

All  wb- 
appearan 
and  then 
trophies 
has  beci. 
harmoni.^ 


!  •  ':     '  • 


Th» 


)>U!      II. 

*M  iciatin^ 

i'  not  \\i 


hv 


onwards  to  ; 
known  t 
animal  than 
striped  right 
body,  an- 
long  mane  ai- 
greater  numl 
separated  b}- 
moreover,  qu 
a  much  gren 
haunches  beii. 

Habits. 

Victoria  Nyn 
individuals. 


HORSES. 


5°7 


Distribution. 


When  Sir  C.  Harris  visited  the  Cape  Colony  in  the  year  1839,  he 
described  the  quagga  as  existing  in  immense  herds,  but  it  is  now, 
owing  to  incessant  persecution  for  the  sake  of  its  hide,  either  completely  or  very 
nearly  exterminated.  According  to  Mr.  H.  A.  Bryden,  the  quagga  always  had  a 
very  restricted  distribution,  and,  although  "  formerly  so  abundant  upon  the  far- 
spreading  '  karroos '  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  the  plains  of  the  Orange  Free  State, 
appears  never  to  have  been  met  with  north  of  the  Vaal  River.  Its  actual  habitat 
may  be  precisely  defined  as  within  Cape  Colony,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  Griqua- 


THE   QUAGGA. 


Habits. 


land  West.  I  do  not  find  that  it  ever  extended  to  Namaqualand  and  the  Kalahari 
Desert  to  the  west,  or  beyond  the  Kei  River,  the  ancient  eastern  limit  of  the  Cape 
Colony  to  the  east." 

The  name  couagga  is  derived  from  the  shrill  bark-like  neigh  of 
the  animal.  In  habits  this  species  appears  to  have  been  very  similar 
to  the  other  members  of  this  group ;  and  it  was  formerly  much  sought  after  by  the 
Boers  in  order  to  supply  their  native  servants  with  food.  It  may  be  added  that  all 
the  zebras,  with  the  exception  of  E.  grevyi,  which  has  not  hitherto  been  exhibited 
in  this  country,  will  interbreed  with  either  the  horse  or  the  ass.  Indeed,  the 
skeletons  of  all  the  living  Equidm  are  so  alike  that,  except  from  size,  it  appears 
impossible  to  distinguish  the  teeth  or  limb-bones  of  the  various  species  from  one 
another. 


508 


UNGULATES. 


THE  ASSES  (Equus  hemionus  and  asinus). 


The  true  asses  differ  from  the  zebras  in  having  their  bodies  without  a  series  of 
stripes,  although  there  is  always  a  dark  streak  down  the  back,  and  sometimes 
another  across  the  shoulders,  and  likewise  irregular  transverse  bars  on  the  limbs. 

Wild  asses  are  widely  distributed  over  the  more  arid  regions  of 
*S>  Asia,  ranging  from  Syria  to  Persia  and  Western  India,  and  northwards 


THE  TIBETAN  WILD  ASS,  OR  KIANG  (£g  nat.  Size). 

over  a  large  extent  of  Central  Asia.  It  was  long  considered  that  there  were  three 
distinct  species  of  these  animals,  but  although  there  are  at  least  two  well-marked 
varieties,  Mr.  Blanford  is  of  opinion  that  the  whole  of  these  form  but  a  single 
species  (E.  hemionus).  These  asses  have  moderate-sized  ears  and  rather  long  tails, 
and  stand  from  3  feet  8  inches  to  4  feet  (11  to  12  hands)  at  the  withers.  They 
have  a  dark  brown  stripe,  sometimes  bordered  with  white,  running  from  the  back 
of  the  head  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  tail,  the  fore-part  of  this  stripe  being  formed 


HORSES. 


5°9 


only  by  the  mane ;  the  colour  of  the  rest  of  the  upper  parts  varying  from  reddish 
grey  to  fawn  or  pale  chestnut,  while  the  under-parts  are  creamy  white.  In  some 
cases  there  is  a  dark  shoulder-stripe,  while  in  others  the  legs  are  faintly  barred 
with  rufous,  and  the  end  of  the  tail  is  dark. 

Varieties  and  There  are  three  varieties  of  Asiatic  wild  asses,  of  which  the  first 

Distribution.  js  the  kiang  or  kulan,  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia,  characterised  by  its 
large  size,  dark  reddish  colour,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  stripe  down  the  back. 
The  ghorkhar,  or  onager,  from  Western  India  and  Baluchistan,  is  a  smaller  and 
paler -coloured  variety,  with  a  broader  dorsal  stripe,  its  general  colour  being 
sometimes  silvery  white.  Lastly,  there  is  a  third  variety  from  Syria  and  Persia, 
which  apparently  differs  very  slightly  from  these.  In  Western  Tibet  the  kiang 
lives  at  elevations  of  fourteen  thousand  feet  and  over,  while  in  Cach  the  ghorkhar 
is  found  at  the  sea-level. 

The  Asiatic  wild  ass  is  remarkable  for  its  fleetness  and  its  capacity 
for  getting  over  rough  and  stony  ground  at  a  great  pace.  As  a  rule, 
these  animals  inhabit  desert  plains  or  open  rolling  table-lands,  and  are  generally 
found  in  small  parties  of  from  two  to  four  or  five  individuals,  or  in  herds  varying 
in  number  from  twenty  to  thirty  or  forty.  In  North- Western  Afghanistan  a  herd 
estimated  to  contain  upwards  of  one  thousand  head  has,  however,  been  seen  in 
the  month  of  April,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  larger  herds  are  composed  solely  of 
mares  and  foals.  In  the  districts  to  the  west  of  the  Indus  the  foals  are  born  during 
the  summer  from  June  to  August ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  period  of  gestation 
is  about  eleven  months,  as  with  the  other  members  of  the  genus. 

The  food  of  these  wild  asses  consists  in  the  lowlands  of  different  kinds  of 
grasses,  which  are  frequently  dry ;  but  in  Tibet  it  is  chiefly  composed  of  various 
woody  plants,  which  form  the  main  vegetation  of  those  arid  regions.  In  the  hills 
to  the  west  of  the  Indus  these  animals  are  to  be  found  wandering  pretty  well 
throughout  the  year ;  but  in  the  early  summer,  when  the  grass  and  the  water  in 
the  pools  have  dried  up  from  the  hot  winds,  the  greater  number,  if  not  all,  of  the 
ghorkhars  migrate  to  the  hills  for  grass  and  water.  It  is  stated  that  in  Western 
India  and  Persia  the  wild  asses  are  very  shy  and  difficult  to  approach.  This  is, 
however,  by  no  means  the  case  with  the  kiang  of  Western  Tibet,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  curious  and  inquisitive  of  all  animals,  frequently  approaching  within 
fifty  yards  or  less  of  any  strange  object.  Indeed,  these  asses  are  often  a  positive 
nuisance  to  the  sportsman,  as  they  will  come  up  to  him  as  he  is  engaged  in  a 
stalk,  and  thus  alarm  and  drive  away  his  quarry.  In  Ladak  I  have  frequently 
ridden  among  a  herd  of  kiang,  who  would  gallop  close  round  my  pony  in  circles ; 
and  on  one  occasion  a  kiang,  apparently  actuated  by  extreme  curiosity,  walked 
straight  into  the  middle  of  my  camp,  where  the  cooking  was  going  on,  much  to 
the  alarm  of  the  Indian  servants. 

The  speed  of  the  ghorkhar  is  so  great  that  it  appears  to  be  impossible  for  a 
single  horseman  to  ride  down  an  adult  in  good  condition.  It  is  stated,  indeed,  that 
this  has  been  done  in  Cach,  but  Mr.  Blanford  is  of  opinion  that  in  such  cases  mares 
in  foal  were  the  objects  of  pursuit.  In  the  Bikanir  Desert  the  foals  are  captured 
during  the  summer  by  mounted  parties  of  Baluchis,  who,  by  relieving  one  another, 
hunt  them  till  they  fall  from  sheer  exhaustion,  when  they  are  taken  and  bound. 


510 


UNGULATES. 


Such  of  these  foals  as  can  be  reared  are  taken  into  India  and  sold  to  the  native 
princes,  by  whom  high  prices  are  given  for  these  animals.  Whether  ghorkhars 
thus  taken  are  capable  of  being  tamed  and  broken  to  harness  or  the  saddle,  I  am 
not  aware ;  but  a  kiang  which  I  once  saw  in  captivity  in  Leh  was  a  most  vicious 
and  intractable  brute,  with  which  nothing  could  be  done.  The  late  Sir  O.  B.  St. 
John  states  that  it  was  told  him  by  the  Persians  that  if  the  sportsman  can  manage 
to  conceal  himself  and  his  horse  in  the  vicinity  of  a  spring,  and  wait  till  the  wild 


A   TROOP   OF  PERSIAN   WILD   ASSES. 


asses  have  quenched  their  thirst,  they  can  readily  be  come  up  with  when  full  of 
water  by  a  short  spurt  on  a  fast  horse.  At  other  times  they  are  caught  by  relays 
of  horsemen  and  greyhounds.  It  is  further  stated  by  the  same  writer  that  the 
flesh  of  the  ghorkhar  is  only  eaten  by  the  Persians  when  other  food  is  scarce. 

There  has  been  some  amount  of  discussion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  voice  of  the 
kiang,  some  observers  comparing  it  to  that  of  the  common  ass,  while  others  think 
it  has  more  resemblance  to  the  neigh  of  the  horse.  The  general  opinion  is,  however, 
that  it  is  decidedly  ass-like,  and  it  has  been  described  as  a  shrieking  bray. 


HORSES.  5II 

African  Wild  Ass..  The  African  wild  ass  (E.  asinus)  is  a  very  distinct  animal  from 
its  Asiatic  cousin,  having  much  longer  ears,  a  shorter  mane,  and  the 
tail  more  scantily  haired.  The  general  colour  of  the  hair  is  a  creamy  or  bluish 
grey,  without  any  decided  rufous  tinge,  and  there  is  usually  a  well-defined  dark 
shoulder-stripe,  as  well  as  dark  bars  on  the  limbs.  The  muzzle,  a  patch  under  the 
throat,  and  the  under-parts  are  white,  and  there  is  frequently  a  large  amount  of 


A 


THE  AFRICAN  WILD   ASS  (-fa  flat.  size). 

white  on  the  limbs.  There  is  some  amount  of  individual  variation  in  regard  to  the 
relative  length  of  the  ears,  mane,  tail,  and  limbs ;  and  the  degree  of  development  of 
the  shoulder  and  leg-stripes  is  also  variable,  the  former  being  sometimes  very  narrow 
and  faintly  marked,  while  in  other  cases  the  latter  markings  may  be  absent.  The 
height  may  reach  4  feet  8  inches  (14  hands)  at  the  withers. 

Distribution  and         The  African  wild  ass  is  widely  distributed  in  the  desert  regions 

Habits.        Of  North -Eastern  Africa,  occurring  in  Abyssinia,  Somaliland,  the 

Sudan,  and  other  districts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Red  Sea.    Sir  Samuel  Baker 


5I2  UNGULATES. 

says  that  on  the  margin  of  the  Atbara  Desert  "  the  tracks  of  wild  asses  had  been 
frequent,  but  hitherto  I  had  not  seen  the  animals,  as  their  drinking  hour  was  at 
night,  after  which  they  travelled  far  into  the  desert.  However,  on  the  morning  of 
the  29th  June,  shortly  after  the  start  at  about  6  A.M.,  we  perceived  three  of  these 
beautiful  creatures  on  our  left — an  ass,  a  female,  and  a  foal.  They  were  about  half 
a  mile  distant  when  first  observed,  and  upon  our  approach  to  within  half  that 
distance  they  halted  and  faced  about.  They  were  evidently  on  their  return  to  the 
desert  from  the  river.  Those  who  have  seen  donkeys  in  their  civilised  state  have 
no  conception  of  the  beauty  of  the  wild  and  original  animal.  Far  from  the  passive 
and  subdued  appearance  of  the  English  ass,  the  animal  in  its  native  desert  is  the 
perfection  of  activity  and  courage ;  there  is  a  high-bred  tone  in  the  deportment,  a 
high-actioned  step  when  it  trots  freely  over  the  rocks  and  sand,  with  the  speed  of 
a  horse.  When  it  gallops  freely  over  the  boundless  desert,  no  animal  is  more 
difficult  to  approach,  and,  although  they  are  frequently  captured  by  the  Arabs, 
those  taken  are  invariably  the  foals,  which  are  ridden  down  by  fast  dromedaries, 
while  the  mothers  escape."  The  author  then  proceeds  to  notice  how  admirably  the 
coloration  of  these  animals  harmonises  with  that  of  their  desert  surroundings. 
Their  food  consists  of  the  wiry  herbage  found  in  such  regions,  but,  in  spite  of  such 
apparently  poor  diet,  these  animals  are  always  found  in  fine  condition.  The  flesh 
is  eaten  by  the  Arabs.  It  appears  that  these  asses  are  found  either  in  parties  of 
two  or  three  or  in  small  herds,  but  that  they  do  not  assemble  in  large  troops. 
Their  bray  is  practically  indistinguishable  from  that  of  the  domestic  race. 

.  The  domestic  ass  is  evidently  the  tamed  African  ass,  in  most  cases 
deteriorated  by  bad  food  and  hard  usage.  Any  description  of  such 
a  well-known  animal  would  be  superfluous ;  but  it  may  be  observed  that,  while 
grey  is  the  ordinary  colour,  the  tint  may  vary  in  one  direction  until  it  passes  into 
white,  while  in  the  other  it  gradually  darkens  into  a  deep  brown  or  even  black.  The 
dark  stripe  running  down  the  back  is  usually  distinct  in  the  lighter -coloured 
varieties,  but  the  shoulder-stripe  is  less  constant,  being  frequently  absent,  although 
in  some  instances  duplicated.  The  bars  on  the  legs  are  generally  wanting  in  the 
adult,  although  they  are  frequently  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  in  the  foal. 

The  ass  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  long  before  the  horse,  and  was, 
indeed,  probably  first  domesticated  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  whence  it  has  spread 
over  almost  the  whole  of  the  habitable  regions  of  the  globe.  We  are  not  aware, 
however,  of  any  instances  where  these  animals  have  reverted  to  a  semi-wild 
condition.  In  Europe,  the  largest  and  finest  breeds  are  produced  in  the  more 
southern  countries,  such  as  Spain,  Italy,  and  Malta ;  but  there  are  others  of  still 
finer  proportions  in  the  United  States,  where  they  reach  a  height  of  15  or  16  hands. 
These  larger  races  are  mainly  kept  for  the  purposes  of  mule-breeding,  and  show 
that  the  small  size  of  the  ordinary  form  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  rough  treatment 
and  bad  food  which  is  usually  its  share.  In  England  the  ass  was  known  in  the 
reign  of  Ethelred,  when  it  fetched  the  then  high  price  of  twelve  shillings ;  but  it 
has  been  considered  that  it  subsequently  became  extinct,  and  was  reintroduced  about 
the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  and  it  is  certain  that  it  did  not  become  common  till 
after  the  reign  of  the  latter. 

The  ass  is  valued  not  only  as  a  beast  of  burden  and  draught,  but  likewise  on 


HORSES.  5,3 

account  of  its  milk ;  and  it  is  stated  that  in  one  district  of  Equatorial  Africa  large 
droves  of  these  animals  are  kept  solely  for  the  sake  of  their  milk.  A  peculiarity 
in  the  disposition  of  the  ass,  is  its  reluctance  to  cross  even  the  smallest  stream  of 
water ;  this  aversion  being  doubtless  a  direct  inheritance  from  its  desert-haunting 
wild  ancestors. 


DOMESTIC  ASS. 


The  term  mule  is  strictly  applicable  only  to  the  hybrid  between 

the  male  ass  and  the  mare ;  the  product  of  the  union  of  the  opposite 

sexes  of  these  two  species  being  known  as  the  hinny.      Mules,  although  they 

frequently  display  the  stubbornness  and  obstinacy  of  the  ass  in  an  intensified 

degree,  are  for  some  purposes  more  valuable  than  either  of  their  parents,  being 

very  sure-footed  and  with  great  powers  of  endurance.     Some  of  the  finest  mules  are 

bred  in  Spain,  the  United  States,  and  North- Western  India,  where  they  frequently 

attain  the  height  of  16  hands.     In  Spain  they  are  generally  employed  to  carry 

burdens,  and  march  in  long  droves,  following  in  single  file  a  leader  distinguished 

VOL.  ii.— 33 


5H  UNGULATES. 

by  a  bell.     Among  the  dun-coloured  mules  of  the  Punjab,  dark  stripes  on  the  legs 
are  very  common. 

There  appear  to  be  no  authenticated  instances  of  mules  breeding  among  them- 
selves ;  although  the  female  mule  will  occasionally  produce  offspring  with  the  male 
horse  or  ass.  And  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
hybrids  between  any  other  members  of  the  Equine  family  are  mutually  fertile. 

FOSSIL  HORSES. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  remains,  undistinguishable  from  the 
existing  horse,  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  Europe  and  Arctic  America ;  but 
that  those  found  in  the  corresponding  formations  of  the  United  States  and  South 
America  appear  to  belong  to  extinct  species  of  the  genus  Equus.  In  the  upper 
molar  teeth  of  all  these  species  the  front  inner  pillar  marked  p  in  figure  B  on  p. 
487  is  much  elongated  from  front  to  back.  In  the  figured  tooth  which  belongs  to  an 
extinct  species  (E.  sivalensis)  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  India,  that  pillar  is,  how- 
ever, shorter;  and  in  Steno's  horse  (E.  stenonis),  from  the  Pliocene  deposits  of 
Europe,  it  is  so  much  shortened  as  to  be  almost  cylindrical.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  certain  extinct  species  from  the  later  deposits  of  the  United  States  and 
Argentina,  which,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the  slit  for  the  nose  in  the 
skull,  are  separated  as  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Hippidium.  All  the 
foregoing  have  but  a  single  toe  to  each  foot,  but  we  now  come  to  certain  other 
species  in  which  there,  were  three  distinct  hoofs.  One  of  these  is  the  Protohippus 
of  the  lower  Pliocene  strata  of  the  United  States,  in  which  the  upper  molar  teeth 
approximate  to  the  one  represented  in  Fig.  B  on  p.  487,  but  have  shorter  crowns. 
The  other  is  the  European  and  Asiatic  hipparion,  or  three-toed  horse,  of  which  an 
upper  molar  tooth  is  represented  in  Fig.  C  of  the  page  quoted.  From  that 
figure  it  will  be  seen  that  the  front  inner  pillar  p  is  completely  separated  from 
the  portion  pi.  That  the  Protohippus  was  the  ancestor  of  the  true  extinct  horses 
of  America,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt ;  but,  from  the  separation  of  the  inner 
pillar  of  the  molars,  it  is  not  so  certain  that  the  hipparion  gave  rise  to  the  existing 
European  members  of  the  family. 

OTHER  EXTINCT  ODD-TOED  UNGULATES. 

Ancestry  of  the  The  foregoing  observations  indicate  that  there  is  a  complete 
Horse.  transition  from  the  modern  single-toed  horse  to  species  with  three 
distinct  toes  to  each  foot,  and  with  rather  shorter-crowned  and  simpler  molar  teeth. 
From  these  three-toed  horses  there  is  a  further  gradation  to  other  extinct  Ungulates, 
which  cannot  be  included  in  the  Equine  family,  but  some  of  which  were  doubtless 
the  direct  progenitors  thereof.  One  of  these  was  the  Miocene  anchithere,  common 
to  both  Europe  and  the  United  States.  From  the  figures  given  on  p.  487,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  upper  molar  teeth  of  these  animals,  although  formed  on  the  general 
plan  of  those  of  the  horse,  have  very  low  crowns,  with  a  simpler  arrangement  of 
the  pillars  and  ridges,  and  the  intervening  valleys  perfectly  open,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  cement;  and  it  may  be  added  that  other  species  show  a  complete 


EXTINCT  FORMS,  515 

transition  from  the  molars  of  the  anchithere  to  those  of  the  earlier  horses.  Further, 
the  lateral  toes  of  the  anchithere,  as  shown  in  the  figures  on  p.  153,  were  relatively 
larger  than  in  the  three-toed  horses.  Moreover,  in  the  anchithere,  the  radius  and 
ulna  in  the  fore,  and  the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  hind-limb,  were  perfectly  distinct 
and  fully-developed  bones.  The  largest  anchithere  approached  an  ordinary  pony 
in  size,  while  the  smallest  was  not  larger  than  a  sheep ;  and  in  all  these  animals 
there  was  the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four  teeth,  while  the  "  mark  "  character- 
istic of  the  incisors  of  the  horse  was  but  faintly  indicated  in  one  species  alone. 
Passing  downwards  in  the  geological  scale,  by  a  complete  transition  from  the 
anchithere,  we  arrive  in  the  lower  Eocene  London  Clay  at  a  small  animal  known 
as  the  hyracothere,  which  was  not  larger  than  a  fox,  and  had  four  toes  to  the  front, 
and  three  to  the  hind-feet ;  while  the  forty-four  low-crowned  teeth  were  of  still 
simpler  structure  than  in  the  anchithere,  although  formed  on  the  same  general 
plan.  The  last  lower  molar  tooth  of  the  hyracothere  differs  however  from  that  of  all 
existing  Odd-toed  Ungulates  in  having  three  complete  lobes,  and  thus  approximates 
to  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  Even-toed  group ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  the 
essential  correspondence  in  the  structure  of  the  upper  molars  of  the  two  groups 
will  be  apparent  by  a  comparison  of  the  figure  of  the  molar  of  the  anoplothere  on 
p.  421,  with  that  of  the  anchithere  on  p.  487. 

A  step  from  the  hyracothere  brings  us  to  the  still  earlier  phenacodus,  in  which 
each  foot,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  8  of  the  first  volume,  had  five  complete 
toes ;  while  the  molar  teeth  had  their  crowns  with  small  isolated  tubercles  instead 
of  ridges.  This  small  primitive  animal,  with  a  most  generalised  type  of  structure, 
appears  then  to  be  the  undoubted  ancestral  stock  from  which  the  modern  horse 
has  been  slowly  produced  by  some  process  of  evolution,  which  was  going  on  through- 
out the  long  ages  of  the  whole  Tertiary  period ;  and  it  is  at  least  noteworthy  that 
the  true  horse  only  made  its  appearance  on  the  globe  at  or  about  the  same  time  as 
his  master,  man. 

Paiaeotiieres  and  In  addition  to  the  animals  referred  to  above,  as  forming  the  direct 
LopModons.  ancestral  line  of  the  modern  horse,  there  were  a  number  of  other  more 
or  less  closely-allied  types  belonging  to  the  Odd-toed  group.  Among  these  some  of 
the  best  and  longest 
known  are  the  palseo- 
theres,  from  the  upper 
Eocene  strata  of  Europe, 
of  which,  as  far  back  as 
the  early  portion  of  the 
present  century,  nearly 

THE  LEFT   UPPER  CHEEK-TEETH  OF  THE  GREAT  ?AI^EOTHERE 

Covered  in  the  gypsum  ^  nat>  size).— After  Gaudry. 

quarries,     near     Paris, 

were  described  by  Cuvier.  These  palseotheres  were  tapir-like  animals,  with  three 
toes  to  each  foot,  and  molar  teeth  approximating  to  those  of  the  anchithere  in 
structure,  but  having  a  somewhat  elongated  neck  While  some  of  the  species  were 
not  taller  than  a  sheep,  others  must  have  fully  equalled  the  largest  tapirs  in  size. 
They  probably  resembled  the  tapirs  in  having  a  short  proboscis  to  the  snout,  and 


5i6  UNGULATES. 

likewise  in  their  general  mode  of  life.  The  lophiodons  are  somewhat  older  animals, 
being  mainly  characteristic  of  the  middle  Eocene  strata  of  Europe.  Some  of  them 
were  as  large  as  a  rhinoceros ;  and  their  upper  molar  teeth  approximate  to  those  of 
the  tapirs  having  their  outer  columns  conical,  instead  of  aissuming  the  flattened  form 
characteristic  of  the  palseotheres.  The  lower  molars,  moreover,  differ  from  those  of 
the  palseotheres  in  having  their  transverse  ridges  nearly  straight  instead  of  crescent- 
like  ;  and  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  only  forty,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  first 
premolar  in  each  jaw.  So  far  as  known,  the  number  of  toes  to  the  feet  was  the 
same  as  in  the  tapirs ;  and  while  the  true  lophiodons  apparently  indicate  a  group 
which  died  out  without  leaving  any  descendants,  certain  allied  forms  probably 
indicate  the  ancestral  stocks  of  both  the  tapirs  and  the  rhinoceroses. 
Titanotneres  and  In  the  Miocene  period  there  existed  in  North  America  and  the 
Chaiicotheres.  Balkans  certain  gigantic  rhinoceros-like  Ungulates,  which,  while 
belonging  to  the  Odd-toed  group,  were  quite  unlike  any  other  forms,  and  approxi- 
mated in  bulk  to  the  elephants.  These  titanotheres,  as  they  are  called,  had  skulls 
somewhat  like  those  of  rhinoceroses,  but  furnished  with  a  pair  of  bony  processes 
placed  transversely  in  the  region  of  the  nose,  which  were  doubtless  furnished 
with  horny  sheaths  during  life.  The  limbs  were  massive,  and  furnished  with 
four  toes  in  front,  and  three  behind,  one  of  the  fore-feet  being  figured  on  p.  152. 
Some  of  the  species  had  the  full  number  of  forty-four  teeth,  placed  in  close 
apposition  to  one  another;  but  in  others  the  whole  of  the  lower  and  one  pair 
of  the  upper  incisors  were  wanting.  The  molar  teeth  are  of  the  type  of  those 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  and  differ  very  markedly  from  those  of  other 
Odd-toed  Ungulates;  they  consist  of  four  columns,  of  which  the  outer  ones  are 
flattened,  and  those  on  the  inner  side  more  or  less  conical.  The  teeth  are  further 

remarkable  for  the  extreme  lowness  of 
their  crowns.  North  America  also  yields 
remains  of  smaller  but  allied  Ungulates, 
such  as  PalcEosyops,  which  extend  down- 
wards to  the  highest  beds  of  the  Eocene, 
and  have  no  bony  processes  on  the  skull. 
The  most  extraordinary  modification 

/  "  "^  2  *" 

of  the  Odd-toed  Ungulate  type  is,  however, 

TWO  RIGHT   UPPER   MOLAR  TEETH  OP  .... 

PAL^OSYOPS.    (From  Earie.)  presented   by  the  chalicothere,  which  is 

common    to    the    Pliocene    and   Miocene 

deposits  of  Southern  Asia,  Europe,  and  the  United  States.  In  these  animals  the 
molar  teeth  were  of  the  type  of  the  titanothere ;  but  the  limbs  terminated  in  long 
curved  claws,  very  similar  to  those  of  the  pangolins  or  scaly  ant-eaters,  described  in 
the  next  volume.  Indeed,  so  like  are  the  limbs  of  the  chalicothere  to  those  of  the 
last-named  animals,  that  they  were  originally  regarded  as  indicating  a  member  of 
the  same  group.  Apparently,  however,  the  chalicotheres  must  be  regarded  as 
specially  modified  Ungulates,  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  Odd-toed  group,  and 
adapted  for  a  fossorial,  or  possibly  arboreal  mode  of  life. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

UNGULATES, — comluded. 
HYRACES,  ELEPHANTS,  ETC. 

WITH  the  exception  of  the  extinct  phenacodus,  noticed  among  the  ancestors  of 
the  horse,  the  whole  of  the  Ungulates  described  in  the  seven  preceding  chapters  are 
characterised  by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  wrist-joint.  On 
referring  to  the  figure  of  the  fore-foot  of  the  titanothere  on  p.  152,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  bones  of  the  two  rows  of  the  wrist  are  arranged  alternately  to  one 
another,  that  is  to  say,  the  bone  marked  I  is  placed  immediately  over  the  line  of 
division  between  the  bones  u  and  m.  Moreover,  none  of  these  animals  have  more 
than  four  toes  to  any  one  foot ;  while  in  no  case  do  they  walk  on  the  whole  sole 
of  the  foot  after  the  so-called  plantigrade  fashion.  Then,  again,  the  huckle-bone, 
or  astragalus,  in  the  ankle-joint,  is  always  deeply  grooved,  as  shown  in  the  hind- 
foot  of  a  deer  represented  on  p.  154,  and  in  that  of  a  rhinoceros  on  p.  455. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  most  of  the  Ungulates  remaining  for  consideration  the 
component  bones  of  the  two  rows  of  the  wrist-joint, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  of  the  fore-foot 
of  an  elephant,  are  placed  directly  one  over  the  other, 
so  that  the  line  of  division  between  the  bones  I  and  c 
is  continuous  with  that  between  m  and  u,  instead  of 
being  placed  immediately  above  m.  And  it  will  be 
obvious  that  this  type  of  structure  is  inferior  from 
a  mechanical  point  of  view  to  that  distinguishing 
the  wrist-joint  of  the  typical  Ungulates.  The  existing 
and  many  of  the  extinct  Ungulates  described  in  this 

chapter  frequently  have  five  toes  on  each  foot,  and  THE  BONES  OP  THE  LEFT  FORE-FOOT 
,    ,          ,,  ,,  „          .         ,  .,,  ,.  OF   AN   ELEPHANT    (i  nat.   size). 

not  less  than  four  functional  ones,  with  a  rudiment         —After  Osbom. 

of  a  fifth  on  the  fore-foot.     They  may  likewise  walk 

partly  or  entirely  in  the  plantigrade  manner ;  while  in  the  ankle-joint  the  upper 
surface  of  the  huckle-bone  is  generally  flat.  In  all  respects,  therefore,  so  far  as 
foot-structure  is  concerned,  these  animals  are  less  highly  organised  than  the 
Ungulates  of  which  we  have  hitherto  treated.  The  sole  living  representatives  of 
Ungulates  with  this  generalised  type  of  foot  structure  are  the  small  hyraces,  of 
which  there  are  numerous  kinds,  and  the  two  species  of  elephant.  The  latter  are, 
however,  the  last  survivors  from  a  number  of  kindred  animals ;  and  there  formerly 
existed  several  other  groups  of  more  or  less  nearly -allied  Ungulates  which  are 
now  totally  extinct.  Beyond  the  generalised  structure  of  their  feet,  there  is  but 


5,8  UNGULATES. 

little  in  common  between  the  hyraces  and  the  elephants,  which  respectively  form 
the  representatives  of  two  groups  as  distinct  from  one  another  as  is  the  Odd-toed 
from  the  Even-toed  group  of  the  typical  Ungulates.  The  elephants  have  been 
enabled  to  survive  to  the  present  day  by  the  development  of  a  highly-specialised 
dentition,  and,  perhaps,  also  owing  to  their  huge  bodily  size;  while  the  small 
hyraces  are  sufficiently  protected  by  their  habits. 

THE  HYRACES. 

SUBORDER   Hyracoidea. 

Family  PROG  A  VIIDJE. 

The  small  animals  now  generally  known  as  hyraces  (from  one  of  their 
scientific  names)  are  so  like  Rodents  in  external  appearance  and  habits,  that  in 
our  translation  of  the  Bible  they  are  designated  by  the  term  coney,  which  belongs 
properly  to  the  rabbit. 

This  Rodent-like  appearance  is  largely  due  to  the  circumstance  that  (as 
shown  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton)  their  jaws  are  armed  in  front  with  long, 


SKELETON  OF  THE   CAPE   HYRAX. 


curved  teeth,  adapted  for  gnawing,  and  separated  by  a  long  gap  from  the  teeth  of 
the  cheek-series.  Their  front  teeth  are,  however,  in  reality  very  different,  both  in 
form  and  number,  from  those  of  the  Rodent  mammals.  In  the  upper  jaw  there 
are  a  pair  of  incisor  teeth,  of  semicircular  form,  and  growing  throughout  life  in 
the  Rodent  manner.  Instead,,  however,  of  being  chisel-like,  they  are  triangular 
in  section,  and  terminate  in  sharp  points,  their  outer  and  inner  front  surfaces 
being  covered  with  enamel,  which  is  wanting  on  the  hinder  surface.  In  the  lower 
jaw  there  are  two  pairs  of  front  teeth,  of  which  the  outermost  are  nearly  straight, 
with  long  conical  crowns  divided  into  three  lobes ;  both  pairs  of  these  teeth  are, 
however,  rooted,  and  therefore  quite  unlike  the  continually -growing  single  pair  of 
the  Rodents.  The  cheek-teeth  are  seven  in  number  on  each  side  of  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw;  and  in  structure  approximate  to  those  of  either  the  rhinoceros  or 


HYRACES.  519 

the  palaeothere,  there  being  some  amount  of  variation  in  the  form  and  height  of 
the  crowns  of  these  teeth  in  the  different  species. 

Like  other  Ungulates,  hyraces  have  no  collar-bones  (clavicles) ;  and  the  tail  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  stump.  In  the  fore-foot  there  are  four  functional  toes,  of  which 
the  outermost  is  smaller  than  the  others ;  the  first  digit  being  represented  by  a 
mere  rudiment.  The  hind-foot  has  only  three  toes,  of  which  the  innermost  is 
furnished  with  a  long  curved  claw,  while  the  other  two,  like  all  those  in  the  fore- 
foot, carry  broad  and  short  nails,  somewhat  like  those  of  a  rhinoceros.  All  the 
bones  of  the  limbs  are  fully  developed  and  separate  from  one 
another ;  and  the  thigh-bone,  or  femur,  lacks  the  distinct  third 
trochanter  characterising  the  Odd -toed  Ungulates.  In  many 
species  the  socket  of  the  eye  is  completely  surrounded  by  bone, 
but  in  others  it  is  partially  open  behind. 

The  hyraces  have  sharply-pointed  muzzles  and  small  rounded 
ears ;  and  their  bodies  are  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  nearly 
uniformly-coloured  hair,  which  varies  in  length  in  the  different 
species.  Near  the  middle  of  the  back  there  is  a  gland,  surrounded 

r  THE     BONES      OP     THE 

and  partly  covered  by  a  patch  of  hairs  differing  in  colour  from      UPPER  PART  OF  THE 


LEFT    FORE-FOOT    OF 


those  on  the  rest  of  the  body.     Frequently  the  central  part  of 

THE      TREE  -  HYRAX. 

this  gland  is  naked, — in  one  species  for  a  length  of  lully  two      (FromOsbom.) 
inches, — but  it  is  generally  concealed  by  the  convergence  of  the 
surrounding  hairs.     In  most  species  the  female  has  three  pairs  of  mammae,  one  of 
which  is  placed  near  the  fore-limbs,  while  the  other  two  are  situated  posteriorly ; 
but  in  three  species  of  tree-hyrax  there  is  but  a  single  pair. 

The  various  species  of  Hyrax,  about  fourteen  in  number,  are 

confined  to  Africa,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  In  Africa  they  are  found  in 
the  extreme  south  at  the  Cape,  and  thence  range  along  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  about  as  far  north  as  the  20th  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  while  they  also  occur 
in  the  central  equatorial  regions.  They  are  usually  found  in  rocky  districts,  at 
elevations  varying  from  near  the  sea-level  to  upwards  of  eleven  thousand  feet. 
Abyssinian  The  whole  of  the  species  of  hyrax  are  now  included  by  Mr.  O. 

Hyraces.  Thomas  in  the  single  genus  Procavia ;  and  as  it  will  be  unnecessary 
to  notice  all  of  them,  we  shall  confine  our  remarks  to  some  of  the  best  known. 
Of  these  the  Abyssinian  hyrax  (  P.  abyssinica)  agrees  with  the  majority  in  the 
light  colour  of  the  patch  of  hairs  surrounding  the  gland  on  the  back.  It  is  of 
medium  size ;  the  total  length  along  the  curves  of  a  female  specimen  measured  by 
Mr.  Blanford  being  20  inches,  and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  8  inches.  Its  fur 
is  coarse  and  harsh,  and  in  specimens  from  high  elevations  somewhat  elongated, 
but  short  in  those  from  the  lowlands.  The  light  spot  round  the  gland  is  very 
small  and  inconspicuous. 

Mr.  Blanford  says  "  that  these  hyraces  live  in  rocky  or  stony 

places,  in  communities,  like  rabbits,  haunting  holes  beneath  the 
rocks.  A  large  pile  of  loose  blocks,  especially  if  there  are  precipices  around,  is 
sure  to  be  inhabited  by  them.  They  are  frequently  found,  too,  in  rocky  water- 
courses. They  appear  to  feed  at  night  and  very  early  in  the  morning,  their 
principal  food  being  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes.  During  the 


520 


UNGULATES. 


day  they  lie  out  upon  rocks  in  the  shade,  or  retire,  especially  towards  midday, 
beneath  the  rocks.  They  are  timid  and  wary,  rushing  into  their  holes  at  the 
smallest  intimation  of  danger.  The  only  sound  I  heard  made  by  them  was  a  shrill 
squeak  when  suddenly  alarmed.  They  can  climb  over  smooth  surfaces  of  rock  in 
a  wonderful  manner,  their  large  feet  aiding  them  in  obtaining  a  hold."  The  typical 
race  of  this  species  occurs  in  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia,  the  lowland  form  being 
of  considerably  smaller  size.  Its  habits  .may  be  taken  as  characteristic  for  all  the 
species,  with  the  exception  of  those  frequenting  trees.  Two  other  species  inhabit 
Southern  Abyssinia,  viz.  the  Shoan  hyrax  (P.  shoana),  and  Bruce's  hyrax 
(P.  brucei).  The  former  of  these  inhabits  Southern  Abyssinia  and  Shoa,  and  is 
nearly  or  quite  the  largest  of  the  group  ;  it  differs  from  all  others,  except  the  Cape 
hyrax,  in  having  the  spot  on  the  back  entirely  black,  and  is  distinguished  from  the 


SYRIAN  HYRAX. 


Cape  Hyrax. 


latter  by  the  great  length  of  its  soft  and  silky  hair.  Bruce's.  hyrax,  which  ranges 
from  Southern  Abyssinia  to  Somaliland  and  Mozambique,  is  a  small  and  rare  species, 
with  the  spot  on  the  back  long  and  narrow,  and  yellowish  or  whitish  in  colour. 
It  has  been  found  at  elevations  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet. 

The  Cape  hyrax  (P.  capensis)  is  confined  to  the  Cape  Colony 
and  Natal,  where  it  is  known  to  the  Dutch  colonists  as  the  klip-das, 
or  rock-badger.  It  is  characterised  by  the  hair  being  soft  and  fine,  and  of  medium 
length,  with  the  spot  on  the  back  of  an  irregular  oval  form,  and  black  in  colour : 
the  general  hue  of  the  fur  being  dark  sepia-brown,  speckled  with  pale  yellow  or 
white.  The  late  Professor  Moseley  writes  that  these  animals  "  come  out  to  feed  in 
the  mornings  and  evenings,  but  also  bask  sometimes  in  the  hot  sun  at  midday. 
They  are  very  inquisitive,  and  sit  up  on  a  rock,  and  look  at  one,  and  then  suddenly 
dash  into  their  hiding-place.  After  a  time,  if  one  remains  quiet,  they  come  out 
for  another  look,  and  afford  a  good  chance  for  a  shot.  Their  cry  of  alarm  is  a 


HYRACES.  52I 

short,  hissing  noise.  They  had  young  at  the  time  of  our  visit  [November],  and  I 
met  with  two  litters,  each  of  three  young,  which  were  about  the  size  of  very  large 
rats,  with  soft  chocolate-brown  downy  hair.  The  young  play  about  on  the  rocks 
together  like  kittens,  chasing  one  another,  and  darting  in  and  out  among  the 
clefts." 

Syrian  Hyrax  The  Syrian  hyrax  (-P-  syriaca)  is  the  coney  of  Scripture,  and  the 

only  species  found  out  of  Africa,  its  range  including  Syria,  Palestine, 
the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  and  the  whole  of  Arabia.  It  is  a  small  or  medium-sized 
and  rather  variable  species,  with  somewhat  soft  and  shaggy  hair  of  a  dull  orange- 
yellow  or  fawn  colour;  and  the  spot  on  the  back  rather  small,  oval,  and  its  com- 
ponent hairs  yellow  throughout  their  length.  Canon  Tristram  states  that  these 
hyraces  produce 
from  three  to  six 
young  at  a  birth, 
but  that  four  ap- 
pears to  be  the 
ordinary  number. 
He  observes  that 
"they  are  far  too 
wary  to  be  taken  in 
traps,  and  the  only 
chance  of  securing 
one  is  patiently  to 
lie  concealed,  about 
sunset  or  before 
sunrise,  on  some 
overhanging  cliff, 
taking  care  not  to 

let  the  shadow  be  cast  below,  and  thus  to  wait  till  the  little  creatures  cautiously 
peep  forth  from  their  holes.  .  .  .  They  make  a  nest  of  dried  grass  and  fur,  in  which 
the  young  are  buried  like  those  of  a  mouse.  The  flesh  is  much  prized  by  the 
Arabs.  We  found  it  good,  but  rather  dry  and  insipid,  as  dark  in  colour  as  that  of 
the  hare." 

Three  species  of  the  genus,  of  which  one  is  from  Western  and 
two  are  from  Eastern  Africa,  and  not  improbably  a  third  from  the 
central  equatorial  region,  differ  from  the  rest  in  their  arboreal  habits.  These  three 
species  agree  in  that  the  females  have  but  a  single  pair  of  teats ;  and  are  respect- 
ively known  as  P.  valida  from  Mount  Kilima-Njaro,  readily  distinguished  from  all 
the  others  by  the  bright  fulvous  hue  of  the  under-parts,  P.  arborea  from  Eastern 
and  South- Eastern  Africa,  and  P.  dor  satis  ranging  on  the  west  coast  from  Liberia 
to  the  Cameruns  and  Fernando  Po.  The  latter  species  is  of  large  size,  and 
characterised  by  its  long  shaggy  fur,  black  at  the  base  and  white  at  the  tips  of  the 
hairs,  and  the  relatively  large  size  of  the  head  compared  to  the  body.  The 
Kilima-Njaro  species  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eleven  thousand 
feet  in  the  dense  forests  clothing  the  mountain.  They  live  entirely  in  the  trees, 
making  their  lairs  and  breeding-places  in  holes  in  the  boughs  and  trunks ;  and 


TREE-HYRAX.— After  Thomas. 


Tree-Hyraces. 


522  UNGULATES. 

they  are  stated  to  make  a  great  noise  at  night.  A  female  captured  by  Mr.  H.  H. 
Johnston  gave  birth  to  three  young.  Mr.  H.  C.  V.  Hunter  states  that  many  of 
them  are  captured  alive  by  the  natives  for  the  sake  of  their  skins,  of  which  several 
are  sewn  together  to  make  cloaks. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  at  present  no  extinct  animals  have  been 
discovered  which  appear  allied  to  the  hyraces. 


ELEPHANTS. 

SUBORDER  Proboscidea. 
Family  ELEPHANTIDJt. 

From  their  peculiar  bodily  conformation,  their  huge  size,  which  exceeds  that 
of  all  other  terrestrial  mammals,  and  the  high  degree  of  intelligence  which  they 
have  been  supposed  to  display,  elephants  have  always  excited  an  amount  of 
popular  interest  far  surpassing  that  accorded  to  most  other  animals.  And  in  truth 
this  deep  and  widespread  interest  is  by  no  means  misplaced,  since  elephants 
really  are  among  the  most  extraordinary  and  remarkable  forms  with  which  the 
zoologist  is  acquainted.  Through  long  experience  we  are  now  thoroughly  familiar- 
ised with  their  appearance,  but  if  we  were  to  see  one  for  the  first  time  we 
should  probably  regard  it  as  the  strangest  mammal  that  ever  existed;  and, 
indeed,  we  should  not  be  far  wrong  in  doing  so.  It  has  already  been  mentioned 
that,  so  far  as  regards  the  structure  of  their  feet,  elephants  are  some  of  the  most 
generalised  of  all  living  mammals ;  and  a  similar  remark  will  apply  with  equal 
truth  to  the  structure  of  the  rest  of  their  limbs.  When,  however,  we  take  into 
consideration  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  dentition,  and  their  marvellously  con- 
structed proboscis,  we  find  them  possessing  characters  of  the  highest  specialisation ; 
and  it  is  this  combination  of  generalised  and  specialised  features  which  render 
elephants  so  peculiarly  interesting  to  the  zoologist. 

At  the  present  day  these  animals  are  represented  only  by  the  Indian  and 
African  species,  but  in  past  epochs  there  were  a  number  of  extinct  forms,  some  of 
which  serve  to  connect  the  living  ones,  to  a  certain  limited  extent,  with  other 
Ungulates ;  and  since  it  is  only  by  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  characters 
presented  by  the  dentition  of  these  extinct  elephants  that  the  structure  of  the  teeth 
of  their  living  representatives  can  be  understood,  it  will  be  necessary  in  our  account 
of  the  group  to  devote  almost  as  much  attention  to  the  fossil  as  to  the  existing 
species.  It  is  worthy,  however,  of  note  that  although  some  of  the  extinct  elephants 
do,  as  already  stated,  depart  less  widely  from  ordinary  Ungulates  than  is  the  case 
with  the  living  Indian  and  African  species,  yet  such  approximation  to  the  normal 
type  is  only  one  of  degree,  and  we  are  at  present  totally  unacquainted  with  any 
animals  which  are  absolutely  intermediate  between  elephants  and  other  Ungulates. 
The  origin  of  the  group  is,  therefore,  still  totally  known,  although  their  nearest 
relations  may  prove  to  be  certain  extinct  groups  noticed  in  the  sequel. 

The  most  striking  external  peculiarity  of  elephants,  and  the  one 
from  which  their  title  of  proboscidians  is  derived,  is  the  long,  flexible 


ELEPHANTS. 


523 


proboscis,  into  which  the  nose  is  produced ;  this  proboscis  having  the  nostrils  at  its 
extremity,  and  being  used  as  an  organ  of  prehension,  and  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
veying water  to  the  mouth.  Their  build  is  extremely  massive  and  bulky,  the  head 
being  of  great  proportionate  size,  the  ears  large  and  flapping,  the  neck  very  short 
and  thick,  and  the  limbs  long  and  stout.  A  peculiarity  of  the  limbs,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  of  the  skeleton,  is  that  the  humerus  in  the  fore,  and  the  femur  in  the 
hind-leg,  are  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  lower  segments ;  the  feet  themselves 
being  very  short  indeed.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  bones  of  the  limbs  are 
set  nearly  vertically  one  above  another ;  and  from  this  cause,  together  with  the 


SKELETON   OF  THE   INDIAN   ELEPHANT. 


great  relative  length  of  their  upper  segments,  the  knee  and  elbow-joints  are  not 
partially  enclosed  within  the  skin  covering  the  body,  as  is  the  case  in  most  Ungulates. 
Consequently,  the  knee  of  the  elephant  is  more  readily  identified  with  that  of  man 
than  is  the  case  with  that  of  a  horse.  It  is  further  owing  to  this  peculiarity  in 
the  structure  of  its  limbs  that  an  elephant  kneels  down,  with  its  fore-feet  stretched 
out  in  front  and  the  hinder  ones  behind.  The  short  feet  are  extremely  broad,  and 
have  five  toes  each,  of  which  the  middle  one  (as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  517)  is 
the  largest ;  and  from  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  feet  the  ankle-bone  is  placed 
close  to  the  ground,  instead  of  being  raised  half-way  up  the  leg  as  in  the  horse. 
The  whole  of  the  toes  are  enclosed  in  a  common  skin,  with  a  flat  cushion-like  sole ; 
the  position  of  the  toes  being  indicated  by  the  broad  flat  nails,  of  which  there  may 


S24  UNGULATES. 

be  either  three  or  four  in  the  hind-foot.     The  fore-foot  is  broader  than  the  hinder 
one,  and  generally  has  five  nails. 

In  most  cases  the  males,  and  sometimes  the  females  also,  have  a  pair  of  tusks 
in  the  upper  jaw ;  these  tusks  corresponding  to  one  of  the  pairs  of  incisors  of  other 
mammals,  and  not  to  the  tusks  of  the  wild  boar  and  hippopotamus,  which  are 
canines.  There  are  no  other  front  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  none  at  all  in  the  lower 
jaw  of  the  living  species.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head ; 
the  tail  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  of  considerable  length,  with  a  tuft  of  bristly  hairs 
at  the  end ;  but  the  skin  is  nearly  naked  in  the  two  existing  species.  The  female 
has  a  single  pair  of  teats  placed  between  the  fore-legs. 

In  addition  to  the  proportions  and  position  of  the  bones  of  the  limbs  already 
referred  to,  it  may  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  skeleton  that  the  two  bones 
of  the  lower  segment  of  each  leg  are  perfectly  distinct  from  one  another ;  and  that 
in  the  ankle  the  huckle-bone,  or  astragalus,  is  nearly  flat  both  above  and  below, 
and  is  of  slight  vertical  thickness,  but  of  great  horizontal  extent.  The  vertebrae  of 
the  back  have  very  tall  spines  for  the  attachment  of  the  powerful  ligaments  neces- 
sary to  support  the  enormous  weight  of  the  head ;  and  the  ribs  are  of  great  length, 
and  thus  afford  ample  space  for  the  viscera.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  figure  of  the 
skeleton  that  the  blade-bone,  or  scapula,  has  a  backwardly  recurved  process  pro- 
jecting from  its  space ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  a  nearly  similar  condition  of  this 
acromial  process  is  found  in  the  Rodents. 

From  the  enormous  size  of  the  skull  it  might  be  inferred  that 
elephants  have  very  large  brains.  This,  however,  is  far  from  the 
case,  the  brain  not  only  being  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
but  likewise  of  a  low  degree  of  organisation.  The  brain  of  an  elephant  occupies 
indeed  only  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  space  lying  between  the  socket 
of  the  eye  and  the  region  where  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  articulate  with  the  skull. 
The  whole  of  the  elevated  upper  portion  of  the  skull  is  occupied  by  a  mass  of  bone, 
honeycombed  into  cells,  and  thus  affords  space  for  the  attachment  of  the  huge 
muscles  of  the  jaws,  and  forms  an  adequate  support  for  the  trunk  without  unduly 
adding  to  the  weight ;  the  great  size  of  this  region  being  also  essential  in  order  to 
harmonise  with  the  immense  development  of  the  lower  part  of  the  skull,  which  has 
to  accommodate  the  enormous  tusks  and  molar  teeth.  Similar  cells  also  enter  into 
the  structure  of  the  hinder  and  basal  region  of  the  skull.  There  are  many  other 
peculiarities  in  the  conformation  of  the  elephant's  skull,  but  it  must  suffice  to 
mention  here  that  the  nasal  aperture  is  situated  high  up  in  the  front  of  the  face, 
and  that  the  nasal  bones  are  reduced  to  mere  triangular  nodules,  instead  of  having 
the  elongated  form  characteristic  of  most  mammals. 

Of  the  teeth  a  more  detailed  notice  is  necessary,  since  these  afford 
some  of  the  most  essential  characteristics  of  the  group.  As  already 
mentioned,  elephants  have  no  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw ;  while  in  the  living  species 
the  tusks  are  developed  only  in  the  upper  jaw.  In  the  young  elephant  there  is  a 
minute  pair  of  milk-tusks,  which  are  shed  at  a  very  early  age.  The  permanent 
tusks,  which  are  nearly  cylindrical  in  section,  and  taper  to  their  extremities, 
continue  to  grow  throughout  the  life  of  their  owners,  and  thus  remain  permanently 
open  at  their  bases,  which  are  enclosed  in  sheaths  of  the  premaxillary  bones  extend- 


ELEPHANTS. 


525 


ing  as  high  up  in  the  skull  as  the  aperture  of  the  nasal  cavity.  In  the  young  state 
the  tusks  of  the  living  species  of  elephants  are  tipped  with  enamel ;  but  this  is  soon 
rubbed  off  by  use,  and  they  then  consist  of  ivory  alone.  This  ivory  differs  from 
that  of  other  mammals  in  its  structure,  which  renders  it  easy  to  distinguish 
elephant-ivory  from  all  other ;  and  if  a  transverse  section  of  a  tusk  be  examined,  it 
will  be  found  to  present  a  pattern  like  the  engine-turning  on  the  back  of  a  watch- 
case  ;  this  peculiar  pattern  being  absolutely  distinctive  of  true  ivory. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  molar  or  cheek-teeth  of  the  elephants, 
which  in  their  structure  and  mode  of  succession  are  unlike  those  of  all  other 
mammals.  In  the  first  place,  an  elephant  has  six  cheek-teeth  on  each  side  of  both 
the  upper  and  lower  jaws ;  but  instead  of  all  these  being  in  use  at  once,  in  the 
existing  species  only  two 
are  ever  above  the  gums 
at  any  one  time,  and  one  of 
these  is  but  partly  pro- 
truded; while  in  old  animals 
there  is  but  a  single  tooth 
remaining.  The  molar 
teeth  are  elongated  from 
front  to  back,  and  are  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  trans- 
verse ridges  closely  packed 
The  anterior 


together. 

teeth,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  are 
small,  and  include  but  few 
ridges ;  but  each  succeeding  tooth  is  larger,  and  comprises  a  greater  number  of  ridges, 
reaching  in  the  last  molar  of  the  Indian  species  to  as  many  as  twenty-four.  The 
individual  teeth  succeed  one  another  from  before  backwards  in  an  arc  of  a  circle  ; 
and  as  the  tooth  in  front  is  worn  away,  its  place  is  gradually  taken  by  the  one  rising 
from  behind,  till  at  length  the  sixth  and  last  tooth  alone  remains.  Although  this 
mode  of  succession  appears  strange  and  peculiar,  it  is  in  reality  only  an  ultra-develop- 
ment of  what  takes  place  among  the  pigs,  and  more  especially  in  the  African  wart- 
hogs.  In  all  the  pigs  the  last  molar  does  not  come  into  use  till  the  teeth  in  front 
of  it  are  considerably  worn ;  and  in  the  wart-hogs,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the 
last  molar  is  of  unusually  large  size,  and  may  be  the  only  cheek-tooth  remaining 
in  the  adult  condition,  owing  to  those  in  front  being  shed.  It  should  be  added  that 
while  the  last  three  cheek-teeth  of  the  elephants  correspond  to  the  true  molars  of 
an  ordinary  mammal,  the  three  anterior  ones  represent  the  last  three  milk-molars 
of  such  an  animal  as  the  pig,  and  not,  as  would  at  first  sight  appear  to  be  the  case, 
the  premolars.  That  the  three  teeth  in  question  are  really  milk-molars  is  proved 
by  the  circumstance  that  in  some  of  the  extinct  species  they  were  vertically  suc- 
ceeded by  teeth  of  simpler  structure  corresponding  to  the  premolars  of  the  pig. 

In  order  to  undei-stand  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  elephants,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  take  those  of  one  of  certain  extinct  species  which,  like  Cliffs 
elephant,  exhibit  a  simpler  conformation  than  those  of  the  existing  species.  Such 


THE   FIRST  AND   SECOND  RIGHT  UPPER   MOLAR   TEETH  OF  THE 

MAMMOTH  (nat  size). — After  Sir  R.  Owen. 


526 


UNGULATES. 


a  tooth  is  represented  in  the  accompanying  woodcut,  and  will  be  seen  to  be 
composed  of  a  number  of  low  roof -like  transverse  ridges  (in  this  case  six),  separated 
by  open  valleys.  When  unworn,  as  on  the  right  side  of  the  figure,  such  ridges  are 
crowned  by  a  number  of  small  tubercles ;  but  the  effect  of  wear,  as  shown  in  the 
three  ridges  on  the  left  side  of  the  figure,  is  to  perforate  the  enamel  of  which  the 
ridges  are  externally  composed,  and  thus  to  reveal  an  elliptical  surface  of  ivory 
surrounded  by  a  narrow  border  of  enamel.  In  the  figured  tooth  the  valleys 
between  the  ridges  are  completely  open  and  devoid  of  cement,  but  in  the  teeth  of 
other  species  of  nearly  similar  type  they  contain  a  certain  amount  of  this 
constituent.  Now  it  only  requires  that  the  ridges  in  a  tooth  like  that  of  Cliffs 
elephant  should  be  greatly  increased  in  height,  with  a  concomitant  diminution  of 

their  basal  width,  which  would 
admit  of  a  greater  number  being 
borne  in  the  same  length  of  space, 
and  by  the  intervening  valleys 
being  completely  filled  with 
cement,  to  produce  a  tooth  like 
that  of  the  Indian  elephant.  In 
such  a  tooth,  as  shown  in  the 
figures  on  pp.  525  and  528,  the 
ridges  have  become  so  tall  as  to 
assume  the  appearance  of  thin 
and  nearly  parallel  plates,  with 
their  investing  enamel  thrown 
into  a  series  of  fine  plications, 
or  puckers ;  and  the  intervening 
valleys  have  become  so  deepened  and  narrowed,  that  their  contained  cement 
is  also  in  the  form  of  exceedingly  thin  plates.  When  worn,  as  in  the  figure  on 
p.  528,  such  a  tooth  presents  on  its  surface  a  series  of  very  narrow  ellipses  of 
yellow  ivory,  surrounded  by  an  elevated  rim  of  the  harder  white  enamel,  marked 
by  its  characteristic  puckers ;  while  between  the  ellipses  of  enamel-bordered  ivory 
come  the  layers  of  cement.  The  succession  of  layers  in  such  a  tooth  is  therefore 
arranged  in  the  following  order,  viz.  cement,  enamel,  ivory,  and  so  on.  The  worn 
crown  forms  a  slightly  convex  or  concave  surface,  marked  by  transverse  ridges  of 
different  degrees  of  hardness  and  height,  arid  thus  yields  a  masticating  instrument 
of  the  greatest  power  and  efficiency. 

In  their  food,  elephants  are  strictly  herbivorous,  subsisting 
chiefly  upon  roots,  twigs,  leaves,  and  young  shoots  of  trees,  or  grass 
and  other  herbage ;  such  food  being  conveyed  to  the  mouth  by  the  aid  of  the  flexible 
trunk,  which  is  admirably  adapted  for  such  a  purpose,  as  it  is  for  drawing  up 
water.  There  is,  however,  much  popular  misapprehension  as  to  the  other  uses  of 
the  elephant's  trunk,  in  regard  to  which  a  few  words  are  expedient.  In  addition 
to  its  use  as  a  purveyor  of  food  and  water  to  the  mouth,  the  trunk  is  the  organ  of 
touch  and  smell,  and  is  altogether  extremely  delicate  and  sensitive.  When  any 
danger  is  impending,  elephants,  except  in  some  cases  when  charging  an  enemy, 
invariably  curl  up  the  trunk  out  of  harm's  way.  In  regard  to  the  alleged 


A  LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR  TOOTH   OF  CLIFT'S  ELEPHANT   (^  nat.  size). 


Habits. 


ELEPHANTS,  527 

employment  of  the  trunk  of  the  Indian  elephant  for  all  manner  of  purposes, 
Sanderson  observes  that  "the  idea  that  he  can  use  it  for  any  purpose,  from 
picking  up  a  needle  to  dragging  a  piece  of  ordnance  from  a  bog,  is,  like  many 
others,  founded  entirely  on  imagination.  An  elephant  might  manage  the  former 
feat,  though  I  doubt  it ;  the  latter  he  would  not  attempt.  Elephants  engaged  in 
such  work  as  dragging  timber,  invariably  take  the  rope  between  their  teeth ;  they 
never  attempt  to  pull  a  heavy  weight  with  the  trunk.  In  carrying  a  light  log, 
they  hold  it  in  the  mouth  as  a  dog  does  a  stick,  receiving  some  little  assistance  in 
balancing  it  from  the  trunk.  Tuskers  generally  use  their  tusks  for  this  and 
similar  purposes,  and  are  more  valuable  than  females  for  work.  An  elephant  is 
powerful  enough  to  extricate  a  cannon  from  a  difficult  situation,  but  he  does  it  by 
pushing  with  his  head  or  feet,  or  in  harness — never  by  lifting  or  drawing  with 
his  trunk." 

An  equal  degree  of  misapprehension  is  prevalent  as  to  the 
intelligence  of  elephants,  at  least  so  far  as  the  Indian  species  is 
concerned ;  and  all  competent  observers  who  have  had  much  practical  experience 
of  these  animals  are  of  opinion  that  their  intellectual  faculties  have  been  greatly 
overrated  in  popular  estimation.  It  is  true,  that  when  in  captivity  the  Indian 
elephant  exhibits  a  marvellous  docility  and  obedience,  and  is  also  capable  of 
learning  to  perform  certain  kinds  of  labour,  such  as  stacking  logs  of  timber,  which 
at  first  sight  appear  to  demand  a  considerable  amount  of  intellectual  power. 
There  is  here,  however,  a  considerable  amount  of  confusion,  as  Mr.  Blanford 
remarks,  between  high  intelligence  and  mere  docility  and  capacity  for  receiving 
instruction ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  usefulness  of  the  elephant  is 
due  to  the  latter  rather  than  to  the  former  trait.  Indeed,  the  size  and  structure  of 
the  brain  is  quite  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  intellectual  capacity  of  elephants  is 
far  inferior  to  that  of  dogs,  and  is  probably  below  that  of  most  other  Ungulates. 

This  view  of  their  intelligence  is  strongly  confirmed  by  the  circumstance  that 
elephants,  in  spite  of  many  statements  to  the  contrary,  are  wanting  in  originality, 
and  do  not  rise  to  the  occasion  when  confronted  by  any  sudden  emergency  or 
event  beyond  the  range  of  their  ordinary  daily  experience.  As  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
pertinently  observes,  an  elephant  "  can  be  educated  to  perform  certain  acts,  but  he 
would  never  volunteer  his  services.  There  is  no  elephant  that  I  ever  saw  who 
would  spontaneously  interfere  to  save  his  master  from  drowning  or  from  attack. 
An  enemy  might  assassinate  you  at  the  feet  of  your  favourite  elephant,  but  he 
would  never  attempt  to  interfere  in  your  defence ;  he  would  probably  run  away, 
or  remain  impassive,  unless  guided  and  instructed  by  his  mahout.  This  is  incon- 
testable; the  elephant  will  do  nothing  useful  unless  he  is  specially  ordered  to 
perform  a  certain  work  or  movement."  At  the  same  time,  in  addition  to  its 
capacity  for  receiving  instruction,  an  elephant  undoubtedly  appears  to  have  a  very 
retentive  memory,  both  for  acts  of  kindness  and  of  cruelty ;  and  this  has  doubtless 
partly  contributed  to  its  character  for  general  intelligence. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that  the  Indian  species,  at  any  rate, 
differs  from  all  other  mammals  in  the  readiness  with  which  it  may  be  tamed  and 
domesticated  when  fully  adult ;  nearly  all  those  which  are  captured  in  India  being 
fully  mature. 


528 


UNGULATES. 


A  curious  circumstance  in  connection  with  these  animals  is,  that 
Never  found  dead.  ^  bones  of  tjlose  wnich  have  died  a  natural  death  are  scarcely  ever 
found  in  the  forests  of  India,  and  we  believe  that  the  same  is  true  with  regard  to 
Africa.  It  has  accordingly  been  suggested  that  elephants  are  in  the  habit  of 
resorting  to  particular  spots  when  about  to  die,  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  with 
the  guanaco  in  South  America  (supra,  p.  415),  but  as  no  such  mortuaries  have 
ever  been  discovered  in  India,  this  seems  scarcely  tenable,  and  the  subject  accord- 
ingly still  remains  a  complete  mystery. 

THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  (Elephas  indicus). 

The  Indian,  or,  as  it  might  be  better  termed,  the  Asiatic  elephant,  is  the  more 
specialised  of  the  two  living  species,  and  at  the  same  time  the  one  most  familiarly 
known.  It  is  characterised  by  its  comparatively  flat  forehead,  and  relatively 


A  RIGHT  UPPER  MOLAR  TOOTH  OF  AN  ELEPHANT,  allied  to  the  existing  Indian  species  (f  nat.  size). 

small  ears ;  as  well  as  by  the  nearly  naked  skin  being  smooth,  and  the  tail  having 
a  row  of  long  bristly  hairs  at  the  tip,  and  a  few  inches  upwards,  before  and  behind 
only.  The  fore-feet  have  each,  as  a  rule,  five  nails,  and  the  hinder  ones  four. 
Generally  the  males  only  have  large  tusks,  those  of  the  females  being  small  and 
scarcely  protruding  beyond  the  jaws.  In  some  males — known  in  India  as  mackna, 
the  tusks  are,  however,  not  longer  than  those  of  females.  The  back  of  the  Indian 
elephant  is  regularly  convex,  its  middle  point  being  higher  than  the  withers. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  important  characteristic  of  this  species  is  to  be 
found  in  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  which  are  of  the  same  type  as  the 
example  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  In  these  teeth  the  plates 
of  enamel-bordered  ivory  are  very  thin  and  closely  approximated,  and  may  reach 
as  many  as  twenty-four  in  the  last  of  the  series.  The  enamel  is  thrown  into  a 
number  of  fine  puckerings,  and  each  enamel  -  bordered  area  forms  a  greatly 
elongated  and  irregular  ellipse.  In  the  first  tooth  (as  shown  in  the  figure  on 
p.  525),  the  number  of  the  ridges  is  usually  four,  in  the  second  eight,  in  the  third 
and  fourth  about  twelve,  in  the  fifth  sixteen,  while  in  the  last  it  may,  as  already 
mentioned,  be  as  many  as  twenty-four. 


ELEPHANTS.  529 

The  general  colour  of  the  skin  is  blackish  grey,  but  there  are 
frequently  flesh-coloured  mottlings  on  the  forehead,  the  root  of  the 
trunk,  and  the  ears.  Occasionally  so-called  white  elephants  are  met  with,  which 
are  really  albinos ;  the  dark  pigment  being  absent  from  a  larger  or  smaller  area  of 
the  skin ;  in  Burma  and  Siam  such  albinos  being  highly  valued,  and  considered  as 
sacred  or  royal  animals.  Although,  as  already  mentioned,  the  skin  is  nearly 
naked,  it  has  a  few  sparsely  -  scattered  hairs;  and  it  has  been  quite  recently 
discovered  that  there  are  faint  remnants  of  a  woolly  fur,  similar  to  that  so  fully 
developed  in  the  extinct  mammoth.  This  discovery  is  very  important,  since,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  Indian  elephant's  well-known  intolerance  of  heat,  it 
indicates  that  the  animal  is  descended  from  one  inhabiting  temperate  or  cold 
climates. 

As  in  the  case  of  most  large  animals,  the  height  of  the  Indian 
Dimensions. 

elephant  has  been  greatly  exaggerated ;  but  the  tendency  of  recent 

observers  has  been  rather  to  depreciate  the  maximum  size  which  it  may  occasionally 
attain.  On  the  average,  the  height  of  the  adult  male  does  not  exceed  9  feet, 
and  that  of  the  female  8  feet ;  but  these  dimensions  are  occasionally  considerably 
exceeded.  Sanderson  measured  a  male  standing  9  feet  7  inches  at  the  shoulder, 
and  measuring  26  feet  2£  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  trunk  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tail ;  and  he  records  others  respectively  reaching  9  feet  8  inches  and  9  feet  10 
inches  at  the  shoulder.  An  elephant  shot  by  General  Kinloch  stood  upwards  of 

10  feet  1  inch ;  and  another  measured  by  Sanderson   10  feet  7£  inches.     These 
dimensions  are,  however,  exceeded  by  a  specimen  killed  by  the  late  Sir  Victor 
Brooke,  which  is  reported  to  have  reached  a  height  of  11  feet;    and  there  is  a 
rumour  of  a  Ceylon  elephant  of  12  feet.     That  such  giants  may  occasionally  exist 
is  indicated  by  a  skeleton  in  the  Museum  at  Calcutta,  which  is  believed  to  have 
belonged  to  an  individual  living  between  1856  and  1860  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Rajmehal  Hills,  in  Bengal.     As  now  mounted,  this  enormous  skeleton  stands 

11  feet  3  inches  at  the  shoulders,  but  Mr.  O.  S.  Fraser,  in  a  letter  to  the  Asian 
newspaper,  states  that  it  is  made  to  stand  too  low,  and  that  its  true  height  was 
several   inches   more.      If  this  be  so,  there   can  be  no   doubt  that,  when  alive, 
this  elephant  must  have  stood  fully  12  feet.      It  may  be  added  that  the  height 
of  an  Indian  elephant  is  almost  precisely  twice  the  circumference  of   its  fore- 
foot. 

With  regard  to  the  maximum  weight  of  this  species,  we  have  no  information. 
An  immature  male  of  8  feet  in  height  weighed,  however,  2  tons  17  cwt.  1  qr. 
and  25  Ibs. ;  while  a  second,  of  7|  feet  in  height,  turned  the  scale  at  2  tons 
11  cwt.  and  23  Ibs. 

The  tusks  of  the  male  vary  greatly  in  length  and  weight.  A  pair  obtained 
by  Mr.  Sanderson  measured  5  feet  along  the  curve,  with  a  girth  of  16  inches  at 
the  point  of  emergence  from  the  jaw,  their  weight  being  74£  Ibs.  The  single 
perfect  tusk  of  the  elephant  re'ferred  to  above  as  having  been  killed  by  Sir  V. 
Brooke  measured  8  feet  in  length,  and  nearly  17  inches  in  circumference,  and 
weighed  90  Ibs.  This  weight  is,  however,  exceeded  by  a  shorter  tusk  of  about 
6  feet  in  length,  which  reached  100  Ibs. ;  and  specimens  obtained  from  the  Garo 
Hills  are  reported  to  have  respectively  weighed  155  and  157  Ibs. 

VOL.  ii. — 34 


530  UNGULATES. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  obtain  any  accurate  data  as  to  the 
which  the  Indian  elephant  may  attain  in  its  wild  state,  and  we 


can  only,  therefore,  suggest  an  approximation  to  what  this  may  be  from  captive 
specimens.  Although  full  grown  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  an  elephant,  as 
determined  by  the  condition  of  its  teeth,  is  not  then  mature.  A  female  captured 
in  Coorg  in  1805,  when  about  three  years  of  age,  did  not  appear  to  be  particularly 
old-looking  in  1878,  although  she  had  then  passed  her  prime.  Other  individuals 
have  been  known  to  live  in  captivity  for  over  a  century  ;  and  since  it  is  obvious 
that  the  artificial  mode  of  life  which  prevails  in  this  state  cannot  be  one  tending 
to  promote  longevity,  it  is  probable  that  the  estimate  of  a  century  and  a  half  as 
the  duration  of  life  in  the  wild  state  is  not  excessive. 

At  the  present  day  the  Indian  elephant  inhabits  the  forest- 
regions  of  India,  Ceylon,  Assam,  Burma,  Siam,  Cochin  -  China, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo  ;  although  Mr.  Blanford  is  of  opinion  that  its  occurrence  in 
the  island  last  named  may  be  due  to  human  agency.  According  to  the  same  writer, 
in  India  elephants  "  are  still  found  wild  along  the  base  of  the  Himalaya  as  far 
west  as  Deira  Dun  ;  also  in  places  in  the  great  forest  country  between  the  Ganges 
and  Kistna  as  far  west  as  Bilaspur  and  Mandla,  in  the  Western  Ghats  as  far  north 
as  17°  or  18°,  and  in  some  of  the  forest-clad  ranges  of  Nagpore  and  farther  south. 
They  do  not  appear  to  ascend  the  Himalayas  to  any  elevation,  but  are  sometimes 
found  at  considerable  elevations  above  the  sea  in  Southern  India,  and  in  Ceylon 
they  range  near  Newera  Ellia,  over  seven  thousand  feet."  In  former  times  their 
distributional  area  in  India  was  still  more  extensive. 

'For  full  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  Indian  elephant,  both  in 
the  wild  and  domestic  state,  we  are  largely  indebted  to  the  writings 
of  Sir  Emerson  Tennent,  Mr.  G.  P.  Sanderson,  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker.  The 
accounts  of  the  former  were,  however,  largely  drawn  from  native  sources,  and  are 
therefore,  in  some  respects,  less  reliable  than  those  of  the  other  two.  It  is  accord- 
ingly mainly  from  the  latter  that  the  following  summary  is  compiled. 

Elephants  chiefly  frequent  districts  covered  with  tall  forest,  where  the  ground 
is  undulating  or  hilly,  and  where  bamboos  grow  in  profusion.  During  the  hot 
months,  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  they  keep  chiefly  to  the  densest  portions  of 
the  forest,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water;  but  with  the  commencement  of  the 
rains  they  venture  out  into  the  open  glades  to  feed  upon  the  young  succulent  grass, 
and  in  the  late  summer  in  the  Madras  districts  descend  at  times  to  the  lower 
jungles.  Contrary  to  general  opinion,  the  Indian  elephant  is  exceedingly  intolerant 
of  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun,  to  which  it  never  voluntarily  exposes  itself.  As 
Sir  S.  Baker  observes,  "its  dark  colour  and  immense  surface  attract  an  amount 
of  heat  which  becomes  almost  intolerable  to  the  unfortunate  creature  when  forced 
to  carry  a  heavy  load  in  the  hot  season  in  India.  Even  without  a  greater  weight 
than  its  rider,  the  elephant  exhibits  signs  of  distress  when  marching  after  9  A.M." 
In  cloudy  and  showery  weather  elephants  move  about  a  good  deal  during  the  time 
that  they  are  in  the  open  country  ;  and  when  travelling  from  one  forest  to  another 
they  almost  invariably  march  in  single  file. 

Herds  of  elephants  usually  consist  of  from  about  thirty  to  fifty  individuals,  all 
of  which  belong,  as  a  rule,  to  a  single  family  ;  although  females  and  young  males 


INDIAN    ELEPHANT. 


ELEPHANTS. 


533 


are  said  occasionally  to  migrate  from  their  own  proper  herd  to  another.  In  some 
cases  a  herd  may  include  as  many  as  a  hundred  head ;  but  when  fodder  is  scarce  all 
the  larger  herds  break  up  into  smaller  parties  of  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  these 
smaller  parties  keeping  within  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  of  one  another, 


INDIAN   ELEPHANT   DRINKING. 


and  reuniting  when  conditions  are  more  favourable.  A  female  seems  to  be 
invariably  the  leader  of  the  herd,  although  in  it  may  be  included  males  of  all 
ages,  and  on  the  march  the  females  with  their  calves  occupy  the  van,  while  the 
tusked  males  bring  up  the  rear.  The  old  bulls  are  frequently  solitary  for  a  time, 
but  generally  each  belongs  to  a  particular  herd,  which  it  visits  occasionally. 
Solitary  male  elephants  are  known  as  "  rogues,"  and  are  generally  characterised 
by  their  fierce  and  quarrelsome  disposition ;  according  to  Mr.  Sanderson,  elephants 


534  UNGULATES. 

that  are  permanently  solitary  are,  however,  comparatively  rare,  the  majority  of 
the  so-called  rogues  really  belonging  to  herds.  These  leave  their  companions, 
as  a  rule,  merely  for  a  time,  in  order  to  visit  the  cultivated  lands,  where  the  less 
venturesome  females  hesitate  to  follow,  and  where  they  inflict  enormous  damage 
on  the  growing  crops. 

The  food  of  the  Indian  elephant  is  mainly  composed  of  grass,  leaves,  and 
young  shoots  of  the  bamboo,  stems,  leaves,  and  fruits  of  the  wild  plantain,  and  the 
leaves,  twigs,  and  bark  of  certain  trees,  more  especially  figs.  The  generally 
succulent  nature  of  its  food  is  in  harmony  with  the  structure  of  the  molar 
teeth,  which  present  a  relation  to  those  of  the  African  species  almost  exactly 
analogous  to  that  which  exists  between  the  molars  of  Burchell's  and  the  common 
African  rhinoceros.  In  plucking  tussocks  of  grass  or  branches  of  trees,  the 
elephant  coils  the  end  of  its  trunk  around  them  and  then  tears  them  off;  and  the 
same  method  is  employed  in  stripping  leaves  from  a  bough,  or  bark  from  a  stem. 
Small  objects  such  as  fruit  are,  however,  picked  up  by  the  small  finger-like  process 
forming  the  termination  of  the  trunk  above  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils.  When 
drinking,  elephants  immerse  the  end  of  the  trunk  in  water,  which  is  sucked  up  to 
a  distance  estimated  at  from  15  to  18  inches  in  its  tubes,  and  then  emptied  into  the 
mouth.  As  a  rule,  the  times  of  drinking  are  soon  after  sunset  and  shortly  before 
sunrise.  Grain  is  drawn  up  into  the  trunk,  and  then  blown  out  into  the  mouth. 

Wild  elephants  are  in  the  habit  of  roaming  about  and  feeding  both  during 
the  day  and  night,  although  they  usually  rest  from  nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the 
morning  till  three  in  the  afternoon,  and  again  from  eleven  at  night  till  three  in 
the  morning.  When  sleeping,  they  lie  down  in  the  usual  manner,  and  although 
the  members  of  a  herd  at  once  scatter  in  all  directions  on  any  sudden  alarm  while 
feeding,  they  quickly  reassemble. 

When  the  season  of  the  year  is  not  too  cold,  elephants  are  fond  of  bathing, 
or  rolling  themselves  in  wet  mud,  but  unless  the  weather  be  unusually  warm  they 
seldom  indulge  in  such  pastimes  after  sundown.  When  heated,  they  squirt  water 
over  their  backs  from  their  trunks,  and  when  unable  to  obtain  water  externally, 
they  have  the  power  of  drawing  fluid  from  their  mouths  or  throats  by  the  aid  of 
the  trunk.  At  times,  when  exposed  to  a  scorching  sun,  they  protect  themselves  by 
throwing  dust,  leaves,  or  straw  on  their  backs. 

„_,      ,  In  common  with  its  African  cousin,  the  Indian  elephant  is  an 

Swimming. 

excellent  swimmer,  and  is  perhaps  more  thoroughly  at  home  in  the 

water  than  any  mammal  whose  habits  are  not  essentially  amphibious  or  aquatic. 
Mr.  Sanderson  states  that  a  herd  of  seventy -nine  elephants  under  his  charge  once 
had  a  swim  of  six  hours'  duration,  and  after  a  short  rest  on  a  sandbank  accom- 
plished their  journey  by  water  in  three  hours  more.  An  elephant  swims  very 
deep  in  the  water,  sometimes  only  showing  the  end  of  its  trunk,  but  at  others 
allowing  the  greater  part  of  its  head  to  appear  above  the  surface.  In  the  case  of 
tame  individuals  the  mahout,  or  driver,  generally  stands  on  the  neck  of  his  animal. 
The  pace  that  an  elephant  swims  is  estimated  at  about  a  mile  an  hour ;  but  this, 
of  course,  depends  largely  on  whether  the  animal  is  swimming  with  or  against 
the  stream.  Unlike  that  of  a  hippopotamus,  the  body  of  a  freshly -killed  elephant 
floats  in  water. 


ELEPHANTS. 


535 


Paces.  In  reSartl  to  movement  on  land,  Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  "  the 

only  pace  of  the  elephant  is  the  walk,  capable  of  being  increased  to 

a  fast  shuffle  of  about  fifteen  miles  an  hour  for  very  short  distances.     It  can 

neither  trot,  canter,  nor  gallop.     It  does  not  move  with  the  legs  on  the  same  side 

together,  but  nearly  so.     A  very  good  runner  might  keep  out  of  an  elephant's  way 


INDIAN   ELEPHANTS  ENJOYING  THEMSELVES. 


on  a  smooth  piece  of  turf,  but  on  the  ground  in  which  they  are  generally  met  with, 
any  attempt  to  escape  by  flight,  unless  supplemented  by  concealment,  would  be 
unavailing."  An  elephant  is  totally  unable  to  leap  in  either  the  horizontal  or  the 
vertical  direction,  and  since  its  maximum  length  of  stride  is  about  6^  feet,  a  7-foot 
ditch  forms  an  effectual  barrier  to  its  progress.  Elephants  are,  however,  capable 
of  ascending  or  descending  steep  and  difficult  places  with  great  facility,  sometimes 
sliding  down  on  their  bent  hind-limbs.  When  a  herd  of  them  descends  one  of  the 
steep  alluvial  banks  bordering  most  of  the  Indian  rivers,  it  is  surprising  how 


536 


UNGULATES. 


rapidly  the  soil  becomes  broken  down  under  their  weight  so  as  to  form  a  regular 

sloping  road. 

The  Indian  elephant,  under  different  circumstances,  gives  vent 
to  a  variety  of  sounds,  some  of  which  are  produced  in  the  trunk, 
while  others  originate  in  the  throat.  Of  these  utterances,  the  first,  writes  Mr. 
Blanford,  is  "the  shrill  trumpet,  varying  in  tone,  and  expressive,  sometimes  of 
fear,  sometimes  of  anger.  Secondly,  a  roar  from  the  throat  caused  by  fear  or  pain. 
A  peculiar  hoarse  rumbling  in  the  throat  may  express  anger  or  want,  as  when 
a  calf  is  calling  for  its  mother.  Pleasure  is  indicated  by  a  continued  low  squeaking 
through  the  trunk.  Lastly,  there  is  a  peculiar  metallic  sound  made  by  rapping 
the  end  of  the  trunk  on  the  ground  and  blowing  through  it  at  the  same  time. 
This  indicates  alarm  or  dislike,  and  is  the  well-known  indication  of  a  tiger's 
presence." 

The  intelligence  of  the  animal  having  been  already  sufficiently 

S6US6S 

discussed,  all  that  need  be  said  about  its  senses  is  that  while  smell 
is  strongly  developed,  both  sight  and  hearing  appear  to  be  by  no  means  acute. 

At  most  seasons  of  the  year  the  Indian  elephant  is  a  timid 

animal,  much  more  ready  to  flee  from  a  foe  than  to  make  an  attack. 
Solitary  "  rogues "  are,  however,  frequently  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  some- 
times make  unprovoked  attacks  on  passers-by.  Indeed,  there  are  instances  on 
record  where  a  "  rogue "  elephant  has  taken  up  a  position  near  a  road,  and 
rendered  it  impassable  to  travellers.  Females  with  calves  are  at  all  times 
dangerous  to  approach.  Contrary  to  what  is  stated  to  be  the  case  with  the 
African  species,  when  an  Indian  elephant  makes  a  charge,  it  does  so  with  its 
trunk  tightly  curled  up,  and  it  makes  its  attack  by  trampling  its  victim  with  its 
feet  or  knees,  or,  if  a  male,  by  pinning  it  to  the  ground  with  its  tusks.  At  certain 
periods  of  the  year  the  male  elephant  is  subject  to  paroxysms  of  excitement, 
generally  supposed  to  be  due  to  sexual  causes,  and  is  then  highly  dangerous,  not 
only  to  human  beings,  but  to  its  fellow-animals.  The  creature  is  then  said  to  be 
niast,  or  mad ;  and  the  approach  of  such  attacks  is  indicated  by  the  copious  flow 
of  a  dark  tar-like  liquid  from  two  small  orifices  in  the  forehead.  At  the  first 
indications  of  one  of  those  seizures,  domesticated  elephants  should  be  promptly 
secured. 

Not   the   least   remarkable   fact   connected   with    elephants    in 
Breeding1. 

captivity,  is  the  circumstance  that  in  India  at  least  they  very  rarely 

breed  when  in  this  condition ;  thus  showing  what  a  profound  effect  the  change 
from  a  wild  to  a  domesticated  mode  of  life  must  have  on  the  animal's  entire 
organisation.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  in  some  parts  of  Burma  and  Siam,  young 
are  produced  much  more  freely  from  captive  females.  The  ordinary  period  of 
gestation  is  about  nineteen  months,  but  it  appears  that  in  some  cases  it  may  be 
a  month  less,  while  in  others  its  duration  may  be  as  much  as  twenty-two  months. 
As  a  rule,  the  young  are  born  in  the  autumn,  from  September  to  November ;  and 
there  is  generally  but  one  produced  at  a  birth,  although  in  rare  instances  twins 
occur.  The  new-born  calf  stands  about  a  yard  in  height,  and  weighs  about 
200  Ibs. ;  it  suckles  its  parent  with  its  mouth,  and  not,  as  has  sometimes  been 
supposed,  with  its  trunk. 


ELEPHANTS.  537 

Elephant-  Elephant-shooting,  which  is  always  practised  on  foot,  is  pro- 

Shooting.  nounced  to  be  the  most  dangerous  of  all  sports  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker, 
since  although  many  elephants  may  be  killed  without  any  danger  or  harm,  it  is 
almost  inevitable  that  the  charge  of  a  wounded  animal  will  have  to  be  encountered 
sooner  or  later  by  the  sportsman.  In  shooting  the  Indian  elephant  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  position  of  the  brain  in  the  skull  is  essential ;  as  the  three  chief 
head-shots  depend  entirely  on  this.  Of  these  three  shots  the  one  known  as  the 
front-shot  should  be  planted  in  the  forehead  about  three  inches  above  the  line  of 
the  eyes  when  the  elephant  is  standing  with  its  head  in  the  ordinary  position  and 
facing  the  sportsman.  When,  however,  the  elephant  is  charging  with  its  head 
thrown  up,  the  front  shot  to  prove  fatal  must  be  aimed  much  lower  down,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  trunk,  and  as  the  bullet  has  then  to  traverse  a  great  thickness  of 
flesh  and  bony  tissue  before  reaching  the  brain,  everything  depends  upon  its  pene- 
trating power.  Indeed,  although  elephants  have  frequently  been  killed  by  well- 
planted  bullets  from  small-bore  rifles,  all  who  have  had  much  experience  of  this 
sport  are  unanimous  as  to  the  importance  of  shooting  with  rifles  of  heavy 
calibre.  The  other  two  fatal  shots  in  the  head  are  the  side,  or  temple-shot,  and 
the  rear-shot  just  behind  the  ear.  The  shot  behind  the  shoulder  is  not  in  much 
favour. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  generally  timid  and  pacific  nature  of 
the  wild  Indian  elephant ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  many  cases,  when 
these  animals  charge,  they  do  so  more  from  sudden  alarm  and  fright  than  from  any 
innate  viciousness. 

When  an  elephant  does  charge,  it  requires  all  the  coolness  and  presence  of 
mind  of  the  sportsman  to  avoid  a  catastrophe.  "A  grander  animated  object," 
writes  Mr.  Sanderson,  "  than  a  wild  elephant  in  full  charge  can  hardly  be  imagined. 
The  cocked  ears  and  broad  forehead  present  an  immense  frontage;  the  head  is 
held  high,  with  the  trunk  curled  between  the  tusks,  to  be  uncoiled  in  the  moment 
of  attack ;  the  massive  fore-legs  come  down  with  the  force  and  regularity  of 
ponderous  machinery ;  and  the  whole  figure  is  rapidly  foreshortened,  and  appears  to 
double  in  size  with  each  advancing  stride.  The  trunk  being  curled  and  unable  to 
emit  any  sound,  the  attack  is  made  in  silence,  after  the  usual  premonitory  shriek, 
which  adds  to  its  impressiveness.  The  usual  pictorial  representations  of  the  Indian 
elephant  charging  with  upraised  trunk  are  accordingly  quite  incorrect." 

In  some  cases  the  sportsman  has  to  stalk  a  herd  of  elephants,  and  to  pick  out 
the  finest  tusker  from  among  the  males  in  the  rear ;  while  at  other  times  he  has  to 
track  up  a  particular  solitary  male,  which  may  be  either  a  "  rogue  "  or  a  herd-tusker 
temporarily  separated  from  his  companions.  When  a  herd  discovers  the  presence 
of  a  foe,  the  individual  that  first  scents  him  usually  gives  vent  to  a  short,  shrill 
trumpet,  upon  which  the  rest  stand  perfectly  still  for  a  few  minutes  before  making 
up  their  minds  in  which  direction  to  flee.  But  at  other  times  the  whole  herd  may 
make  off  at  once,  without  a  sound  being  uttered.  Sometimes  the  herd  will  mistake 
the  direction  of  the  danger,  and  stampede  straight  for  the  sportsmen,  whose  position 
is  then  one  of  considerable  danger ;  his  best  plan  being  to  stand  alongside  a  tree  or 
clump  of  bamboo.  In  cases  where  they  are  unaccustomed  to  the  sound  of  firearms, 
Mr.  Sanderson  states  that  elephants  will  stand  huddled  together,  shrinking  at  the 


538  UNGULATES. 

shots,  which  they  perhaps  mistake  for  thunder.     When  first  starting,  they  make  off 
at  a  rapid  pace,  but  soon  settle  down  to  a  steady  walk. 

In  shooting  single  tuskers,  it  is  advisable  that  the  sportsmen  should  be  at  his 
work  betimes,  as  in  the  case  of  bulls  belonging  to  a  herd  they  usually  rejoin  their 
companions  by  eight  or  nine  in  the  morning.  When  such  solitary  animals  are 
feeding,  the  noise  they  make  allows  of  a  close  approach  without  much  risk  of 
discovery.  Bulls  that  are  permanently  solitary  usually  rest  at  about  ten  o'clock, 
and  after  that  time  may  be  found  asleep,  either  lying  down,  or  resting  against  the 
trunk  of  a  tree.  When  first  disturbed,  one  of  these  solitary  tuskers  makes  off  with 
a  tremendous  rush,  but  soon  subsides  into  a  walk,  when  he  proceeds  so  quietly  that 
he  may  disappear  without  the  sportsman  being  in  the  least  aware  of  it. 

The  following  account  of  the  death  of  a  tusker,  by  Sanderson,  gives  some  idea 
of  the  danger  often  encountered  in  this  kind  of  sport.  The  narrator  writes,  that 
having  ascertained  that  the  herd  comprised  about  fifty  head,  "  a  shrill  trumpeting 
and  crashing  of  bamboos  about  two  hundred  yards  to  our  left  broke  the  stillness, 
and  from  the  noise  we  knew  it  was  a  tusker-fight.  We  ran  towards  the  place 
where  the  sounds  of  combat  were  increasing  every  moment :  a  deep  ravine  at  last 
only  separated  us  from  the  combatants,  and  we  could  see  the  tops  of  the  bamboos 
bowing  as  the  monsters  bore  each  other  backwards  and  forwards  with  a  crashing 
noise  in  their  tremendous  struggles.  As  we  ran  along  the  bank  of  the  nalla  to  find 
a  crossing,  one  elephant  uttered  a  deep  roar  of  pain,  and  crossed  the  nalla  some 
forty  yards  in  advance  of  us,  to  our  side.  Here  he  commenced  to  destroy  a  bamboo- 
clump  (the  bamboos  in  these  hills  have  a  very  large  hollow,  and  are  weak  and 
comparatively  worthless)  in  sheer  fury,  grumbling  deeply  the  while  with  rage  and 
pain.  Blood  was  streaming  from  a  deep  stab  in  his  left  side,  high  up.  He  was  a 
very  large  elephant,  with  long  and  fairly  thick  tusks,  and  with  much  white  about 
the  forehead  ;  the  left  tusk  was  some  inches  shorter  than  the  right.  The  opponent 
of  this  Goliath  must  have  been  a  monster  indeed  to  have  worsted  him.  An 
elephant-fight,  if  the  combatants  are  well  matched,  frequently  lasts  for  a  day  or 
more,  a  round  being  fought  every  now  and  then.  The  beaten  elephant  retreats 
temporarily,  followed  leisurely  by  the  other,  until  by  mutual  consent  they  meet 
again.  The  more  powerful  elephant  occasionally  keeps  his  foe  in  view  till  he 
perhaps  kills  him ;  otherwise,  the  beaten  elephant  betakes  himself  off  for  good  on 
finding  he  has  the  worst  of  it.  Tails  are  frequently  bitten  off  in  these  encounters. 
This  mutilation  is  common  amongst  rogue-elephants,  and  amongst  the  females  in  a 
herd ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  generally  the  result  of  rivalry  amongst  themselves. 
The  wounded  tusker  was  evidently  the  temporarily-beaten  combatant  of  the  occa- 
sion, and  I  have  seldom  seen  such  a  picture  of  power  and  rage  as  he  presented, 
mowing  the  bamboos  down  with  trunk  and  tusks,  and  bearing  the  thickest  part 
over  with  his  fore-feet.  Suddenly  his  whole  demeanour  changed.  He  backed  from 
the  clump  and  stood  like  a  statue.  Not  a  sound  broke  the  sudden  stillness  for  an 
instant.  His  antagonist  was  silent,  wherever  he  was.  Now  the  tip  of  his  trunk 
came  slowly  round  in  our  direction,  and  I  saw  that  we  were  discovered  to  his  fine 
sense  of  smell.  We  had  been  standing  silently  behind  a  thin  bamboo-clump, 
watching  him,  and  when  I  first  saw  that  he  had  winded  us,  I  imagined  he  might 
take  himself  off.  But  his  frenzy  quite  overcame  all  fear  for  the  moment ;  forward 


ELEPHANTS.  539 

went  his  ears  and  up  went  his  tail,  in  a  way  which  no  one  who  has  once  seen  the 
signal  in  a  wild  elephant  can  mistake  the  significance  of,  and  in  the  same  instant 
he  wheeled  round  with  astonishing  quickness,  getting  at  once  into  full  speed,  and 
bore  straight  down  upon  us.  The  bamboos  by  which  we  were  partly  hidden  were 
useless  as  cover,  and  would  have  prevented  a  clear  shot,  so  I  stepped  out  into  open 
ground  the  instant  the  elephant  commenced  his  charge.  I  gave  a  shout  in  the 
hope  of  stopping  him,  which  failed.  I  had  my  No.  4  double  smooth-bore  loaded 
with  ten  drams  in  hand.  I  fired  when  the  elephant  was  about  nine  paces  distant, 
aiming  into  his  curled  trunk  about  one  foot  below  the  fatal  bump  between  the 
eyes,  as  his  head  was  held  very  high,  and  this  allowance  had  to  be  made  for  its 
elevation.  I  felt  confident  of  the  shot,  but  made  a  grand  mistake  in  not  giving 
him  both  barrels ;  it  was  useless  to  reserve  the  left  as  I  did  at  such  close  quarters, 
and  I  deserved  more  than  what  followed  for  doing  so.  The  smoke  from  the  ten 
drams  obscured  the  elephant,  and  I  stooped  quickly  to  see  where  he  lay.  Good 
heavens !  he  had  not  been  even  checked,  and  was  upon  me  !  There  was  no  time 
to  step  right  or  left.  His  tusks  came  through  the  smoke  (his  head  being  now  held 
low)  like  the  cow-catchers  of  a  locomotive,  and  I  had  just  time  to  fall  flat  to  avoid 
being  hurled  along  in  front  of  him.  I  fell  a  little  to  the  right ;  the  next  instant 
down  came  his  ponderous  fore-foot  within  a  few  inches  of  my  left  thigh,  and  I 
should  have  been  trodden  on  had  I  not  been  quick  enough,  when  I  saw  the  fore- 
foot coming,  to  draw  my  leg  from  the  sprawling  position  in  which  I  fell.  As  the 
elephant  rushed  over  me  he  shrieked  shrilly,  which  showed  that  his  trunk  was 
uncoiled;  and  his  head  also  being  held  low  instead  of  in  charging  position,  I 
inferred  rightly  that  he  was  in  full  flight.  Had  he  stopped  I  should  have  been . 
caught,  but  the  heavy  bullet  had  taken  all  the  fighting  out  of  him.  Jafler  had 
been  disposed  of  by  a  recoiling  bamboo,  and  was  now  lying  almost  in  the  elephant's 
line ;  fortunately,  however,  the  brute  held  on.  I  was  covered  with  blood  from  the 
wound  inflicted  by  his  late  antagonist  in  his  left  side ;  even  my  hair  was  matted 
together  when  the  blood  became  dry.  The  mahout  had  jumped  into  the  deep  and 
precipitous  nalla  to  our  left  at  the  commencement  of  hostilities." 

Since  the  elephant  in  India  will  not  breed  to  any  appreciable 
extent  in  captivity,  the  stock  has  to  be  continually  replenished  by  the 
capture  of  wild  individuals.  The  methods  in  vogue  are,  by  driving  into  keddas,  or 
enclosures ;  by  hunting  with  trained  females ;  by  means  of  pitfalls ;  and  by  noosing 
from  the  backs  of  specially-trained  tame  animals.  Of  these,  the  first  only  is 
employed  for  the  capture  of  whole  herds. 

A  kedda-party  in  Bengal  comprises  three  hundred  and  seventy  men,  who  go 
out  during  the  winter  prepared  for  a  sojourn  of  two  or  three  months  in  the  jungle. 
When  a  herd  is  discovered,  the  party  divide  and  go  off  in  opposite  directions  so  as 
to  surround  it,  leaving  two  of  their  number  at  distances  of  about  every  fifty  yards, 
or  rather  more.  When  complete,  the  circle  should  have  a  circumference  of  six  or 
eight  miles ;  and  when  once  found,  it  must  be  the  fault  of  the  men  if  the  herd  is 
not  captured.  A  light  fence  of  split  bamboo  is  rapidly  formed  round  the  ring,  as 
are  likewise  shelters  for  the  men ;  and  the  animals  are  kept  in  by  firing  shots  by 
day  and  by  lighting  bonfires  at  night.  After  the  first  two  days,  however,  if  the 
ring  be  sufficiently  large  and  contain  plenty  of  cover,  the  elephants  give  but  little 


54° 


UNGULATES. 


trouble.  In  the  middle  of  the  circle  the  construction  of  the  kedda  is  then  pushed 
on  apace.  This  is  built  in  a  secluded  spot,  and  is  formed  of  massive  posts  of  about 
twelve  feet  high,  supported  by  props,  and  arranged  in  a  circle  of  from  twenty  to 
fifty  yards  in  diameter,  with  an  entrance  of  about  four  yards  in  width.  From  the 
entrance  proceed  two  diverging  lines  of  palisades,  which  at  their  terminations,  a 
hundred  yards  or  so  from  the  gate,  are  about  fifty  yards  asunder.  When  all  the 
arrangements  are  complete,  the  herd  is  driven  down  the  funnel-shaped  entrance, 
and  when  within  the  kedda  itself  imprisoned  by  dropping  a  kind  of  portcullis  at 
the  gate.  After  a  time  the  process  of  securing  the  various  members  of  the  herd 
commences ;  for  which  purpose  tame  elephants,  each  carrying  a  mahout  on  its  neck 
and  a  rope-tier  behind  are  employed.  These  tame  elephants  separate  the  wild  ones 


INDIAN   ELEPHANT   KNEELING. 


from  their  companions  one  by  one,  when  the  hind-legs  of  the  captives  are  tied 
together  with  ropes.  Each  captive  then  has  a  rope  placed  round  its  neck,  and 
another  round  one  hind-leg  •  after  which  it  is  led  out  and  secured  to  a  tree  in  the 
neighbouring  forest,  where  it  remains  until  sufficiently  tamed  to  undergo  further 
treatment. 

As  the  finest  tuskers  are  seldom  caught  in  the  keddas,  another  plan  is  adopted 
for  their  capture.  A  party  of  four  or  five  trained  female  elephants,  with  their 
mahouts  (who  partially  conceal  themselves  under  blankets),  proceed  to  the  resorts 
of  a  solitary  wild  tusker ;  and  gradually  approach  him  by  grazing  in  an  uncon- 
cerned manner,  unless  the  male  saves  them  this  trouble  by  coming  up  of  his  own 
accord.  Having  established  an  acquaintance,  the  females  remain  constantly  with 
the  male  until  he  is  thoroughly  tired  out  and  in  need  of  sleep,  which  may  not  take 
place  for  two  or  three  days ;  during  which  time  the  mahouts  have  been  relieved 


ELEPHANTS.  541 

one  by  one  by  relays.  When  the  wild  tusker  is  sound  asleep,  the  females  close  up 
around  him,  upon  which  two  of  the  mahouts  slip  off,  and  tie  his  hind-legs  securely 
together.  Sometimes  this  is  all  that  is  then  done,  but  in  other  cases  he  is  made 
fast  to  a  tree.  When  awakened,  the  male,  if  tied  to  a  tree,  makes  every  effort  to 
escape,  but  in  vain ;  while,  when  his  legs  are  merely  hobbled,  he  makes  off  in  the 
best  way  he  can.  In  the  latter  case  he  is  followed  by  the  females  until  exhausted, 
when  he  is  made  fast  to  a  neighbouring  tree.  The  efforts  made  by  elephants  thus 
caught  to  escape  from  their  trammels,  frequently  produce  such  injuries  as  to  result 
in  the  death  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  number. 

The  pitfall  mode  is  chiefly  or  entirely  employed  by  natives,  and 

is  a  barbarous  one,  owing  to  the  frequency  with  which  the  bones  of 
the  animals  are  broken  or  dislocated  in  the  fall.  To  obviate  this  a  bar  is  usually 
fixed  across  the  middle  of  the  pit,  which,  although  itself  broken,  somewhat  mitigates 
the  shock  of  the  fall.  The  pits  are  about  fifteen  feet  in  depth,  by  ten  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  seven  and  a  half  in  width ;  this  relatively  small  area  being  intended  to 
hinder  the  animal  from  digging  his  way  out  with  his  tusks.  It  is  remarkable  that 
an  animal  which  displays  such  caution  in  venturing  over  bridges  and  other  artificial 
structures  as  does  the  Indian  elephant,  should  so  readily  fall  into  these  pits. 

The  fourth  method  of  capture  employed  in  India  is  by  far  the 

most  exciting,  and  is  in  fact  a  simple  chase.  Three  or  four  fast  tame 
elephants,  each  carrying  a  mahout  on  its  neck,  a  nooser  kneeling  on  a  small  pad  on 
the  back,  and  a  driver  near  the  tail,  are  fitted  with  a  girth  round  the  body,  attached 
to  which  is  a  rope  with  a  running  noose.  When  the  wild  elephants  are  approached, 
they  make  off  at  their  topmost  speed,  closely  followed  by  the  tame  ones.  Two  of 
the  tame  elephants  select  a  single  wild  animal,  and  urged  to  their  utmost  speed  by 
the  blows  of  a  spiked  mallet  wielded  by  the  drivers  behind,  perhaps  eventually 
come  alongside  of  it.  When  this  takes  place,  the  nooses  are  thrown,  and  generally 
encircle  the  victim  by  the  neck.  The  tame  elephants  are  then  checked,  but  if  this  is 
done  too  suddenly  the  captive  may  be  choked ;  indeed,  the  whole  party  are  liable 
to  injury  from  being  dragged  down  ravines  or  other  precipitous  places ;  and  the 
work  is  at  all  times  very  harassing  to  the  tame  animals  employed.  This  method, 
which  is  only  employed  in  Bengal  and  Nipal,  has  the  further  disadvantage  that 
only  the  less  fleet,  and  therefore  inferior,  animals  can  be  captured  by  its  means. 

In  Ceylon  wild  elephants  are  noosed  by  a  couple  of  hunters  on 

foot,  who  with  marvellous  skill  encircle  the  hind-legs  of  an  animal 
running  away  from  them,  and  make  fast  the  end  of  the  trailing  rope  to  a  tree. 

An  immature  female  elephant  is  worth  about  £150  (we  presume 

counting  the  rupee  at  its  nominal  value  of  two  shillings),  while  good 
working  females  will  fetch  from  £200  to  £300.  Tuskers  are,  however,  far  more 
valuable,  ranging  from  £800  to  £1500  or  £1600,  or  even  more  if  all  their  "  points  " 
be  perfect. 

Uses  of  The  domesticated  elephant  is  largely  employed  in  India  for  the 

Elephants,      transport  of  heavy  camp-equipage,  for  dragging  timber  to  the  rivers, 

and  in  lieu  of  horses  for  artillery ;  and  is  of  especial  value  in  traversing  districts 

where  roads  are  either  wanting,  or  are  so  bad  as  to  be  impassable  for  other  animals 

when  laden.     Elephants  may  be  employed  either  as  beasts  of  burden  or  of  draught ; 


542 


UNGULATES. 


and  in  the  former  case  their  loads  should  not  exceed  half  a  ton  for  continuous 
marching,  while  in  hilly  districts  they  should  be  reduced  to  about  7  cwt. 
In  dragging  timber  of  moderate  dimensions,  a  short  rope  is  attached  to 
one  end  of  each  log,  which  the  elephant  seizes  between  his  teeth,  and  thus  raising 
his  burden  from  the  ground,  half  carries  and  half  drags  it  away.  Tuskers  are 
both  stronger  and  more  useful  than  females,  since  their  tusks  often  aid  them  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties. 

The  majority  of  the  animals  employed  in  tasks  like  the  above,  belong  to  what 


ELEPHANT   STACKING  TIMBER. 


the  natives  term  the  inferior  castes ;  tuskers  of  the  finest  and  most  approved  form 
being  far  too  expensive  to  be  put  to  such  uses.  The  majority  of  such  animals  are, 
indeed,  purchased  by  the  native  princes,  by  whom  they  are  used  in  state  pageants, 
and  the  taller  the  animal,  the  greater  his  value. 

By  the  sportsman  the  elephant,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention, 
is  extensively  employed  in  tiger-shooting ;  and,  indeed,  in  many  districts  this  sport 
can  only  be  enjoyed  by  the  aid  of  these  animals.  For  sporting  purposes,  the 
elephant  carries  a  howda,  which  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  combine  lightness 
with  strength,  and  to  allow  of  the  occupant  firing  from  it  with  equal  ease  in  any 
direction.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  connected  with  the  taming  of  the 
Indian  elephant,  is  the  extent  to  which  its  natural  timidity  in  presence  of  its 
dreaded  enemy  the  tiger  may  be  overcome  by  means  of  careful  training.  To  enter 


ELEPHANTS.  543 

into  any  particulars  with  regard  to  the  mode  of  employment  of  elephants  in  tiger- 
hunting,  would,  however,  be  entirely  beyond  the  scope  of  a  work  on  Natural 
History. 

As  being  extremely  closely  allied  to  the  living  Indian  species, 
the  extinct  elephant  of  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia,  commonly  known  as  the  mammoth  (E.  primigenius),  may  be 
conveniently  noticed  in  this  place.  So  close,  indeed,  is  the  relationship  between 
the  mammoth  and  the  Indian  elephant,  that  it  may  be  a  great  question  whether 
they  are  anything  more  than  varieties  of  one  single  species,  specially  modified  for 
the  climates  of  their  respective  habitats.  It  is  true  that  the  tusks  of  the  mammoth 
are  much  more  curved  upwards  than  are  those  of  the  Indian  elephant,  and  assume 
a  spiral  curvature;  while  the  plates  of  the  molar  teeth  are  narrower  and  more 
numerous.  These,  however,  are  differences  which  scarcely  constitute  more  than  a 
well-marked  variety ;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  when  we  reach  the  warmer  regions 
of  Asia  Minor,  the  place  of  the  mammoth  was  taken  during  the  Pleistocene  period 
by  an  allied  species  known  as  the  Armenian  elephant  (E.  armeniacus),  which  had 
molar  teeth  intermediate  between  those  of  the  former  and  those  of  the  living 
Indian  elephant.  In  Siberia,  where  its  carcases  have  been  found  preserved  in  the 
frozen  soil,  the  body  of  the  mammoth  was  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  brownish 
woolly  fur,  among  which  were  a  number  of  longer  bristly  black  hail's ;  but  it  is 
by  no  means  certain  that  the  animal  was  thus  protected  from  cold  in  the  more 
southern  and  warmer  portions  of  its  habitat.  Apart,  however,  from  this,  the 
discovery  alluded  to  on  p.  529,  that  the  Indian  elephant  retains  traces  of  a  woolly 
covering  similar  to  that  of  the  mammoth,  shows  that  in  this  respect  there  is  no 
essential  difference  between  the  two  forms ;  and  indicates  that  the  development  or 
loss  of  the  hairy  coat  was  entirely  due  to  climatic  conditions. 

The  mammoth  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Siberia,  its  remains  becoming 
more  numerous  the  further  north  we  proceed.  In  Northern  Europe,  with  the 
exception  of  the  district  to  the  East  of  the  White  Sea,  it  is,  however,  rare  or 
unknown ;  none  of  its  remains  having  been  discovered  in  Norway,  and  but  few  in 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  Although  rare  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  mammoth-remains 
are  extremely  common  over  the  greater  part  of  England,  and  a  large  area  of 
Central  Europe.  They  abound  in  France  and  Germany,  and  in  Italy  extend  as  far 
south  as  Home,  but  according  to  Sir  H.  H.  Howorth  are  unknown  southward  of 
the  Pyrenees.  Great  numbers  are  dredged  from  the  Dogger  Bank  in  the  North 
Sea.  From  Eastern  Asia  the  mammoth  travelled  across  what  is  now  Behring 
Strait  into  Alaska ;  but  in  the  United  States,  and  extending  as  far  south  as  Texas 
and  Mexico,  the  place  of  the  mammoth  was  taken  by  a  closely-allied  species  or 
variety,  known  as  the  Columbian  elephant  (E.  columbi). 

That  the  mammoth  lived  in  Siberia  in  the  area  where  its  frozen  remains  are 
found,  may  be  considered  certain ;  and  there  is  considerable  evidence  to  indicate 
that  the  climate  of  these  regions  was  far  less  inclement  than  it  is  at  present. 
This,  however,  only  renders  it  the  more  difficult  to  account  for  the  manner  in  which 
its  remains  were— as  they  must  have  been — frozen  up  in  the  soil  immediately  after 
death.  Sir  H.  Howorth  calls  in  the  aid  of  a  sudden  cataclysmic  change  from  heat 
to  extreme  cold :  but  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  accept  such  a  theory.  However, 


544  UNGULATES. 

without  some  such  explanation,  the  mode  of  entombment  remains  a  complete 
puzzle.  In  Europe  the  mammoth  seems  to  have  made  its  first  appearance  before 
the  great  cold  of  the  glacial  period ;  a  fact,  which  so  far  as  it  goes,  is  in  favour  of 
Sir  H.  Howorth's  view,  as  tending  to  show  that  the  creature  never  inhabited  a  very 
cold  climate. 

Numerous  finds  of  frozen  carcases  of  mammoths  in  the  soil  of  Siberia  have 
been  recorded ;  but  it  may  be  pretty  safely  asserted,  that  these  form  only  a  small 
proportion  of  those  which  have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  action  of  the  weather 
during  the  historic  period.  Of  the  recorded  examples,  almost  the  earliest  is  one 
found  on  the  river  Alasega  in  the  year  1787  ;  and  somewhere  about  the  same  time 
another  appears  to  have  been  discovered  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena ;  while  a  third 
occurred  in  1805  on  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  earlier 
finds  is,  however,  the  one  recorded  by  the  naturalist  Adams,  in  1806,  which  had 
been  disclosed  by  the  gradual  melting  of  the  ice  on  a  peninsula  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Lena.  The  first  indication  of  this  carcase  was  noticed  by  a  native  in  the  year 
1799,  who  observed  a  hummocky  mass  in  the  ice,  which  melted  in  the  summer  of 
1801  sufficiently  to  show  one  tusk  and  the  side  of  the  monster.  The  carcase  was 
then  entire,  showing  the  eyes  and  trunk  well  preserved,  and  the  thick  coat  of  wool 
and  hair  clothing  the  skin.  During  the  cold  summer  of  1802  the  ice  melted  little, 
but  in  the  following  year  the  carcase  slid  down  on  to  a  sandbank ;  and  in  1804  a 
native  hacked  out  and  carried  off  both  tusks.  It  was  not  till  two  years  later,  that 
Adams  arrived  on  the  scene ;  by  which  time  the  dogs  of  the  yakuts  had  consumed 
nearly  all  the  flesh,  while  one  limb  had  been  removed  bodily.  The  rest  of  the 
skeleton,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  hair,  were,  however,  taken  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  they  are  now  preserved. 

Another  mammoth-mummy  was  discovered  in  1840  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei,  and  its  skeleton  taken  to  the  Museum  at  Moscow.  Some  long  stiff  hair, 
of  a  reddish  colour,  found  with  this  specimen,  probably  belonged  to  the  mane ;  the 
existence  of  such  a  mane  having  been  proved  by  the  rough  sketches  made  by  the 
yakuts  of  Adams's  specimen.  A  half-grown  mammoth,  with  part  of  the  skin 
remaining,  was  discovered  in  1843  near  the  river  Taimyr,  only  a  comparatively  short 
distance  from  the  Polar  Sea,  in  1843.  Some  time  between  1840  and  1850,  a  well- 
preserved  carcase  was  discovered  in  the  circle  of  Yakutsk,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Kolyma.  It  had  a  long  mane,  extending  from  the  head  to  the  tail;  and 
fragments  of  twigs,  on  which  the  animal  had  been  browsing  shortly  before  its 
death,  were  found  between  its  teeth. 

Between  1860  and  1862  the  yakuts  discovered  another  frozen  carcase  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Lena ;  and  an  expedition  from  St.  Petersburg,  which  unfortunately 
arrived  too  late,  was  despatched  to  secure  the  prize.  The  summer  1867  revealed 
another  of  these  frozen  carcases,  this  time  near  the  Polar  Sea  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  River  Alasega,  and  some  distance  beyond  the  northern  limit  of  trees.  About 
the  same  time  news  arrived  of  the  discovery  of  a  mammoth  on  the  river  Kolyma ; 
while  a  third  was  discovered  in  1870  near  the  Alasega. 

These  isolated  finds  of  frozen  carcases  give  no  idea  of  the  number  of  mammoths 
that  inhabited  Siberia  at  a  time  when  its  climate  must  apparently  have  been  far 
less  rigorous  than  at  present ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  some  adequate  conception  on 


X 
CL 
LJ 

_J 

LU 


o 

or 


this  poii: 
that  iii  i 
imp. 

class  ivor 


rnal  form,  I 
Tli, 

' 

more  convex  in 
forehead,  th 
the 

processes 

nail^ 

but 

appear  to  be 


worn  (as  ^lunvn  is 
area  of  i\ 

the  first  mol;i 
the  fifth 

Dimensions. 

i 

-^^ 


THE   HAUNT   OF   THE   AFRICAN   ELEPHANT, 


ELEPHANTS. 


549 


certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  an  elevation  of  nine  thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet 
among  the  damp  forests  clothing  the  sides  of  the  mountain ;  while  they  are  found 
at  heights  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level  in 
the  Abyssinian  highlands. 

H  wta  ^  observers  seem  to  agree  that  the  African  elephant  is  a  more 

powerful  and  more  active  animal  than  its  Asiatic  cousin,  displaying 

marvellous  capacities  for  getting  over  precipitous  and  rocky  ground,  and  being 

altogether  more  rapid  in  its   movements.      Moreover,  most  writers  consider  its 

disposition  is  decidedly  fiercer  than  that  of  the  other  species. 

Although  there  is  probably  some  local  difference  in  this  respect,  the  African 
elephant,  according  to  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  is  far  less  intolerant  of  intense  solar 
heat  than  the  Indian  species ;  and  in  the  Sudan  these  animals  may  frequently  be 
observed  "  enjoying  themselves  in  the  burning  sun  in  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day, 
among  plains  of  withered  grass,  many  miles  from  a  jungle." 

The  difference  in  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  would  of  itself  be  an 
indication  of  a  marked  distinction  in  the  diet  of  the  two  species ;  and  from  what 
we  know  in  the  analogous  instance  of  the  two  African  species  of  rhinoceros  it 
would  be  inferred  that  the  nutriment  of  the  African  elephant  is  composed  of 
coarser  and  harder  substances  than  those  eaten  by  the  Indian  species.  This 
inference  appears  to  be  supported  by  the  results  of  observation.  Thus,  in  parts  of 
South  Africa,  Livingstone  states  that  great  numbers  of  trees  may  be  seen  "  broken 
off  by  elephants  a  foot  or  two  from  the  ground,  in  order  that  they  may  feed  on 
the  tender  shoots  at  the  tops ;  the  trees  thus  seem  pollarded  from  that  point.  In 
spite  of  this  practice,  the  elephant  never  seriously  lessens  the  number  of  trees ; 
indeed,  I  have  often  been  struck  by  the  very  little  damage  he  does  in  a  forest. 
His  food  consists  for  the  most  part  of  bulbs,  tubers,  roots,  and  branches;  the 
natives  in  the  interior  believe  that  he  never  touches  grass ;  and  the  only  instance 
I  saw  of  his  having  grazed  was  near  Teti,  when  the  grass  was  in  seed,  and  when 
he  might  have  been  attracted  by  the  farinaceous  matter,  which  exists  in  such 
quantities  in  the  seed  that  the  natives  collect  it  for  their  own  food."  In  another 
passage  the  great  explorer  states  that  the  African  elephant  "is  a  most  dainty 
feeder,  and  particularly  fond  of  certain  sweet-tasted  trees  and  fruits,  such  as  the 
mohonono  [a  tree  said  to  resemble  the  cedar  in  appearance],  the  mimosa,  and 
others,  which  contain  much  saccharine  matter,  mucilage,  and  gum.  He  may  be 
seen  putting  his  head  to  a  lofty  palmyra,  and  swaying  it  to  and  fro  to  shake  off 
the  seeds;  he  then  picks  them  up  singly  and  eats  them.  Or  he  may  be  seen 
standing  by  the  masuka  and  other  fruit-trees,  patiently  picking  off  the  sweet 
fruits  one  by  one.  The  selection  of  these  kinds  of  food  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
herds  of  elephants  produce  but  small  effect  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country — quality 
being  more  requisite  to  them  than  quantity." 

From  his  experience  in  the  Sudan,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  observes  that  "the 
African  elephant  is  a  more  decided  tree-feeder  than  the  Indian,  and  the  destruction 
committed  by  a  large  herd  of  such  animals  when  feeding  in  a  mimosa-forest  is 
extraordinary ;  they  deliberately  march  forward,  and  uproot  or  break  down  every 
tree  that  excites  their  appetite.  The  mimosas  are  generally  from  16  to  20  feet 
high,  and,  having  no  tap-root,  they  are  easily  overturned  by  the  tusks  of  the 


55o  UNGULATES. 

elephants,  which  are  driven  like  crowbars  beneath  the  roots,  and  used  as  levers, 
in  which  rough  labour  they  are  frequently  broken.  Upon  the  overthrow  of  a  tree, 
the  elephants  eat  the  roots  and  leaves,  and  strip  the  bark  from  the  branches  by 
grasping  them  with  their  rough  trunks."  In  another  passage  the  same  writer 
expresses  his  belief  that  two  elephants  may  sometimes  unite  their  strength  in 
order  to  overthrow  a  tree  of  more  than  ordinary  size.  The  discrepancy  in  the  two 
foregoing  accounts  as  to  the  amount  of  damage  inflicted  by  elephants  in  a  forest, 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that  while  in  the  one  district  their  food 
consists  largely  of  twigs  and  fruits,  in  the  other  it  is  mainly  composed  of  bark  and 
roots.  In  South-Eastern  Africa  Mr.  Selous  bears  testimony  to  the  digging  habits 
of  the  elephant,  stating  that  he  has  seen  large  areas  of  sandy  soil  ploughed  up  by 
the  tusks  of  these  animals  in  their  search  for  roots. 

In  digging,  as  already  incidentally  mentioned,  it  appears  that  the  elephant 
always  uses  one  particular  tusk,  which,  in  consequence,  is  much  more  worn  than 
the  other.  According  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  it  is  nearly  always  the  right  tusk  which  is 
selected  for  this  duty ;  and  the  one  so  used  is  termed  by  the  Sudanis  the  hadam, 
or  servant.  A  curious  question  arises  whether  this  preferential  use  of  the  right 
tusk  has  any  connection  with  our  own  right-handedness. 

In  Southern  Africa,  at  least,  elephants  drink  almost  every  night,  but  only 
rarely  during  the  day.  In  that  part  of  the  continent  they  seek  the  deepest  shades 
of  the  forest  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  generally  appear  to  sleep  in  a  standing 
posture. 

The  African  elephant  associates  in  herds  of  varying  size,  which  appear  to  be 
generally  family  parties ;  but  the  old  bulls  may  be  solitary,  in  pairs,  or  in  small 
parties,  and  keep  apart  from  the  larger  herds,  which  usually  consist  of  young 
males,  females,  and  calves.  One  of  the  largest  herds  seen  by  Mr.  Selous  was 
estimated  to  contain  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  head,  but  such  assemblages 
are  rare.  In  many  parts  of  Africa,  including  Abyssinia,  Kilima-Njaro,  and  the 
Sudan,  elephants  undertake  periodical  migrations,  apparently  necessitated  by  the 
supply  of  food,  or  induced  by  the  ripening  of  certain  kinds  of  fruit  in  particular 
districts.  At  such  times  it  appears  that  the  old  bulls  rejoin  the  herds  to  which  they 
belong.  Once,  and  once  only,  Sir  S.  Baker  had  the  opportunity  of  witnessing 
such  a  migration,  which  he  describes  as  follows : — "  We  were  marching  through  an 
uninhabited  country  for  about  thirty  miles,  and,  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  park-like 
scenery,  we  came  upon  the  magnificent  sight  of  vast  herds  of  elephants. 

"  These  were  scattered  about  the  country  in  parties  varying  in  number  from 
ten  to  one  hundred,  while  single  bulls  dotted  the  landscape  with  their  magnificent 
forms  in  all  directions.  In  some  places  there  were  herds  of  twenty  or  thirty, 
entirely  composed  of  large  tuskers ;  in  other  spots  were  parties  of  females  with 
young  ones  interspersed,  of  varying  growth ;  and  this  grand  display  of  elephantine 
life  continued  for  at  least  two  miles  in  length  as  we  rode  parallel  with  the  groups 
at  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to  guess  the 
number,  as  there  was  no  regularity  in  their  arrangement,  neither  could  I  form  any 
idea  of  the  breadth  of  the  area  that  was  occupied." 

In  describing  his  first  view  of  the  largest  company  of  elephants  he  ever 
encountered,  Oswell  writes  that  "  as  I  got  clear  of  the  bush  I  came  upon  at  least 


ELEPHANTS.  551 

four  hundred  elephants  standing  drowsily  in  the  shade  of  the  detached  clumps  of 
mimosa-trees.  Such  a  sight  I  had  never  seen  before,  and  never  saw  again.  As 
far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  in  a  fairly  open  country,  there  was  nothing  but 
elephants.  I  do  not  mean  in  joined  masses,  but  in  small  separate  groups.  Lying 
on  the  pony's  neck,  I  wormed  in  and  out,  looking  for  the  bulls  whose  '  spoor '  we 
had  been  following,  and  while  doing  so  was  charged  by  a  very  tall,  long-legged, 
ugly  beast,  who  would  take  no  denial,  and  I  was  obliged  to  kill  him." 

p  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  maximum  pace  of  the  Indian 

elephant  is  estimated  at  about  fifteen  miles  an  hour;  but  this  can 
only  be  maintained  for  a  couple  of  hundred  yards  or  so,  after  which  the  rate 
sinks  to  eight  or  six  miles  an  hour.  On  the  other  hand,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  is  of 
opinion  that  the  African  elephant  might  be  able  to  maintain  the  maximum  pace  of 
fifteen  miles  an  hour  for  a  hundred  yards  longer  than  its  Asiatic  cousin,  and  that 
it  would  settle  down  to  a  pace  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  which  could  be  kept  up  for  at 
least  that  period  of  time.  The  relatively  longer  limbs  and  stride  of  the  African 
species  fully  bear  out  this  view  as  to  its  speedier  movements. 

The  sense  of  scent  appears  to  be  very  strongly  developed  in  this 

species,  inasmuch  as  it  can  discover  the  presence  of  a  human  being  at 
an  immense  distance  when  the  wind  is  favourable.  As  soon  as  an  elephant  scents 
a  man,  it  starts  oft'  at  once  at  a  rapid  pace,  which  will  be  maintained  sometimes  for 
hours;  and  since  in  most  parts  of  Africa  the  wind  is  constantly  veering,  this 
constitutes  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  elephant-stalking.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  sight  of  these  animals  is  most  defective ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  their 
hearing  is  particularly  good.  On  account  of  these  deficiencies,  it  is  possible  to 
approach  a  wild  African  elephant  from  the  leeward  to  within  a  very  short  distance ; 
and  we  have  been  informed,  on  good  authority,  that  a  hunter  once  wagered  that  he 
would  write  his  initials  on  the  hind-quarters  of  one  of  these  animals  while  alive, 
and  that  he  actually  succeeded  in  doing  so. 

It  is  somewhat  curious  that  the  natives  of  Africa  display  no 

aptitude  for  the  domestication  of  the  wild  animals  of  their  country, 
in  which  respect  they  stand  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Malays  and  other  Eastern 
nations.  In  the  later  ages  of  Rome,  as  shown  on  coins,  the  African  elephant  was 
tamed  and  exhibited  in  the  arena ;  and  these  animals  are  commonly  stated  to  have 
been  employed  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  Punic  wars  (B.C.  264-216),  no  less  than 
thirty- seven  of  them  accompanying  Hannibal's  army  across  the  Alps.  On  this 
point,  however,  Oswell  writes  as  follows: — "I  believe  some  people  suppose  the 
Carthaginians  tamed  and  used  the  African  elephants ;  they  could  hardly  have  had 
mahouts,  Indian  fashion,  for  there  is  no  marked  depression  in  the  nape  of  the  neck 
for  a  seat,  and  the  hemming  of  the  ears,  when  erected,  would  have  half  smothered 
them.  My  knowledge  does  not  allow  me  to  raise  any  argument  on  this  point ;  but 
might  not  the  same  market  have  been  open  to  the  dwellers  at  Carthage,  as  was 
afterwards  to  Mithridates,  who,  I  suppose,  drew  his  supply  from  India,  where  they 
have  been  broken  and  made  to  do  man's  work  from  time  immemorial."  In  a  note 
he  adds  that  "  I  know  in  the  representations  on  the  medals  of  Faustina  and  of 
Septimius  Severus  the  ears  are  African,  though  the  bodies  and  heads  are  Indian  ; 
but  these  were  struck  nearly  four  hundred  years  after  Carthaginian  times,  when 


552  UNGULATES. 

the  whole  known  world  had  been  ransacked  by  the  Romans  for  beasts  for  their 
public  shows;  and  I  still  think  it  possible  that  the  Carthaginians  —  the  great 
traders  and  colonisers  of  old — may  have  obtained  elephants,  through  some  of  these 
colonies,  from  India."  From  the  disposition  of  "  Jumbo,"  it  may  be  inferred  that 
the  species  could  be  as  easily  tamed,  and  would  prove  as  docile  as  the  Indian 
elephant ;  but  there  is  the  difficulty  that  the  natives  of  Africa  probably  could  not 
be  trained  to  act  as  efficient  drivers,  and  without  a  dependable  native  attendant 
the  best  elephant  would  be  worse  than  useless. 

The  general  testimony  of  those  who  have  had  experience  of  both 

the  African  and  the  Indian  elephant  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
former  is  the  more  dangerous  animal  of  the  two,  and  the  one  that  is  more  ready 
to  charge.  The  females,  especially  those  that  are  barren  and  have  small  tusks,  are 
said  to  be  far  more  dangerous  than  males,  frequently  charging  without  the  least 
provocation,  even  when  unwounded ;  and  it  is  stated  that  hunters  will  sometimes 
take  the  trouble  to  kill  one  of  these  worthless  females  before  attacking  the  tuskers. 
Indeed,  Mr.  W.  H.  Drummond  is  of  opinion  that  the  greater  number  of  accidents 
that  have  occurred  in  African  elephant-shooting  may  be  set  down  to  females. 
From  the  testimony  of  Gordon  Gumming,  supported  by  that  of  the  writer  last 
quoted,  it  would  appear  that  the  African  elephant,  unlike  its  Indian  cousin,  charges 
with  its  trunk  uplifted,  and  loudly  trumpeting. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  firearms,  it  appears  that  in  South 

and  South-Eastern  Africa,  at  any  rate,  the  natives  but  seldom  attacked 
the  elephant,  and  effected  little,  if  any,  diminution  in  its  numbers.  Occasionally, 
as  narrated  by  Livingstone,  they  attacked  the  unfortunate  animal  with  assegais, 
and  gradually  harried  it  to  death  from  the  loss  of  blood  caused  by  hundreds  of 
weapons.  In  other  cases  poisoned  arrows  were  the  weapons  used.  A  more  general 
method  is  that  of  digging  pits  in  the  paths  frequented  by  the  elephants  on  their 
way  to  water.  These  pits,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  are  usually  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet  in  depth,  and  are  covered  with  light  wood  and  branches  or  reeds,  upon  which 
a  thin  covering  of  grass  is  spread.  In  some  cases  Sir  Samuel  states  that  several 
individuals  out  of  a  herd  may  be  captured  in  this  manner  in  Central  Africa ;  the 
animals  being  put  to  death,  when  thus  helpless,  with  spears.  In  the  Kilima-Njaro 
district,  however,  the  pit  system,  according  to  Mr.  Hunter,  does  not  appear  to  be 
very  successful. 

During  the  dry  season,  when  the  grass  of  ten  or  fourteen  feet  in 

height  is  as  inflammable  as  tinder,  the  natives  of  Central  Africa  have 
a  cruel  way  of  killing  elephants  by  forming  a  circle  of  fire  round  a  herd.  As  the 
fiery  circle,  which  may  be  a  couple  of  miles  in  diameter,  gradually  contracts,  the 
elephants  (to  quote  from  Sir  S.  Baker's  graphic  description)  "  at  first  attempt  to 
retreat,  until  they  become  assured  of  their  hopeless  position ;  they  at  length  become 
desperate,  being  maddened  by  fear,  and  panic-stricken  by  the  wild  shouts  of  the 
thousands  who  have  surrounded  them.  At  length,  half-suft'ocated  by  the  dense 
smoke,  and  terrified  by  the  close  approach  of  the  roaring  flames,  the  unfortunate 
animals  charge  recklessly  through  the  fire,  burnt  and  blinded,  to  be  ruthlessly 
speared  by  the  bloodthirsty  crowd  awaiting  this  last  stampede."  As  many  as  a 
hundred,  or  even  more,  may  be,  it  is  said,  killed  by  this  method  on  a  single  occasion. 


ELEPHANTS.  553 

Hamstringing.  The  intrePid  Hamram  Arabs  of  the  Sudan  slay  the  elephant  in 

the  same  manner  as  the  rhinoceros,  by  hamstringing  it  with  a  long 
two-edged  sword.  Three  or  four  mounted  hunters,  singling  out  a  tusker  and 
separating  it  from  its  fellows,  follow  it  until,  tired  out,  the  animal  faces  its  pursuers, 
and  prepares  to  charge.  Directly  it  does  so,  the  hunter  who  is  the  object  of  the 
charge  puts  his  horse  to  a  gallop,  and  is  closely  followed  by  the  elephant.  There- 
upon, two  of  his  companions  follow  at  their  best  pace  behind ;  and  as  soon  as  they 
come  up  with  the  fleeing  animal,  one  seizes  the  reins  of  the  horse  of  his  fellow, 
who  immediately  leaps  to  the  ground,  and  with  one  blow  of  his  huge  sword 
divides  the  tendon  of  the  elephant's  leg  a  short  distance  above  the  heel.  The 
ponderous  beast  is  at  once  brought  to  a  standstill,  and  is  at  the  mercy  of  its 
aggressors. 

A  somewhat  similar  method,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  was  formerly  practised 
in  Mashonaland,  only  there  the  hunters  went  on  foot,  and  their  weapon  was  a 
broad-bladed  axe ;  with  this  they  crept  up  behind  a  sleeping  elephant,  and  severed 
the  back  tendon  of  the  leg  in  the  same  manner  as  above. 

weighted  s  ears  Other  tribes  in  the  same  district  employ  a  heavily- weigh  ted 
spear,  which  is  plunged  into  the  animal's  back  by  a  hunter  seated  on 
a  bough  overhanging  one  of  the  most  frequented  pathways.  On  receiving  the 
weapon,  the  elephant  of  course  immediately  rushes  off,  and  the  weight  of  the  spear, 
aided  by  blows  from  boughs,  soon  so  enlarges  the  wound,  that  the  animal  quickly 
sinks  to  the  ground,  exhausted  from  loss  of  blood.  In  other  districts,  as  in  parts 
of  Equatoria,  the  weighted  spear  is  suspended  from  a  horizontal  bar  fixed  between 
two  tiers  or  poles.  The  spear  or  knife,  according  to  Major  Casati's  description,  is 
kept  in  position  "by  a  cord,  which  is  held  down  by  a  stake  that  is  directed 
horizontally  towards  the  middle  of  the  trap ;  and  by  another  which,  at  a  convenient 
angle,  is  interposed  between  this  and  the  end.  The  animal,  striking  with  his  feet, 
loosens  the  contrivance,  which  then  falls  violently ;  the  knife  wounds  the  animal 
with  singular  exactness  in  the  spot  where  the  brain  unites  with  the  nape  of  the 
neck.  The  blow  falls  like  a  thunder-clap  ;  and  if  the  trap  is  well  made,  the  elephant 
struggles  and  dies." 

The  European  sportsman  kills  the  African  elephant  either  by 
By  Europeans.  x 

lying  in  wait  at  one  of  its  drinking-places,  or  by  attacking  it  in  the 

open,  either  on  foot  or  on  horseback.  At  the  present  day,  however,  most  or  all 
of  the  elephants  remaining  in  South-Eastern  Africa  are  restricted  to  districts 
infested  by  the  tsetsi  fly,  where  horses  cannot  exist,  and  the  pursuit  must  conse- 
quently be  undertaken  on  foot.  Owing  to  the  conformation  of  its  skull,  the  front- 
shot,  so  frequently  employed  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  elephant,  is  ineffectual  with 
the  African  species,  and  there  are  but  two  spots  where  a  bullet  may  be  expected  to 
prove  fatal ;  one  of  these  being  in  the  head  behind  the  eye,  and  the  other  in  the 
shoulder  immediately  behind  the  flap  of  the  ear. 

Stories  of  hairbreadth  escapes  from  charges  of  the  African  elephant  may  be 
reckoned  by  the  score,  but  we  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  one  narrated  by  Mr. 
Selous.  That  gentleman  had  wounded  a  female  elephant  at  a  time  when  his  horse 
was  thoroughly  knocked  up.  On  a  sudden  the  beast  turned  to  charge,  before  there 
was  time  to  get  a  fair  start.  "  Digging  the  spurs  into  my  horse's  ribs,"  writes  the 


554  UNGULATES. 

narrator,  "  I  did  my  best  to  get  him  away,  but  he  was  so  thoroughly  done  that, 
instead  of  springing  forwards,  which  was  what  the  emergency  required,  he  only 
started  at  a  walk,  and  was  just  breaking  into  a  canter  when  the  elephant  was 
upon  us.  I  heard  two  short  sharp  screams  above  my  head,  and  had  just  time  to 
think  it  was  all  over  with  me,  when,  horse  and  all,  I  was  dashed  to  the  ground. 
For  a  few  seconds  I  was  half  stunned  by  the  violence  of  the  shock,  and  the  first 
thing  I  became  aware  of  was  a  very  strong  smell  of  elephant.  At  the  same  instant 
I  felt  that  I  was  still  unhurt,  and  that,  though  in  an  unpleasant  predicament,  I 
had  still  a  chance  for  life.  I  was,  however,  pressed  down  on  the  ground  in  such  a 
way  that  I  could  not  extricate  my  head.  At  last,  with  a  violent  effort,  I  wrenched 
myself  loose,  and  threw  my  body  over  sideways  so  that  I  rested  on  my  hands.  As 
I  did  so  I  saw  the  hind-legs  of  the  elephant  standing  like  two  pillars  before  me, 
and  at  once  grasped  the  situation.  She  was  on  her  knees,  with  her  head  and  tusks 
in  the  ground,  and  I  had  been  pressed  down  under  her  chest,  but  luckily  behind 
her  fore-legs.  Dragging  myself  from  under  her,  I  regained  my  feet,  and  made  a 
hasty  retreat,  having  had  rather  more  than  enough  of  elephants  for  the  time 
being." 

Although  highly  appreciated  by  the  natives,  the  flesh  of  the 
African  elephant  is  coarse  and  rank  in  the  extreme ;  portions  of  the 
trunk,  although  tough,  are  however  said  to  be  fairly  good.  Baked  elephant's  foot, 
cooked  in  the  skin,  and  scooped  out  like  a  Stilton  cheese,  was  formerly  considered 
a  dainty,  but  most  of  those  who  have  tasted  it  of  late  years  express  their  dis- 
approval. 

EXTINCT  ELEPHANTS. 

In  addition  to  the  mammoth,  there  are  a  number  of  other  extinct  elephants 
more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  living  species,  together  with  others  of  a  totally 
different  type.  The  whole  of  these  are  confined  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
Africa;  the  only  American  species  being  the  Columbian  elephant  alluded  to 
above. 

Sutiedje  The  earliest  of  the  species  allied  to  the  living  Indian  one  is  the 

Elephant.  Sutiedje  elephant  (E.  hysudricus)  from  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the 
Siwalik  Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya.  This  species  had  the  plates  of 
the  molar  teeth  very  thin,  but  less  tall  and  less  numerous  than  in  the  Indian 
elephant.  Its  skull  resembled  that  of  the  latter ;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  in 
this  species  we  may  have  the  ancestor  of  both  the  Indian  elephant  and  the 
mammoth. 

The  Narbada  The  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  Narbada  Valley  in  India  yield 

Elephant,  the  remains  of  a  very  large  elephant  (E.  namadicus),  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  locality  in  question.  In  the  structure  of  its  molar  teeth,  one  of 
which  is  represented  on  p.  528,  this  species  connects  the  Indian  elephant  with 
the  one  following.  It  is  characterised  by  its  very  short  skull,  which  has  an 
enormous  ridge  running  transversely  across  the  forehead,  and  some  of  the  bones  of 
this  species  appear  to  indicate  animals  of  13  or  14  feet  in  height,  since  they  are 
vastly  longer  than  those  of  the  Calcutta  skeleton  of  the  Indian  elephant  mentioned 
on  p.  529.  This  species  ranged  eastwards  into  Japan. 


ELEPHANTS.  555 

straight-Tusked  The  straight-tusked  elephant  (E.  antiquus)  from  the  Pleistocene 
Elephant,  deposits  of  Europe,  differs  from  the  mammoth  by  its  smaller  and 
comparatively  straight  tusks,  and  the  fewer  and  wider  plates  in  the  molar  teeth, 
of  which  the  crowns  are  generally  narrow.  Indeed,  some  of  these  teeth  come  so 
close  to  those  of  the  African  elephant  as  to  indicate  the  near  relationship  between 
that  species  and  the  fossil  one.  The  straight-tusked  elephant  ranged  from 
Yorkshire  to  Algeria. 

We   are   so   accustomed   to   regard  elephants  as  the  giants  of 
Pigmy  Elephants. 

creation,  that  it  is  at  first  difficult  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  a 

species  not  exceeding  3  feet  in  height.  Yet  pigmy  elephants  (E.  mnaidriensis 
and  E.  melitensis),  of  which  the  smallest  is  considered  to  have  reached  only 
those  diminutive  proportions,  were  abundant  in  Malta  and  some  of  the  neigh- 
bouring islands  during  the  Pleistocene  period ;  their  remains  occurring  in  the 
caverns  and  the  rock-fissures.  These  elephants,  many  of  which  were  not  larger 
than  a  donkey,  appear  to  have  been  closely  related  to  the  living  African  species, 
and  were  doubtless  dwarfed  in  size  from  the  small  area  of  the  'islands  they 
inhabited. 

southern  The    southern    elephant    (E.    meridionalis),    from    the    upper 

Elephant.  Pliocene  rocks  of  Italy  and  France,  and  also  found  in  the  forest- 
bed  on  the  coast  of  Norfolk,  and  at  Dewlish  in  Dorsetshire,  was  the  largest  of  all 
the  European  species,  its  height  at  the  shoulder  having  been  estimated  at  upwards 
of  15  feet.  The  molar  teeth  of  this  giant  have  very  wide  crowns,  with  the  plates 
very  broad  and  widely  separated  from  one  another,  and  somewhat  less  numerous 
than  in  the  African  species.  The  flat-headed  elephant  (E.  planifrons)  from  the 
Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills,  was  an  allied  Indian  species,  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  true  elephants  by  the  circumstance  that  two  of  the  milk-molar 
teeth  were  vertically  replaced  by  premolars ;  this  elephant  thus  having  eight  more 
teeth  than  any  other  species,  and  thereby  showing  evident  traces  of  closer  kinship 
with  the  mastodons. 

stegodont  The  so-called  stegodont  elephants  (so  named  from  the  roof-like 

Elephants,  form  assumed  by  the  ridges  of  their  molar  teeth)  of  India  and  other 
parts  of  South-Eastern  Asia,  form  an  exceedingly  interesting  group,  which  almost 
completely  connects  the  true  elephants  with  the  under-mentioned  mastodons. 
A  molar  tooth  of  one  of  the  species  of  this  group  is  represented  on  p.  526  ;  this 
tooth,  as  already  mentioned,  being  characterised  by  the  small  number  of  its  ridges 
(in  this  instance  six),  which  are  very  low  and  wide,  with  the  shallow  intervening 
valleys  devoid  of  cement.  In  other  species  of  the  group  the  ridges  were,  however, 
somewhat  more  numerous  and  more  elevated,  while  the  valleys  were  partially 
filled  with  cement ;  and  these  serve  to  connect  the  figured  Cliffs  elephant  with 
species  like  the  southern  elephant.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  tooth  of  Cliffs 
elephant,  represented  on  p.  526,  agrees  with  existing  species  in  having  the 
transverse  ridges  undivided  by  any  distinct  longitudinal  cleft.  One  of  the 
stegodont  elephants  (E.  ganesa)  is  remarkable  for  the  enormous  size  of  its  tusks, 
those  in  a  skull  from  the  Siwalik  Hills,  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  measuring 
upwards  of  12  feet  9  inches  in  length,  with  a  maximum  girth  of  26  inches. 
Representatives  of  this  group  also  occur  in  China,  Japan,  and  Java. 


556 


UNGULATES. 


THE  MASTODONS. 
Genus  Mastodon. 


The  above-mentioned  stegodont  elephants  so  closely  connect  the  genus  Elephas 
with  the  extinct  animals  known  as  mastodons,  that  the  division  between  the  two 
genera  is  a  somewhat  arbitrary  one.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  species  of  mastodon 
most  nearly  related  to  the  stegodont  elephants  are  found  in  the  same  regions  as 


THE   LAST  LEFT   UPPER  MOLAR  TEETH   OP  TWO  SPECIES  OF  INDIAN   MASTODONS. 

The  upper  figure  (§  nat.  size)  belongs  to  M.  latidens ;  and  the  lower  (J  nat.  size)  to  M. 
cautleyi.  In  the  specimen  represented  in  the  upper  figure  the  first  two  ridges  are 
partially  worn,  while  in  the  lower  one  they  are  intact. 

the  latter,  from  which  we  may  infer  that  the  evolution  of  the  elephants  from  the 
mastodons  took  place  in  South-Eastern  Asia. 

Mastodons  are  distinguished  by  their  molar  teeth,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure  and  the  one  on  p.  557,  having  comparatively  few  transverse  ridges,  which 
are  low,  and  more  or  less  completely  divided  by  a  longitudinal  cleft  into  inner  and 
outer  columns.  These  ridges  are  separated  by  valleys  in  which  there  is  little  or 
no  cement ;  and  when  worn  down  by  use  they  exhibit  more  or  less  trefoil-shaped 
surfaces  of  ivory,  quite  different  from  the  elongated  ellipses  formed  in  those  of  the 


ELEPHANTS. 


557 


true  elephants.  In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  molar  teeth  of  the  stegodont 
elephants,  the  number  of  transverse  ridges  is  usually  more  than  six,  but  in  the 
mastodons  it  is  generally  either  four  (as  shown  in  the  figure  below)  or  three,  although 
occasionally  there  may  be  as  many  as  five.  Moreover,  the  sixth  or  last  molar  gener- 
ally has  only  four  or  five  such  ridges,  in  place  of  from  nine  to  eleven  found  in  the 
stegodont  elephants.  In  all  these  respects  the  mastodons  exhibit  a  less  specialised 
type  of  structure  than  that  existing  in  the  elephants,  and  thereby  approximate  to 
ordinary  Ungulates.  This  simpler  dental  structure  is  further  evidenced  by  the 


TWO  SPECIMENS  OF  MOLAR  TEETH   OF  INDIAN   MASTODONS  (nat  size). 

Both  teeth  are  unworn  ;  and  while  the  upper  belongs  to  M.  cautleyi,  the  lower 
belongs  to  M.  perimensis. 

circumstance  that  portions  of  three  molar  teeth  may  be  in  use  at  the  same  time, 
whereas  in  elephants  only  two  such  teeth  are  ever  present  contemporaneously  on 
one  side  of  the  jaw.  Then,  again,  nearly  all  the  mastodons  had  premolar  teeth 
vertically  replacing  their  milk-molars,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  Ungulates. 

Another  peculiarity  of  some,  although  by  no  means  all  mastodons,  is  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  larger  or  smaller  tusks  in  the  lower  as  well  as  in  the  upper 
jaw  ;  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  in  such  species  being  prolonged  into  a  spout- 
like  projection. 


S5S  UNGULATES. 

There  are  a  larger  number  of  species  of  mastodon,  ranging  over  a  great  part 
of  Europe,  South-Eastern  Asia,  and  the  whole  of  America ;  the  earliest  representa- 
tives of  the  group  occurring  in  Europe  in  the  middle  division  of  the  Miocene 
period.  And  it  is  noteworthy  that  all  these  earlier  species  had  but  three  transverse 
ridges  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  molar  teeth,  thus  approximating  the  closest  to 
other  Ungulates. 

One  of  the  best  known  species  is  the  North  American  mastodon  (Mastodon 
americanus),  of  which  teeth  and  bones,  and  sometimes  entire  skeletons,  are  found 
in  enormous  quantities  in  the  peat  and  lacustrine  deposits  of  Ohio  and  Missouri. 
This  animal  had  enormous  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  either  none  or  mere 
rudiments  in  the  lower  jaw :  and  its  molar  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the  last, 
had  only  three  ridges,  in  which  the  longitudinal  cleft  was  but  slightly  marked. 
Some  of  the  teeth  are  so  fresh-looking  as  to  appear  almost  like  those  of  recent 
elephants,  and  it  seems  that  this  mastodon  lived  on  till  within  the  human  period. 
In  height  the  skeleton  stood  about  12  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

In  the  Old  World  mastodons  disappeared  at  an  earlier  date,  none  being 
known  to  have  survived  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  period.  Remains  of  several 
species  occur  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Continent,  while 
detached  teeth  are  occasionally  found  in  the  shelly  deposits  on  the  coast 
of  Essex,  Suffolk,  and  Norfolk,  locally  known  as  crags.  In  Northern  India 
there  were  an  extraordinary  number  of  species  of  these  animals:  and  among 
these  the  broad-toothed  mastodon  (M.  latidens),  ranging  from  India  through 
Burma  to  Borneo,  is  the  one  approaching  most  closely  to  the  elephants.  In  some 
of  these  Indian  mastodons,  as  in  one  of  those  from  the  English  crags,  the  inner 
and  outer  columns  of  the  ridges  of  the  molar  teeth  are  completely  separated  from 
one  another,  and  are  arranged  somewhat  alternately ;  and  from  the  nipple-like 
form  assumed  by  these  columns  in  the  species  in  question,  the  generic  name  of 
Mastodon  takes  its  origin. 

THE  DIXOTHERE. 
Family  DlNOTHERIID^ 

A  remarkable  animal  known  as  the  dinothere  (Itinotherium  giganteum),  the 
remains  of  which  are  found  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  rocks  of  Europe  and  India, 
presents  us  with  the  most  generalised  type  of  Proboscidian  yet  known.  In  this 
animal,  which  must  have  been  fully  as  large  as  an  elephant,  there  appear  to  have 
been  no  upper  tusks,  but  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  was  sharply  bent  down. 
and  terminated  in  a  pair  of  very  massive  and  somewhat  curved  tusks.  As  in  t  he- 
elephants  and  mastodons,  there  were  no  canine  teeth,  and  the  cheek-teeth  carried 
transverse  ridges.  The  whole  of  the  permanent  series  of  cheek-teeth  were,  how- 
ever, in  use  at  the  same  time,  as  in  ordinary  Ungulates,  and  their  ridges  were  low 
and  simple,  and  either  two  or  three  in  number.  Very  little  else  is  known  of  the 
skeleton  of  this  strange  animal,  and  there  have  been  many  conjectures  as  to  the 
use  of  the  downwardly-curved  lower  tusks.  Possibly  the  creature  may  have  been 
more  or  less  aquatic  in  its  habits,  and  have  used  these  weapons  to  drag  up  water- 
plants  from  the  beds  and  bunks  of  lakes  or  rivers.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may 


SHORT-FOOTED  GROUP. 


559 


equally  well  have  been  purely  terrestrial,  and  have  used  its  tusks,  after  the  manner 
the  African  elephant,  in  turning  up  the  soil  in  search  of  roots  and  tubers. 

With  this  animal,  an  illustration  of  whose  skull  is  given  below,  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  Proboscidians  and  their  ancestors  comes  to  an  abrupt  termination. 


THE  SHORT-FOOTED  UNGULATES. 
SUBORDER  Amblypoda. 

There  are  several  extinct  groups  of  Ungulates  differing  so  markedly  from  the 
living  forms  that  they  cannot  be  included  in  any  of  the  groups  into  which  the 
latter  arc  divided,  and  consequently 
have  to  be  classed  in  groups  by 
themselves. 

The  name  of  Short -footed 
Ungulates  is  applied  to  one  of  these 
groups  which  is  confined  to  the 
Eocene  division  of  the  Tertiary 
period,  and  is  more  developed  in 
the  United  States  than  in  Europe. 
It  is  represented  in  both  con- 
tinents by  the  coryphodons  of  the 
lower  and  middle  Eocene  beds,  and 
in  America  by  the  uintatheres  of 
the  upper  Eocene.  In  these  animals 
the  feet,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on 
p.  152,  were  very  short,  and  were 
each  provided  with  five  toes,  the 
mode  of  walking  being  partly 
plantigrade.  The  molar  teeth  were 
of  the  type  as  shown  in  figure  on 
the  next  page,  having  short  crowns 
and  the  ridges  arranged  in  a 
V-shape  in  those  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  two  bones  in  the  fore-arm,  as  well  an 
those  in  the  lower  leg,  were  quite  distinct  from  one  another. 

The  coryphodons  were  animals  which  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  bear,  and 
possessed  the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four  teeth,  with  the  tusks  (canines)  well 
developed  They  had  no  horn-like  processes  to  the  skull  In  the  fore-feet  (see 
p.  152)  only  the  terminal  bones  of  the  toes  touched  the  ground,  but  in  the  hind 
ones  the  whole  sole  was  applied  to  the  ground,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  bear. 

The  American  uintatheres,  on  the  other  hand,  were  much  larger  animals, 
rivalling  the  Indian  rhinoceros  in  bulk.  Their  skulls  were  provided  with  three 
pairs  of  bony  processes,  which  during  life  were  probably  covered  with  horn ;  and 
the  upper  tusks  were  developed  into  enormous  sabre-like  teeth,  protected  by  a 
descending  flange  on  each  side  of  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw.  There  were  no 
incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  first  premolar  tooth  was  wanting  in  both  jaws, 


56o  UNGULATES 

the  total  number  of  teeth  being  thirty-four.  Both  feet  resembled  the  fore-feet  of  the 
coryphodons  in  general  structure,  and  the  bones  of  the  limbs  approximate  to  those 
of  the  elephants.  The  brain  was  marvellously  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  skull  and  body,  indicating  that  these  animals  must  have  been  of  a  stupid  and 
sluggish  nature.  The  uintatheres  are  evidently  a  specialised  development  of  the 
coryphodon  stock,  which  died  out  with  the  appearance  of  the  former. 

Professor  Cope,  who  considered  that  the  hind-feet  of  the  coryphodon  were  of 
the  same  type  as  the  front  pair,  remarks  that  the  movements  of  this  animal 
"  doubtless  resembled  those  of  the  elephant  in  its  shuffling  and  ambling  gait,  and 
may  have  been  even  more  awkward  from  the  inflexibility  of  the  ankle.  But  in 
compensation  for  the  probable  lack  of  speed,  these  animals  were  most  formidably 
armed  with  tusks.  These  weapons,  particularly  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  were  more 
formidable  than  those  of  the  Carnivora,  and  generally  more  robust."  In  length, 
one  of  the  American  species  was  probably  about  6  feet. 


THE  LEFT  UPPER  CHEEK-TEETH  OF  THE  UINTATHERE  (f  nat.  size).      (From  Marsh.) 

Although  the  uintatheres  have  only  been  known  to  science  for  rather  more 
than  twenty  years,  their  skulls  and  bones  long  ago  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
wandering  Indians,  and  such  squatters  and  trappers  whose  business  led  them  into 
the  district  known  as  the  "Bad  Lands."  On  returning  to  civilisation,  these 
pioneers  brought  news  of  the  skeletons  of  marvellous  monsters  staring  at  them 
from  the  rockbound  canons;  and  at  length  these  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
late  Professor  Leidy,  to  whom  belongs  the  honour  of  having  made  known  these 
strange  creatures  to  a  wondering  world.  Describing  •  the  region  where  these 
remains  occur,  Professor  Marsh  writes  that  bare,  treeless  wastes  of  naked  stone 
rise  here  and  there  into  terraced  ledges  and  strange  tower-like  prominences,  or 
sink  into  hollows  where  the  water  gathers  in  salt  or  bitter  pools.  Under  the 
cloudless  sky,  and  in  the  clear,  dry  atmosphere,  the  extraordinary  colouring  of  the 
rocks  forms,  perhaps,  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  weird  landscape. 


THE  MACRAUCHENIA  AND  ITS  ALLIES. 
SUBORDER  Litopterna. 

South  America  was  the  home  of  numerous  extinct  Ungulates,  quite  unlike 
those  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  and  which,  while  allied  in  some  respects 
to  the  Odd-toed  group,  appear  to  represent  three  distinct  suborders.  Among  these, 


MACRAUCHENIA  AND  ASTRAPOTHERE.  561 

not  the  least  remarkable  was  the  so-called  Macrauchenia,  the  typical  representative 
of  the  suborder  Litopterna.  The  members  of  this  group  are  characterised  by  having 
cheek-teeth  approximating  in  structure  to  those  of  the  European  palaeotheres 
(p.  515),  the  upper  molars  having  their  outer  wall  divided  into  two  distinct  lobes. 
Although  the  long  toes  were  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Odd-toed 
group  of  Ungulates,  and  were  never  more  than  three  in  number,  the  structure  of 
both  the  wrist  and  ankle-joints  were  different.  Thus,  in  place  of  the  component 
bones  of  these  joints  alternating  with  one  another,  they  were  arranged  directly  one 
above  another,  after  the  so-called  linear  type  characterising  the  modern  elephants 
(see  p.  528).  The  huckle-bone,  or  astragalus,  of  the  ankle  resembles  that  of  the 
Odd-toed  group  in  being  grooved  superiorly;  but  the  heel-bone,  or  calcaneum, 
differed  in  having  a  small  surface  for  the  articulation  of  the  fibula,  or  smaller  bone 
of  the  leg,  as  in  the  Even-toed  group.  The  long  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  although 
showing  the  same  flat  terminal  ends  characterising  the  allied  extinct  South 
American  groups,  are  peculiar  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  canal  for  the  great 
artery  of  the  neck,  and  in  this  respect  agree  with  the  camels  and  llamas  alone 
among  living  Ungulates.  The  thigh-bone,  or  femur,  has  a  small  third  trochanter 
representing  the  larger  one  characteristic  of  the  Odd-toed  group.  In  build,  the 
members  of  the  present  group  were  tall,  slender  Ungulates,  with  long  legs,  feet, 
and  neck ;  and  thus  very  different  in  appearance  from  the  under-mentioned 
toxodonts,  which  were  short-limbed,  short-necked,  and  heavily-built  creatures. 

The  Litopterna  are  divisible  into  two  families,  of  which  the  first  (Macrau- 
cheniidce)  is  represented  by  the  macrauchenia  and  certain  allied  forms,  and  is 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  forty-four  teeth,  forming  an  uninterrupted  series 
in  the  jaws.  Macrauchenia  itself,  which  was  discovered  by  Darwin  in  the  super- 
ficial deposits  of  Patagonia,  was  an  animal  somewhat  larger  than  a  horse,  presenting 
the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  having  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  in  the  skull 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead ;  although  during  life  it  is  probable  that  they 
terminated  in  a  short  trunk.  In  the  lower,  or  Miocene  Tertiaries  of  Patagonia  the 
family  was  represented  by  smaller  and  less  specialised  forms  (such  as  Oxyodonto- 
therium),  in  which  the  nostrils  were  more  normal  in  position,  and  the  crowns  of 
the  molar  teeth  lower  and  simpler. 

In  the  second  family,  or  Proterotheriidce,  represented  principally  in  the  lower 
Patagonian  Tertiary  deposits,  the  teeth  were  reduced  in  number,  and  formed  an 
interrupted  series,  a  pair  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  being  much  longer  than 
the  rest.  In  these  proterotheres  the  molar  teeth  had  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  palseotheres ;  but  the  feet  were  of  the  general  type  of  those  of  the 
three-toed  horses,  or  hipparions,  and  in  some  cases  it  appears  that  only  the  middle 
toe  was  functionally  developed. 

THE   ASTRAPOTHERES  AND  THEIR   KlN. 
SUBORDER  Astrapotheria. 

In  this  second  South  American  group,  represented  only  in  the  Miocene  deposits 
of  Patagonia,  all  the  species  are  of  large  size,  and  possess  rooted  cheek-teeth  of  a 

VOL.   II. 36 


562 


UNGULATES. 


rhinocerotic  type,  and  lacking  the  marked  curvature  of  the  crown  characterising 
those  of  the  toxodonts.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  comparatively  short,  with 
flattened  articular  surfaces,  and  the  lateral  canal  piercing  the  transverse  process  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  The  wrist  and  ankle-joints  were  probably  of  the  linear 
type ;  the  calcaneum  articulated  largely  with  the  fibula ;  and  the  astragalus  was 
quite  flat,  and  furnished  with  a  large  head  for  articulation  with  the  navicular  bone. 
The  femur,  when  known,  had  a  large  third  trochanter. 

In  both  families  the  upper  cheek-teeth  were  of  a  rhinocerotic  type  of  structure, 
having  a  continuous  external  wall  undivided  into  lobes.  The  group  is  widely 
distinguished  from  the  Amblypoda  by  the  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth,  and  not 
improbably  by  the  number  of  digits  having  been  three  in  place  of  five.  It  is, 
however,  decidedly  the  most  generalised  of  the  three  South  American  extinct 
suborders,  as  is  especially  shown  by  the  flattened  astragalus.  The  remarkable 

similarity  of  the  molars  of 
Astrapotherium  to  those  of 
rhinoceroses  must  probably 
be  considered  as  largely  due 
to  parallelism,  since  the 
structure  of  the  ankle  in 
the  allied  Homalodonto- 
therium  indicates  that  the 
group  diverged  from  the 
common  ancestor  before  the 
modern  Odd-toed  Ungulates 
had  acquired  their  charac- 
teristic foot-structure. 

In  the  homalodonto- 
there,  representing  the  first 
family,  the  teeth,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figure, 
comprise  the  full  number  of 

ci'  294>  m!>  and  have 
no  gap;  the  canines  being 
rooted  and  of  relatively 
small  size,  and  the  molars 
with  comparatively  short 
crowns.  The  upper  pre- 
molars  are  nearly  as  complex  as  the  molars;  and  the  third  upper  molar  is  not 
very  markedly  different  from  the  two  preceding  teeth.  The  lower  molars  are 
in  the  form  of  double  crescents,  of  which  the  anterior  develops  a  loop  like 
that  found  in  the  horses.  It  is  stated  that  the  toes  terminated  in  claws.  The 
one  known  species  of  the  genus  was  an  animal  of  the  approximate  size  of  the 
Sumatran  rhinoceros. 

The  gigantic  astrapothere,  which  alone  represents  the  second  family,  differs 
from  the  last  genus  by  the  more  specialised  and  reduced  dentition,  the  enlarged 
teeth  of  each  jaw  taking  the  form  of  permanently  growing  tusks,  which  are  worn 


PALATE  OF  THE   HOMALODONTOTHERE,  WANTING  SOME   OF  THE 

FRONT  TEETH  (much  reduced). 


ASTRAPOTHERE. 


563 


in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  pigs.  The  molars  are  more  distinctly 
rhinocerotic  in  structure,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  having  taller  crowns  than  those  of 
the  homalodontothere,  with  a  large  posterior  valley,  and  a  well-developed  projection 
in  the  middle  valley.  The  last  of  the  series  has  the  same  triangular  form  as  in 
the  majority  of  species  of  rhinoceros ;  while  the  premolars  are  simpler  than  the 
molars.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  molars  form  nearly  simple  crescents,  very  similar  to 
those  of  rhinoceroses,  but  the  hinder  crescent  of  the  third  of  the  series  is  more 
elongated. 

The  dentition  may  apparently  be  represented  by  the  formula,  i%,  c$,  p\ ,  m§  ; 
the  premolars  being  separated  from  the  incisors  or  canines  by  a  long  gap. 

The  front  of  the  apex  of  the  upper  tusk  is  worn  to  an  oblique  facet  by  the 
attrition  of  the  lower  canine.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  tusk  is  considerably  smaller 


LOWER  JAW  OF  THE  ASTRAPOTHERE  (much  reduced). 


than  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  is  still  triangular  in  section,  although  with  the  sharp 
edge  in  front.  The  inner  surface  is  concave  anteriorly  and  convex  posteriorly ; 
while  the  outer  one  is  wholly  convex,  and  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  small 
hinder  surface.  The  extremity  of  the  latter  is  worn  into  a  long  oblique  facet,  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  corresponding  tooth  of  a  peccary.  The  six  lower 
incisors  are  inclined  forwards,  and  arranged  in  a  circle  so  as  to  fill  up  the  interval 
between  the  tusks.  Their  crowns,  which,  vary  in  shape  in  the  two  species  of  the 
genus,  are  short  and  spatulate,  with  the  upper  surface  slightly  concave,  and  the 
lower  one  convex;  a  deep  longitudinal  groove  traversing  the  middle  of  each  of 
these  two  surfaces,  and  uniting  in  a  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  unworn  crown. 
The  lower  cheek-teeth  call  for  no  special  remark,  as  they  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  rhinoceroses.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  tusks  certainly  correspond  to  the 
canines ;  and  it  would  appear  at  first  sight  that  the  same  would  hold  good  with 
those  of  the  upper  jaw,  but  from  the  analogy  of  the  proterothere  it  is  more  prob- 
able that  the  latter  really  belong  to  the  incisor  seriea 


564 


UNGULATES, 


TOXODONTS.  565 

THE  TOXODONTS. 
SUBORDER  Toxodontia. 

The  toxodonts  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  more  or  less  aberrant  Ungulates 
with  tall-crowned  and  curved  cheek-teeth,  some  or  all  of  which  grow  from 
persistent  pulps,  either  permanently  or  during  life;  while  at  least  one  pair  of 
incisors  in  each  jaw  are  rootless,  and  the  third  upper  incisor,  when  present,  is 
placed  in  the  line  of  the  cheek-teeth.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  short,  with 
flattened  articular  faces  to  the  bodies,  and  the  vertebral  artery  piercing  the 
transverse  process  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The  wrist  (when  known)  is  of  the 
alternating  type,  while  the  ankle-joint  is  formed  on  the  linear  plan.  The  astragalus 
is  slightly  grooved  on  its  superior  face,  and  inferioiiy  is  like  that  of  the  Odd-toed 
group,  having  no  head  for  the  navicular ;  but  the  calcaneum,  which  is  truncated 
inferiorly,  has  a  large  articular  surface  for  the  fibula,  as  in  the  Even-toed  section. 
The  number  of  toes  varies  from  five  to  three ;  the  middle  one  being  larger  than 
either  of  the  others,  and  symmetrical  in  itself.  The  femur  may  or  may  not  have  a 
third  trochanter.  The  number  of  trunk-vertebrae  in  the  typical  genus  is  twenty, 
or  intermediate  between  that  of  the  Even  and  Odd-toed  groups.  In  form  the 
cheek-teeth  of  the  less  specialised  forms  approximate  to  the  Odd-toed  plan  of 
structure ;  and  in  all  the  genera  the  enamel  is  most  developed  on,  or  even  confined 
to,  the  outer  sides  of  the  cheek-teeth,  although  there  may  be  vertical  bands  on  some 
of  the  other  surfaces.  More  specialised  in  the  structure  of  the  feet  and  teeth  than 
the  last  group,  phylogenetically  the  toxodonts  may  apparently  be  regarded  as 
related  to  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates,  but  as  retaining  certain  features  now  common 
to  the  Even-toed  group,  which  have  probably  been  inherited  from  common 
ancestors. 

While,  as  aforesaid,  the  more  generalised  members  of  the  suborder  approximate 
in  the  structure  of  their  teeth  and  feet  to  the  Odd-toed  group,  the  specialised  forms 
assume  a  more  or  less  Rodent-like  type  of  dentition  and  limb-structure,  which 
must  probably  be  regarded  as  an  instance  of  parallelism.  It  may  be  added  that, 
from  the  retention  of  clavicles,  these  Rodent-like  types  must  be  derived  from  some 
form  less  specialised  than  toxodon,  in  which  those  bones  have  disappeared. 

The  toxodon  was  of  the  size  of  a  large  rhinoceros,  and  characterised  by  the 
long  and  curved  crowns  of  its  molar  teeth,  which  continued  to  grow  throughout 
life.  There  were  only  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  and  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw, 
although  in  the  lower  jaw  the  full  number  of  these  teeth  were  developed.  The  feet 
were  furnished  with  three  toes. 

This  genus  occurs  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  Argentina,  but  is  replaced  in 
the  Miocene  Tertiaries  of  Patagonia  by  certain  allied  forms  known  as  nesodons, 
which  may  be  briefly  defined  as  including  toxodonts  of  medium  or  small  size,  in 
which  the  limbs,  and  probably  also  the  neck,  were  relatively  longer  and  more 
slender  than  in  the  typical  genus ;  while  all  the  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the 
second  upper  and  third  lower  incisors  developed  roots  in  the  adult  state,  and  the 
upper  molars  were  of  a  type  approaching  that  of  the  Odd-toed  group,  with  a 
distinct  posterior  valley,  and  the  middle  column  forming  a  distinct  lobe  projecting 


566 


UNGULATES. 


into  the  median  valley.     The  second  upper  and  the  third  lower  incisors  formed  a 

pair  of  permanently  growing  tusks,  which  were,  however,  not  fully  developed  till 

late  in  life. 

Even  more  strange  than  the  toxodon  was  the  smaller  typothere  of  the  same 

region,  which  represents  a  remarkable  approximation  in  the  characters  of  its  skull 

and  teeth  to  the  Rodents.  While  the 
molars  were  not  unlike  those  of  the 
toxodon,  the  upper  incisors  were 
reduced  to  a  single  chisel -shaped  pair, 
and  there  were  no  tusks  in  either 
jaw.  The  lower  jaw  carried  one  large 
pair  of  chisel -like  incisor  teeth, 
behind  which  there  came  a  much 
smaller  second  pair.  The  typothere 
differed  from  all  living  Ungulates,  and 
thereby  again  resembled  Rodents,  in 
having  collar-bones  (clavicles). 

Finally,  certain  animals  from 
the  Eocene  of  North  America,  known 
as  tillodonts,  seem  to  combine  the 
characters  of  the  modern  Ungulates, 
Carnivores,  and  Rodents,  and  thus 
almost  defy  classification. 

The  occurrence  of  all  these 
remarkable  Ungulates,  so  utterly 
different  from  those  of  all  other 
parts  of  the  world,  indicates  that 
during  the  Miocene  period  South 
America,  with  its  many  peculiar 
types  of  Edentates,  must  have  been 


UNDER-SURFACE  OP  SKULL  OF  THE  NESODON  (J  nat.  size). 


completely  cut  off  from  the  northern 
half  of  the  continent.      During  the 

later  Pleistocene  period,  the  two  areas  must,  however,  have  become  connected, 
since  at  that  epoch  we  first  meet  with  horses,  deer,  llamas,  and  other  northern 
types  in  South  America;  while  some  southern  forms  obtained  an  entrance  into 
North  America. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS, — Order  SIRENIA. 

THE  purely  aquatic  mammals  known  as  manatis  and  dugongs,  together  with  the 
northern  sea-cow,  which  has  become  extinct  within  the  last  century  and  a  half, 
constitute  an  order  by  themselves,  and  may  be  collectively  known  as  Sirenians. 
Although  they  are  as  well  fitted  for  an  aquatic  life  as  the  Cetaceans,  these  animals 
have  no  sort  of  relationship  with  the  members  of  that  order,  and  have  evidently 
been  derived  quite  independently  from  terrestrial  mammals.  Such  resemblances 
as  do  exist  between  Sirenians  and  Cetaceans  are  entirely  of  an  adaptive  nature,  and 
have  been  produced  merely  by  the  two  groups  of  animals  leading  a  somewhat 
similar  mode  of  life. 

Characteristics  Although  the  existing  Sirenians  resemble  the  Cetaceans  in  having 

their  fore-limbs  converted  into  flippers,  and  having  lost  all  traces  of 
the  hind -limbs,  while  the  tail  is  converted  into  a  horizontally-expanded  rudder- 
like  organ,  comparable  to  the  flukes  of  the  whales  and  dolphins,  their  general 
conformation  is  very  different.  In  the  first  place,  although  the  body  is  somewhat 
cetacean-like,  without  any  well-defined  neck  and  with  no  distinction  between 
trunk  and  tail,  it  is  markedly  depressed,  instead  of  being  more  or  less  com- 
pressed from  side  to  side.  Then,  again,  the  head  departs  but  little  from  the 
ordinary  mammalian  type,  being  comparatively  small  in  proportion  to  the  body, 
with  the  summit  rounded,  and  the  nostrils,  which  are  double  and  capable  of 
being  closed  at  will  by  valve-like  flaps,  placed  above  the  extremity  of  the 
abruptly-truncated  muzzle.  The  back-fin,  so  commonly  present  in  the  Cetaceans, 
is  totally  wanting.  In  the  flippers,  although  the  whole  of  the  toes  are  enclosed 
in  a  paddle-shaped  mass  of  integument,  traces  of  nails  are  still  in  some  cases 
retained.  The  eyes  are  small,  with  imperfectly-developed  lids,  and  the  minute 
aperture  of  the  ear  is  unprovided  with  any  external  conch.  The  mouth  is  small, 
with  thick,  fleshy  lips,  upon  which  grow  a  number  of  bristly  hairs,  which 
persist  throughout  life.  The  skin  is  thick,  and  either  finely  wrinkled  or  rugged 
and  bark-like,  sometimes  with  fine  hairs  thinly  distributed  upon  it.  The  female 
has  a  single  pair  of  teats  placed  on  the  breast.  The  teeth  are  very  variable,  being 
totally  wanting  in  the  northern  sea-cow,  while  in  the  other  two  living  genera  they 
consist  of  incisors  and  cheek-teeth.  The  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  is,  however, 
very  different  in  the  two  latter,  and  in  one  of  them  their  number  is  much  greater 
than  among  less  aberrant  mammals.  The  living  forms  have  been  recently  discovered 
to  possess  rudimental  milk-teeth,  and  in  some  extinct  species  such  teeth  were  well 
developed.  Certain  extinct  members  of  the  order  were,  moreover,  furnished  with 
a  complete  set  of  teeth,  comparable  to  those  of  ordinary  mammals.  All  the  recent 


568 


MAN  AXIS  AND  DUGONGS. 


SKELETON  OP  MANATI. 


forms  have  horny  plates  on  the  palate  and  on  the  opposing  surface  of  the  lower 
jaw. 

In  the  skeleton,  the  bones  are  distinguished  by  their  solid  and  dense  structure ; 
this  being  especially  noticeable  in  those  of  the  skull  and  in  the  ribs.  The  skull  is 
depressed,  and  has  a  more  or  less  distinctly  deflected  beak-like  snout,  much  flattened 
from  side  to  side.-  It  is  further  characterised  by  the  very  large  size  of  the  aperture 
of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  which  is  somewhat  pear-shaped,  and  placed  relatively 
further  back  than  usual.  In  the  living  forms  the  nasal  bones  were  either 
rudimentary  or  totally  absent ;  but  in  some  of  the  fossil  species  they  were  better 
developed,  and  partially  roofed  over  the  nasal  cavity  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
This  abortion  of  the  nasal  bones  in  both  the  Sirenians  and  Cetaceans  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  necessity  for  a  large  nasal  aperture  in  the  skull,  owing  to  the  peculi- 
arities in  the  respiration  of  these  animals.  The  vertebrae  are  peculiar  in  that  during 
the  young  state  they 
do  not  show  separate 
plate -like  ossifications 
at  each  end  of  their 
bodies,  like  those 
developed  in  other 
mammals.  Rudiments 
of  these  so-called 
epiphyses  have,  how- 
ever, been  shown  to 

exist  in  the  extremely  young  state ;  and  they  were  more  fully  developed  in  certain 
extinct  forms.  As  in  Cetaceans,  none  of  the  vertebras  in  the  hinder  region  of  the 
trunk  unite  to  form  a  sacrum ;  and  it  is  evident  that  a  solid  immovable  structure 
in  this  part  of  the  backbone  would  be  not  only  a  serious  disadvantage  to  a  swim- 
ming animal,  but  likewise  of  no  possible  use  to  one  which  has  no  hind-limbs  to 
support.  Sirenians  resemble  Ungulates  in  having  no  collar-bones.  In  the  fore-limb 
the  upper  bone,  or  humerus,  is  of  considerable  length,  and  differs  from  that  of  the 
Cetaceans  in  having  distinct  pulley-like  surfaces  at  its  lower  end  for  the  articu- 
lation of  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  (radius  and  ulna),  thus  permitting  of  a  certain 
amount  of  free  motion  at  the  elbow-joint.  The  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  are, 
however,  generally  united  at  the  lower  end.  The  number  of  the  digits  is  five,  and 
none  of  these  contains  more  than  the  ordinary  number  of  three  joints,  in  addition 
to  the  metacarpus.  None  of  the  recent  Sirenians  shows  any  trace  of  the  hind-limb, 
although  the  pelvis  is  represented  by  a  pair  of  splint-like  bones ;  but  in  some  fossil 
forms  there  was  a  rudimentary  thigh-bone,  or  femur. 

There  are  several  peculiarities  connected  with  the  soft  internal  parts ;  but  it  will 
suffice  to  mention  here  that  the  lungs  are  extremely  long  and  narrow,  extending 
beneath  the  backbone  nearly  as  far  back  as  the  last  rib.  To  permit  of  this  back- 
ward extension,  the  midriff",  or  diaphragm,  is  placed  very  obliquely.  The  larger 
arteries  of  the  body  form  peculiar  net-like  expansions  in  certain  regions,  which 
render  the  animals  able  to  remain  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  for  a  longer 
period  than  would  otherwise  be  possible,  as  partly  oxygenated  blood  can  be  retained 
for  some  time  in  these  structures  before  it  is  passed  through  the  heart. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERS.  569 

Although  the  manatis  and  dugongs  never  leave  the  water,  and 
are  as  well  adapted  for  an  aquatic  life  as  the  Cetaceans,  yet  they 
cannot  swim  in  the  rapid  manner  characteristic  of  many  of  the  latter,  and  are 
never  found  inhabiting  the  open  sea.  On  the  contrary,  they  frequent  shallow  seas 
and  bays,  lagoons,  estuaries,  and  large  rivers.  As  regards  their  food,  these  animals 
are  entirely  herbivorous ;  browsing  upon  sea- weeds  or  other  aquatic  plants  growing 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  slow  and  sluggish  in  their  movements, 
while  in  disposition  they  are  harmless  and  inoffensive,  and  appear  to  be  endowed 
with  but  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  intelligence. 

Both  dugongs  and  manatis  produce  but  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  which  is 
attended  with  assiduous  care  by  its  parent.  When  suckling,  the  females  raise  their 
heads  and  breasts  above  the  water,  and  exhibit  the  young  clinging  to  them,  and 
partially  supported  by  their  flippers ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  this 
habit  has  given  origin  to  the  legendary  mermaid.  In  describing  the  clugong,  Sir 
Emerson  Tennent  wrote  as  follows  concerning  this  point : — "  The  rude  approach 
to  the  human  outline  observed  in  the  shape  of  the  head  of  this  creature,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  mother  when  suckling  her  young,  clasping  it  to  her  breast  with  one 
flipper,  while  swimming  with  the  other,  holding  the  heads  of  both  above  water ; 
and  when  disturbed,  suddenly  diving  and  displaying  her  fish-like  tail, — these, 
together  with  her  habitual  demonstrations  of  strong  maternal  affection,  probably 
gave  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  mermaid ;  and  thus  that  earliest  invention  of  mythical 
physiology  may  be  traced  to  the  Arab  seamen  and  the  Greeks,  who  had  watched 
the  movements  of  the  dugong  in  the  waters  of  Manaar.  Megasthenes  records  the 
existence  of  a  creature  in  the  ocean  near  Taprobane  [Ceylon],  with  the  aspect  of  a 
woman ;  and  ^Elian,  adopting  and  enlarging  upon  his  information,  peoples  the  seas 
of  Ceylon  with  fishes  having  the  heads  of  lions,  panthers,  and  rams,  and,  stranger 
still,  Cetaceans  in  the  form  of  satyrs.  Statements  such  as  these  must  have  had 
their  origin  in  the  hairs  which  are  set  round  the  mouth  of  the  dugong,  somewhat 
resembling  a  beard,  which  JElian  and  Megasthenes  both  particularise  from  their 
resemblance  to  the  hairs  of  a  woman."  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  mermaids 
was  firmly  credited  by  the  early  Portugese  and  Dutch  voyagers  to  the  East. 

The  living  members  of  the  order,  which  generally  associate  in 
Distribution.    gmall  ^^  frequent  the  coasts  an(j  iarger  rivers  on  both  sides  of  the 

Atlantic,  and  also  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean,  parts  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  Australia.  The  northern  sea-cow  was,  however,  an  inhabitant  of  the 
cold  regions  of  Behring  Sea ;  and  during  the  Tertiary  period  Sirenians  were  distri- 
buted over  the  greater  part  of  the  globe.  The  group  is,  therefore,  evidently  a 
waning  one.  From  their  herbivorous  habits  and  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth 
the  suggestion  naturally  arises  that  the  Sirenians  are  connected  with  the  Ungulates; 
and  the  resemblances  of  their  teeth  are  nearer  to  the  Even-toed  than  to  the  Odd-toed 
section  of  that  order.  The  retention  of  five  toes  by  the  Sirenians  seems,  however,  to 
indicate  that  if  they  are  really  connected  with  the  Ungulates,  they  must  have 
diverged  from  that  group  at  a  very  early  period  of  its  existence. 

It  has  been  very  generally  considered  that  each  of  the  three 

Classification.   genera  of  girenians  that  have  existed  during  the  historic  period  is 

entitled  to  constitute  a  family  by  itself.     The  whole  are,  however,  so  nearly  allied, 


57° 


MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS. 


and  are  so  closely  connected  by  fossil  forms,  that  it  seems  preferable  to  follow  Mr. 
Blanford  in  regarding  them  as  members  of  a  single  family — the  Halicoridce. 


THE  MANATIS. 
Genus  Manatus. 

The  manatis — so  named  from  the  hand-like  use  of  the  flippers  when  nursing 
the  young — are  characterised  by  the  nostrils  being  situated  at  the  apex  of  the 


AMERICAN   MANATI  (fa  liat.  size). 


muzzle,  by  the  rounded  margin  of  the  expanded  tail,  and  the  usual  presence  of 
three  minute  rudimentary  nails  on  each  of  the  flippers.  In  the  skull,  the  beak  and 
extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  are  comparatively  small,  and  but  very  slightly  bent 
downwards.  The  incisor  teeth  are  rudimentary,  being  concealed  beneath  the  horny 
plates  of  the  mouth,  and  disappearing  before  the  animal  becomes  adult.  The  cheek- 
teeth, of  which  eleven  are  developed  on  each  side  of  the  jaws,  have  squared  crowns, 
with  transverse  ridges,  thus  presenting  some  resemblance  to  the  lower  teeth  of  the 
tapir.  Generally  there  are  seldom  more  than  six  of  these  teeth  in  use  at  the  same 
time  on  one  side  of  each  jaw  ;  the  front  ones  falling  out  before  those  further  back 


MAN  AXIS.  571 

have  come  into  use.  In  the  skeleton  the  manatis  present  the  remarkable  peculiar- 
ity of  having  only  six  vertebra  in  the  neck ;  and  are  thereby  almost  unique  among 
mammals. 

Manatis,  when  full  grown,  attain  a  length  of  about  8  feet.  Their  dark,  greyish 
coloured  skin  is  marked  by  a  number  of  fine  wrinkles ;  and,  at  least  in  the  young 
condition,  is  covered  with  a  number  of  very  fine,  sparsely-distributed  hairs. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  features  connected  with  the  manatis  is  to  be  found  in 
the  conformation  of  the  mouth.  On  this  point  the  late  Professor  Garrod  observes 
that  "  the  upper  lip  is  prehensile ;  in  other  words,  the  animal  is  able,  by  its  unaided 
means,  to  introduce  food  placed  before  it  into  the  mouth  without  the  assistance  of 
the  comparatively  insignificant  lower  lip."  The  front  of  the  muzzle  of  the  manati 
is  of  a  triangular  form,  with  the  apex,  in  which  are  situated  the  nostrils,  upwards. 
The  lower  border  of  this  triangle  is  bounded  by  two  rounded  fleshy  pads,  forming 
the  angles  of  the  upper  lip.  These  lip-pads  can  be  either  approximated  to  one 
another,  or  widely  separated,  at  the  will  of  their  owner.  "  When  the  animal," 
writes  Professor  Garrod,  "  is  on  the  point  of  seizing,  say  a  leaf  of  lettuce,  the  pads 
are  diverged  transversely  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  median  gap  of  considerable 
breadth.  Directly  the  leaf  is  within  grasp,  the  lip-pads  are  approximated,  the  leaf 
is  firmly  seized  between  their  contiguous  bristly  surfaces,  and  then  drawn  inwards 
by  a  backward  movement  of  the  lower  margin  of  the  lip  as  a  whole.  The  ap- 
pearance produced  by  the  movements  of  this  peculiar  organ  is  very  much  the  same 
as  that  of  the  mouth  in  the  silkworm  and  other  caterpillars  whilst  devouring  a  leaf, 
the  jaws  in  these  insects  diverging  and  converging  laterally,  in  a  very  similar 
manner  during  mastication."  In  regard  to  the  mechanism  for  closing  the  nostrils 
during  submersion,  the  same  writer  adds  that  "  these  circular  orifices  have  each  a 
flap- valve,  which  forms  the  floor  or  inferior  wall  of  the  nasal  tubes  when  the  animal 
is  breathing,  but  which  rises  and  completely  occludes  it  when  closed." 
Distribution  Manatis  are  found  in  the  rivers  and  on  the  coasts  of  the  two 

and  Number  of  sides  of  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Atlantic ;  but  are  mainly  fluvia- 
Species.  ^ile,  ascending  the  larger  rivers,  such  as  the  Amazon,  almost  to  their 
sources.  There  appear  to  be  three  well-defined  species,  namely,  the  American 
manati  (M.  americanus),  the  African  manati  (M.  senegalensis),  readily  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  the  characters  of  the  skull,  and  the  nailless  manati  (M. 
inunguis),  from  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco. 

Owing  to  the  constant  persecution  for  the  sake  of  their  oil  and 
hides,  manatis  have  been  of  late  years  much  diminished  in  numbers, 
and  in  most  accessible  districts  they  are  now  becoming  comparatively  scarce  animals. 
Their  general  habits  are  those  noticed  under  the  head  of  the  order ;  but  some  more 
minute  observations,  which  have  been  gathered  from  captive  specimens,  may  be 
noticed  in  detail.  The  first  living  manati  brought  to  England  was  received  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  early  in  August  1875,  but  did  not  long  survive ;  and  a  second 
specimen  was  obtained  in  March  1889.  A  third  lived  in  the  Brighton  Aquarium  for 
upwards  of  sixteen  months.  All  these  animals  were  fed  chiefly  upon  lettuce, 
although  they  would  also  eat  other  vegetables.  The  following  observations  were 
made  by  Professor  Garrod  on  the  one  first  acquired  by  the  Zoological  Society  :— 
"Looking  at  the  living  animal  generally,  the  most  striking  peculiarity  was  the 


572  MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS. 

sluggishness  of  its  movements,  when  crossing  its  pond  there  was  none  of  the  lateral 
movement  of  the  body  so  characteristic  of  the  seals.  All  flexions  were  up  and  down, 
the  whole  trunk  bending  a  little  in  that  direction,  the  base  of  the  tail  doing  so 
freely  at  a  clearly-marked  transverse  fold-line  in  that  region.  An  opportunity 
occurred  for  seeing  it  out  of  water,  when  its  pond  was  drained  dry  for  a  short  time, 
From  my  observations  on  this  occasion,  it  was  perfectly  evident  that  the  manati  is 
purely  aquatic  in  habits,  and  that  it  never  willingly  quits  the  water.  When  on 
land,  it  seemed  perfectly  unable  to  advance  or  recede,  the  only  movements  it 
performed  being  that  from  its  belly  to  its  back,  and  vice  versa.  The  power  of 
moving  the  slightly  exserted  elbow  was  considerable,  whilst  that  of  the  wrist  was 
small  but  apparent.  It  used  its  limbs  much  more  freely  than  do  the  seals,  some- 
times employing  the  extreme  margins  of  the  paddles  to  assist  in  introducing  food 
into  its  mouth,  at  others  employing  them  in  progression  along  the  bottom  of  the 
pond,  during  which  time  the  swimming  tail  could  not  be  brought  into  play  to  any 
extent." 

Beyond  the  fact  that  only  a  single  young  is  produced  at  a  time,  there  appears 
to  be  no  accurate  observations  as  to  the  breeding-habits  of  the  manati ;  neither  are 
we  acquainted  with  the  length  of  time  these  animals  can  remain  submerged. 

The  flesh  of  the  manati,  which  is  very  light  in  colour,  is  eaten  by  the  natives 
of  the  Amazon  region,  and  is  compared  by  Bates  to  pork.  The  fat  is  reported, 
however,  to  have  a  disagreeable  flavour. 


THE  DUGONG. 

Genus  Hdlicore. 

The  dugong,  or  as  it  should  properly  be  termed,  from  its  Malayan  name,  duyong, 
is  a  very  different  animal,  both  externally  and  as  regards  the  structure  of  its  skull 
and  teeth,  from  the  manati.  Externally,  it  is  characterised  by  the  nostrils  being 
situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  muzzle,  by  the  tail  being  crescent-shaped  and 
concave  posteriorly,  and  by  the  total  absence  of  any  trace  of  nails  on  the  flippers. 
The  skull  is  characterised  by  the  great  thickness  and  massiveness  of  the  beak  and 
the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw,  both  of  which  are  sharply  bent  down,  so  as  to  form 
almost  a  right  angle  with  the  long  axis  of  the  skull.  The  teeth  grow  throughout 
life ;  and  in  the  adult  state  comprise  a  pair  of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  five 
molars  on  each  side  of  both  jaws.  In  the  females,  the  incisors  are  small  and  do  not 
pierce  the  gum,  but  in  the  males  they  assume  the  form  of  rather  large  and  nearly 
straight  tusks,  which  are  partially  coated  with  enamel,  and  are  directed  downwards. 
The  molars  are  cylindrical  in  form,  the  last  in  each  jaw  being  more  complex  than 
the  others,  and  looking  as  if  it  were  composed  of  two  cylinders  joined  together. 
These  teeth  have  no  enamel ;  and,  as  in  the  manati,  some  of  the  front  ones  are  shed 
before  those  behind  come  into  use.  There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  molar 
teeth  of  the  dugong  present  one  step  in  the  process  of  degeneration  which  has 
resulted  in  their  complete  disappearance  in  the  northern  sea-cow.  In  colour,  the 
dugong  is  either  uniformly  bluish  grey,  or  the  under-parts  may  have  a  more  or  less 
distinct  whitish  tinge.  The  normal  length  attained  by  these  animals  varies  from 


DUGONGS. 


573 


In  a  specimen  o£ 


5  to  7  feet,  but  they  occasionally  measure  from  8  to  9  feet. 

feet  in  length,  the  maximum  girth  was  6  feet. 

Distribution.  Diigcmgs  are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  for  about 

fifteen  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  Equator,  from  East  Africa  to 

Australia,  and  likewise  around  the  Red  Sea.     They  are  not  uncommon  on  parts  of 

the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  and  around  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands.     Although  it 

has  been  considered  that  the  dugong  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  also  the  one  found  on  the 


Habits. 


THE  DUGONO  (A  nat.  size). 

Australian   coasts,   are   specifically  distinct   from   the   Indian   dugong  (Halicore 
dugong),  this  is  extremely  doubtful. 

Except  that  it  is  a  marine  animal,  never  ascending  rivers,  and 
feeding  chiefly  upon  seaweed,  the  dugong  appears  to  be  very  similar 
in  its  general  mode  of  life  to  the  manati.  Formerly,  these  animals  are  reported  to 
have  been  found  in  large  herds,  comprising  several  hundreds  of  individuals,  and  to 
have  been  so  fearless  of  man  that  they  would  allow  themselves  to  be  touched  with 
the  hand.  Now,  however,  they  are  only  to  be  met  with  in  twos  or  threes,  or  small 
parties ;  and  they  have  become  very  shy  and  wary.  Dugong-fishing  is  practised  as 
a  regular  industry  on  the  Australian  coast ;  the  clear,  limpid  oil  obtained  from  these 
animals  bearing  a  high  value.  The  flesh  of  the  dugong  is  described  as  being  of 
excellent  quality  and  flavour,  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  The  natives  of  Torres 
Straits,  according  to  the  late  Professor  Moseley,  are  in  the  habit  of  using  dugong 
skulls  and  ribs  for  the  decoration  of  their  huts. 


574  MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS. 

THE  NORTHERN  SEA-COW. 
Genus  Rhytina. 

On  his  return  in  1741  from  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  Alaska,  the  navigator 
Behring  had  the  misfortune  to  be  shipwrecked  on  the  island  which  now  bears  his 
name ;  that  island,  together  with  the  adjacent  Copper 
Island,  constituting  the  Commander  group,  which  lie  in 
Behring  Sea,  at  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles  from 
the  coast  of  Kamschatka.  At  the  time  of  their  involuntary 
sojourn,  Behring  and  his  companions  found  the  shores  of 
these  islands  inhabited  by  a  hitherto  unknown  animal,  evi- 
dently allied  to  the  manati,  but  of  much  greater  dimensions. 
This  creature  was  the  northern  sea-cow  {Rhytina  stelleri), 
then  found  in  vast  numbers  on  the  islands  in  question,  but 
which  within  a  period  of  thirty  years  from  that  date  appears 
to  have  been  totally  exterminated  by  the  hand  of  man. 
Indeed,  had  it  not  been  for  the  fortunate  circumstance  that 
Behring  was  accompanied  by  the  naturalist  Steller,  we 
should  probably  never  even  have  heard  of  the  very  exist- 
ence of  this  animal,  except  through  some  slight  mention 
in  the  accounts  of  certain  contemporary  voyagers.  Unfor- 
tunately, no  skins  and  only  some  imperfect  skeletons  of  the 
animal  appear  to  have  been  preserved  by  the  survivors  of 
Behring's  party ;  but  of  late  years,  a  considerable  number 
of  more  or  less  imperfect  skeletons  have  been  reclaimed 
from  the  frozen  soil  of  the  Commander  Islands. 

This  gigantic  Sirenian  differed  from  all  its  allies  in 
having  no  teeth,  the  functions  of  which  were  performed  by 
the  horny  plates  covering  the  palate  and  opposing  surface 
of  the  lower  jaw.  The  head  was  very  small  in  proportion 
to  the  body ;  and  the  extremities  of  the  jaws  were  some- 
what bent  downwards.  The  tail  was  forked,  after  the 
manner  of  that  of  the  dugong.  The  flippers  were  very 
small  and  truncated,  and  were  covered  with  bristly  hairs. 
Steller  expressly  states  that  there  were  no  bones  in  the 
hand ;  and  it  is  certain  that  none  have  hitherto  been  found. 
The  skin  was  naked,  and  covered  with  a  thick,  rugged  epi- 
dermis, which  was  compared  to  the  bark  of  a  tree ;  in  places 
this  epidermis  was  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  so  tough  that 
it  required  the  use  of  an  axe  to  cut  it.  The  skin,  according 
to  Steller's  description,  was  dark  brown  in  colour,  sometimes 
marked  with  streaks  or  spots  of  white.  A  drawing  of  the  animal  left  by  Waxell, 
the  navigator  of  Behring's  party,  represents  it,  however,  as  being  marked  with 
alternate  dark  and  light  transverse  stripes.  The  skeleton  herewith  figured 
measures  19J  feet  in  length,  which  would  indicate  a  length  of  about  20  feet  in  the 


TERTIARY  SIRENIANS.  575 

living  state ;  but  Steller  states  that  the  animal  sometimes  attained  a  length  of  from 
25  to  30  feet.  The  girth  of  the  body  was  19  or  20  feet ;  and  the  estimated  weight 
8000  Ibs. 

Distribution  and  With  the  exception  of  a  single  rib  from  Altu,  no  remains  of  the 
Habits.  northern  sea-cow  have  been  obtained  elsewhere  than  on  Barren  and 
Copper  Islands.  It  is,  however,  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  such  a  large 
animal  could  always  have  had  such  a  restricted  distribution;  and  it  is  hence 
probable  that,  when  discovered,  this  Sirenian  was  already  on  the  wane,  and  that  the 
Commander  Islands  were  its  last  resorts  from  a  more  extended  distribution.  Not 
the  least  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  this  animal  is  that,  although 
closely  allied  to  the  typical  dugong,  it  should  have  inhabited  such  a  cold  and 
northerly  region. 

At  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  Behring's  party,  the  northern  sea-cow  was 
abundant  in  the  bays  and  river-mouths  of  the  Commander  Islands,  where  it  lived 
in  herds  of  considerable  size.  It  fed  chiefly  on  seaweeds,  and  more  especially  on 
the  tangle  which  grows  so  abundantly  in  the  northern  seas.  It  was  described  as  a 
stupid,  sluggish,  and  comparatively  helpless  animal,  which  was  unable  to  dive,  and 
was  not  unf requently  washed  ashore  by  the  waves.  From  its  inability  to  dive,  it 
was  compelled  to  obtain  its  food  in  shallow  water ;  and  from  being  often  unable  to 
approach  the  shore  during  the  storms  of  winter,  the  animal  was  generally  in  poor 
condition  by  the  spring. 

Within  nine  years  of  its  discovery,  the  northern  sea-cow  was 
I0n'  exterminated  on  Copper  Island;  while  on  Behring  Island  it  had 
become  very  scarce  by  1763,  and  the  last  of  its  race  appears  to  have  been  killed  in 
the  year  1767  or  1768.  .  It  was  long  thought  that  the  creature  was  practically  ex- 
terminated by  Behring's  party  during  their  sojourn  of  ten  months  on  the  island 
named  after  their  leader.  This,  however,  was  not  the  case,  as  they  killed  but  very 
few.  Soon  after  the  return  of  Behring's  crew  to  Kamschatka  several  expeditions 
were  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of  wintering  on  the  Commander  Islands  and  hunt- 
ing fur-bearing  animals ;  the  sea-cows  offering  the  inducement  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  fresh  food.  Ships  sailing  to  Alaska  were  also  in  the  habit  of  touching 
at  these  islands  to  take  in  a  supply  of  salted  sea-cow  meat.  With  such  stupid  and 
helpless  habits  as  characterised  the  animal,  it  is  no  wonder  that  its  complete  extirpa- 
tion was  soon  accomplished.  Generally  the  sea-cow  was  harpooned  from  a  boat ; 
but  by  approaching  stealthily  hunters  were  also  enabled  to  kill  them  with  lances 
as  they  lay  asleep  near  the  shore. 

TERTIARY  SIRENIANS. 

Throughout  a  large  portion  of  the  Tertiary  period  various  species  of  extinct 
Sirenians  were  common  in  Europe,  and  they  have  also  been  sparingly  met  with  in 
England.  The  best  known  of  these  was  the  halithere  (Halitherium),  which  forms 
in  some  respects  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  manati  and  the  dugong. 
It  resembled  the  latter  in  having  the  extremities  of  the  jaws  deflected,  and  in  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  but  its  molar  teeth  were  more  like 
those  of  the  manati,  although  with  a  pattern  recaUing  that  obtaining  on  the  crowns 


576 


MANA.TIS  AND  DUGONGS. 


of  those  of  the  hippopotamus.  The  most  interesting  points  about  this  animal  are 
the  evidences  it  affords  of  being  a  more  generalised  type  than  either  of  its  existing 
allies.  Thus  the  premolar  teeth  had  milk-predecessors,  the  skull  was  furnished 
with  distinct  nasal  bones,  and  there  was  a  rudimentary  hind-limb. 

There  is,  however,  another  extinct  member  of  the  order,  which,  although  unfor- 
tunately known  only  by  the  skull,  presents  indications  of  a  still  closer  affinity  with 
ordinary  mammals.  This  is  the  Prorastoma,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  found 
in  strata,  probably  belonging  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  Eocene  period  in  Jamaica 
and  Italy.  This  creature  had  three  pairs  of  incisors,  and  a  pair  of  canines,  as  well 
as  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  cheek-teeth  in  each,  and  thus  approximated  very  closely 
to  the  ordinary  mammalian  type ;  the  front  and  premolar  teeth  doubtless  having 
milk-predecessors.  Although,  therefore,  we  have  not  at  present  actually  succeeded 
in  tracing  the  origin  of  the  Sirenians  into  terrestrial  mammals,  yet  we  have  been 
able  to  go  such  a  long  way  in  this  direction  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  they  have 
been  so  derived  by  some  evolutionary  process. 


INDEX, 

VOL.  II. 


Addnx,  280. 

itasomaculatus,  280. 
s,  32. 

melanolcucus,  32. 
.•El urns,  36. 

fulgcns,  36. 
s,  299. 

mclampus,  299. 

pelersi,  300. 
jEquitun,  304. 
A  Ices,  375. 

latifroHS,  376. 

machlis,  375. 
Alpaca,  417. 
Amblypoda,  559. 
Ammodm-cas,  295. 

clarkei,  295. 
Amynodon,  486. 
Anchithere,  514. 
Anoa,  207. 
Antelopes,  267. 

Addax,  280. 

American,  325. 

Baker's,  288. 

Beatrix,  284. 

Beisa,  282. 

Beni-Israel,  308. 

Black- Buck,  300. 

Blaubok,  285. 

Blessbok,  324. 

Blue-Buck,  310. 

Bohor,  303. 

Bongo,  275. 

Bontebok,  324. 

Bubaline,  316. 

Chiru,  296. 

Clarke's,  295. 

Duikerbok,  309. 

Elands,  267. 

Equine,  285. 

Fossil,  288. 

Four-Horned,  311. 

Gazelles,  289. 

Gemsbok,  281. 

Gnu,  312. 

Grysbok,  308. 

Guib,  277. 

Harnessed,  275. 

Hartebeests,  316. 

Herota,  322. 

Impala,  299. 

Impofo,  267. 

Indian,  300. 

Kirk's,  309. 

Klipspringer,  306. 
VOL.  Jl.  —  37 


Konzi,  321. 

Korigum,  323. 

Kudus,  273. 

Lichi,  304. 

Madoqua,  310. 

Nagor,  303. 

Nakong,  276. 

Nilgai,  278. 

Nyala,  275. 

Oribi,  307. 

Oryx,  281. 

Pala,  299. 

Philantomba,  310. 

Pigmy,  310. 

Prong-Horned,  325. 

Puku,  304 

Red-Buck,  310. 

Reed-Buck,  302. 

Reitbok,  302. 

Rhebok,  305. 

Roan,  285. 

Roi-Rhebok,  303. 

Royal,  307. 

Sable,  285. 

Sabre-Horned,  284. 

Saiga,  297. 

Salt's,  308 

Sassabi,  323. 

Senegal,  323. 

Sing  Sing,  304. 

Sititunga,  276. 

Springbok,  290. 

Steinboks   307. 

Sunn,  304. 

Tibetan,  296. 

Titel,  316. 

Tora,  320. 

Water- Buck,  303. 

Wildebeests,  312. 

Wood,  311. 

Zebra,  310, 
Aiitilocapra,  325. 

americamt,  325. 
Antilocapridx,,  325. 
Antilope,  300. 

cervicapra,  300. 
Aoudad,  231. 
Aoul,  295. 
Ardoccphalns,  107. 
Arctonyx,  89. 

collaris,  89. 

taxoidcs,  89. 
Arctothere,  34. 
Argalis,  217. 

Mongolian,  217. 


Argalis — continued. 

Tibetan,  217. 
Ami,  231. 
Asses,  508. 

African,  511. 

Asiatic,  508. 

Domestic,  512. 
A  strapvt heria,  561. 
Aswal,  26. 
Aurochs,  161. 
Awuk,  124. 

L'abirusa,  436. 

alfurus,  436. 
Badgers,  84. 

American,  83. 

Chinese,  86. 

Common,  84. 

Fossil,  88. 

Hog,  89. 

Malayan,  88. 

Persian,  86. 

Sand,  89. 

White-Tailed,  86. 
Banting,  181. 
Barusinglia,  360. 
Bassaricyon,  43. 
Bassaris,  42. 

astuta,  42 

sumichrasti,  43. 
Bears,  1. 

American  Black,  18. 

Brown,  9. 

Cave,  25. 

Crowther's,  13. 

Grizzly,  14. 

Himalayan  Black   20. 

Malayan,  24. 

Parti-coloured,  32. 

Polar,  4. 

Sloth,  26. 

Spectacled,  23. 
Beisa,  283. 
Beni-Israel,  308. 
Bhalu,  26. 
Bharal,  231. 
Bighorn,  213. 
Bison,  188. 

American,  191. 

European,  188. 
Black-Buck,  300. 
Slasf.omeryz,  386. 
Blanbok,  285. 
Blessbok,  324. 
Blue-Buck,  310. 


578 


INDEX. 


Bohor,  303. 
Bongo,  275. 
Bontebok,  324. 
Bos,  160. 

acuticoruis,  206. 

acutifrom,  775. 

amcricanus,  191. 

bonassus,  188. 

bubaliis,  204. 

ca/er,  198. 

deprcssicornis,  207. 

ftruscus,  185. 

frontalis,  179. 

gaurus,  175. 

grunniens,  185. 

indicus,  173. 

latifrons,  198. 

mindorensis,  206. 

namadicus,  174. 

occipitalis,  206. 

platyccros,  206. 

pumUus,  202. 

sondaicus,  181. 

taurus,  161. 
Bosch-Varks,  434. 
Boselaphus,  278. 

tragocamelus,  278. 
Bovidae,  151,  157. 
Bramatliere,  337. 
Brock,.  86. 
Brockets,  386. 

Brazilian,  387. 

Ecuador,  387. 

Red,  387. 

Wood,  387. 
Bubalis,  316. 

albifrons,  324. 

cama,  319. 

cookei,  320. 

hunteri,  322. 

jacksoni,  320. 

lichtcnstcini.  321. 

lunata,  323. 

major,  319. 

mauritanica,  316. 

pygargus,  324. 

scnegalcnsis,  323. 

sivaynei,  320. 

<ora,  320. 
Budorcas,  259. 

taxicolor,  259. 
Buffalo,  198. 

Cape,  198. 

Indian,  204. 

Red,  202. 

Short-Horned,  202. 
Bush-Bucks,  275. 

Bongo,  275. 

Guib,  277. 

Nakong,  276. 

Nyala,  275. 

Sititunga,  276. 

West  African,  276. 
Bush-Pigs,  434. 

Cacomistle,  42. 
Camelidx,  402. 
Camels,  402. 

Arabian,  404. 

Bactrian,  410. 
Camclus,  404. 

bactrianus,  410. 


Camelus — continued. 

dromedarius,  404. 
Capra,  234. 

segagrus,  239. 

caucasica,  236. 

cyliiidricornis,  235. 

dorcns,  241. 

falconeri,  250. 

hirciis,  241. 

ife*,  244,  247. 

pyrcnaica,  237. 

severtzowi,  236. 

sibirica,  247. 

siiiaitica,  250. 

walie,  250. 
Caprcolus,  381. 

caprca,  381. 

pygargus,  383. 
Carcajou,  72. 
Cariacus,  384. 

antisicnsis,  387. 

campestris,  387. 

chilensis,  387. 

clavatus,  387. 

columbiamis,  394. 

gymnotis,  393. 

Icucurus,  390. 

macrotis,  393. 

mexicanus.  390. 

nemorivagus,  387. 

palustris,  389. 

nifinus,  387. 

rufus,  387. 

simplicornis,  387. 

virginianus,  389. 
Caribou,  374. 
Cattle,  163. 

Alderney,  169. 

Ayrshire,  169. 

Cadzow,  164. 

Chartley,  164. 

Chillingham,  163. 

Continental,  171. 

Devon,  170. 

Galla,  174. 

Galloway,  168. 

Hereford,  170. 

Highland,  168. 

Humped,  173. 

Indian,  172. 

Jersey,  169. 

Kerry,  168. 

Longhorn,  170. 

Niata,  172. 

Park,  163. 

Polled  Angus,  168. 

Shetland,  167. 

Shorthorn,  170. 

Suffolk,  168. 

Welsh,  168. 
Ccmns,  257. 

ciiierca,  258. 

goral,  257. 

grisea,  258. 
Ccplvalophus,  309. 

abyssinicus,  310. 

doriae,  310. 

grimmi,  310. 

jentinki,  311. 

maxwdli,  310. 

monticola,  310. 

natalensis,  310. 


sylvicultor,  311. 
Cercolcptes,  44. 

caudivolvulus,  44. 
Cvrvicapra,  302. 

arundineum,  302. 

6o/tor,  303. 

lalaiidi,  303. 

redunca,  303. 
Ccrvidee,  338. 
Ccrvulus,  365. 

crinifrons,  368. 

/c«,  367. 

lacrymans,  368. 

muntjac,  366. 

rccvesi,  368. 
Ccrvus,  343. 

ffl/fr/m,  348. 

nlfredi,  359. 

aarts,  353. 

canadensis,  349. 

cashmirianus,  347. 

caspicus,  352. 

dama,  362. 

davidianus,  362. 

duvauceli,  360. 

dybowskii,  352. 

elaphus,  343. 

cWi,  361. 

equinus,  357. 

euslephanus,  348. 

giganteus,  364. 

hippelaphus,  357, 

kashmirianus,  347. 

£wM,  359. 

leudorfi,  348. 

inantehuricus,  352. 

maral,  348. 

mcsopotamicus,  364. 

molucccmis,  359. 

philippinus,  359. 

porcinus,  359. 

rif$,  365. 

schomburgki,  361. 

siJfca,  352. 

taevanus,  352. 

timorensis,  359. 

unicolor,  356. 

xanthopygus,  345. 
Chalicothere,  516. 
Cliamois,  261. 
Chevrotains,  398. 

Indian,  399. 

Malayan,  400. 

Philippine,  401. 

Stanley's,  400. 

Water,  401. 
Chiru,  296. 
Chital,  353. 
Chitra,  353. 
Chcerohyus,  444. 
Chasropotamus,  444. 
Chousingha,  311. 
Coatis,  43. 

Red,  43. 

White-Nosed,  43. 

,  303. 

co&,  304. 

defassa,  304. 

ellipsiprymnus,  303. 

ZccAe,  304. 

leucotis,  304. 


INDEX. 


579 


Cobus — continued. 

vardoni,  304. 
Conepatus,  75. 

mapurilo,  75. 
Connochates,  312. 

gnu,  314. 

tauriiui,  314. 
Coryphodons,  559. 
Couagga,  506. 
Creodonts,  150. 
Cystophwa,  144. 

cristata,  144. 

Deer,  338. 

American,  384. 

Axis,  353. 

Barking,  366. 

Black-Tailed,  394. 

Brocket,  386. 

Caribou,  373 

Caspian,  352. 

Costa  Rica,  377. 

David's,  362. 

Dybowski's,  352. 

Eld's,  361. 

Extinct,  364. 

Fallow,  362. 

Formosan,  352. 

Guazu,  389. 

Guazuti,  387. 

Hog,  359. 

Irish,  364. 

Japanese,  352. 

Kashmir,  347. 

Knlil's,  359. 

Leudorfs,  348. 

Mantchurian,  352. 

Marsh,  389. 

Mexican,  390. 

Michie's,  368. 

Moluccan,  359. 

Moose,  375. 

Mule,  393. 

Mnntjac,  365. 

Musk,  395. 

Naked-Eared,  393. 

Pampas,  387. 

Persian  Fallow,  364. 

Prince  Alfred's,  359. 

Pudu,  395. 

Red,  343. 

Rein,  369. 

Roe,  381. 

Ruffs,  365. 

Sambar,  356. 

Schomburgk's,  361. 

Shou,  348. 

Spotted,  353. 

Swamp,  360. 

Thian  Shan,  348. 

Tibetan,  368. 

Timor,  359. 

Tufted,  368. 

Virginian,  389. 

Wapiti,  349. 

Water,  383. 

White-Tailed,  390. 
Dicotyles,  443. 

labialus,  443. 

tajacu,  443. 
Dicotylidse,  442. 
Dinothere,  558. 


Dinotlicriitlie,  558. 
Dinotherium,  558. 

giganteum,  558. 
Donkeys,  512. 
Dorcatherium,  401. 

aquatieum,  401. 
Dugong,  566,  572. 
Duikerbok,  309. 

Eland,  267. 

Derbian,  273. 
Elaphodus,  368. 

michianus,  368. 

cephalophus,  368. 
Elasmothere,  486. 
KleplMntidse,  522. 
Elephants,  516. 

African,  545. 

Armenian,  543. 

Cliffs,  555. 

Flat-Headed,  555. 

Indian,  528. 

Mammoth,  543. 

Narbada,  554. 

Pigmy,  555. 

Southern,  555. 

Straight-Tusked,  555. 

Stegodont,  555. 

Sutledje,  554. 
Elephant  Seal,  145. 
Elephas,  522. 

africanus,  545. 

antiquus,  555. 

amneniacus,  543. 

columbi,  543. 

ganesa,  555. 

hysudricus,  554. 

indicus,  528. 

tnelitcnsis,  555. 

meridionalis,  555. 

mnaidricnsis,  .555. 

namadicus,  554. 

planifr&ns,  555. 

primigenius,  543. 
Elk,  375. 
Equidte,  486. 
Equus,  488. 

asinus,  511. 

burchelli,  504. 

cabalhis,  491. 

grevyi,  505. 

hemionus,  508. 

prejevahkii,  494. 

quagga,  506. 

zebra,  503. 
Ermine,  64. 

Fallow  Deer,  362. 
Ferret,  61. 
Ferret- Badgers,  80. 

Brown,  80. 

Burmese.  80. 

Chinese,  80. 
Fur-Seals,  106,  122. 

Cape,  123. 

New  Zealand,  123. 

Northern  Sea -Bear,  124. 

South  American,  123. 

Galictis,  47. 

allemandi,  49. 
barbara,  48. 


Galictis — continued. 

vittcda,  49. 
Gaur,  175. 
Gayal,  179. 
Gazella,  289. 

arabica,  293. 

bennetti,  293. 

cuvieri,  293. 

dama,  295. 

dorcas,  292. 

granti,  294. 

gutturosa,  294. 

euchore,  290. 

isabcllina,  293. 

Isevipes,  293. 

leptoceros,  293. 

mohr,  294. 

picticaudata,  294. 

rufifrons,  293. 

spekei,  293. 

scemmerringi,  295. 

subguUurosa,  293. 

thomsoni,  294. 

tilonura,  293. 
Gazelles,  289. 

Arabian,  293. 

Bennett's,  293. 

Black-Tailed,  293. 

Dama,  295. 

Dorcas,  292. 

Grant's,  294. 

Indian,  293. 

Isabelline,  293. 

Korin,  293. 

Mongolian,  294. 

Mountain,  293. 

Persian,  293. 

Small-Horned,  293. 

Speke's,  293. 

Sundevall's,  293. 

Swift,  294. 

Thomson's,  294. 

Tibetan,  294. 

Waller's,  295. 
Gelocus,  402. 
Gemsbok,  281. 
Gemse,  261. 
Gerenuk,  2£5. 
Ghorkar,  509. 
Giraffa,  330. 

camelopardalis,  330. 
Giraffe,  333. 
Giraffidse,  330. 
Glutton,  71. 
Gnu,  313. 
Goa,  294. 
Goats,  234. 

Angora,  243. 

Caucasian,  235. 

Domestic,  241. 

Egyptian,  243. 

Feral,  244. 

Giura,  241. 

Ibex,  244. 

Kashmir,  243. 

Markhor,  250. 

Nilgiri,  254. 

Persian,  239. 

Rocky  Mountain,  260. 

Spanish,  237. 

Spiral-Horned,  250. 

Sudan,  244. 


580 


INDEX. 


Goats — continued. 

Syrian,  243. 
Corals,  257. 

Ashy,  258. 

Grey,  258. 

Long-Tailed,  258. 
Grison,  47. 
Grysbok,  308. 
Guanaco,  414. 
Guemals,  387. 

Chilian,  387. 

Peruvian,  387. 
Guib,  277. 
Gulo,  71. 

luscus,  71. 

Hair-Seals,  107. 

Australian,  115. 

California!!  Sea-Lion,  113. 

Hooker's  Sea-Lion,  115. 

Northern  Sea-Lion,  110. 

Southern  Sea-Lion,  105. 
Halichosrus,  134. 

grypus,  134. 
ffalicore,  572. 

dugong,  573. 
Halicoridw,  570. 
Halitherium,  575. 
Bangui,  347. 
Haploceros,  260. 

montanus,  260. 
Harnessed  Antelopes,  275. 

Bongo,  275. 

Guib,  277. 

Nakong,  276. 

Nyala,  275. 

Sititunga,  276. 

West  African,  276 
Hartebeests,  31 6. 

Bastard,  323. 

Cooke's,  320. 

Extinct,  324. 

Hunter's,  322. 

Jackson's,  320. 

Swayne's,  320. 

True,  319. 

Tunisian,  319. 
ffelictis,  80. 

moschata,  80. 

orientalis,  80. 

personata,  80. 

sabaurantiaca,  80. 
Helladothere,  336. 
Hemicyon,  34. 
Hemitragus,  254. 

hylocrius,  256. 

jemlaicus,  254. 
Herota,  322. 
Hipparion,  487. 
Hippidium,  514. 
Hippopotami,  444. 

Algerian,  453. 

Burmese,  453. 

Common,  446. 

Indian,  453. 

Liberian,  453. 

Madagascar,  453. 

Maltese,  453. 

Narbada,  453. 

Pentland's,  453. 

Pigmy,  453. 

Siwalik,  453. 


Hippopotamidse,  444. 
Hippopotamus,  444. 

amphibius,  446. 

bonariensis,  453. 

iravadicus,  453. 

lemcrlei,  453. 

liberiensis,  453. 

minutus,  453. 

namadicus,  453. 

palteindicus,  453. 

pentlandi,  453. 

sivalensis,  453. 
Hippotragus,  285. 

bakeri,  288. 

equinus,  285. 

leucophseus,  285. 

niger,  285. 
Hog-Deer,  359. 
Hollow-Horned  Ruminants, 

157. 

ffomalodontotherium,  562. 
Hoofed  Mammals,  151. 
Horses,  486. 

American,  500. 

Arab,  497. 

Barb,  497. 

Cart,  501. 

Clydesdale,  502. 

Common,  491. 

Fossil,  514. 

Hunters,  4P9. 

Levant,  498. 

Persian,  498. 

Prejeval ski's,  494. 

Race,  498. 

Shetland  Ponies,  500. 

Shire,  501. 

Siwalik,  514. 

Steno's,  514. 

Suffolk,  503. 

Tarpan,  493. 

Trotters,  500. 
ffyssnarctus   34. 
Hysenodon,  150. 
Hydaspithere,  337. 
Hydropotes,  383. 

inermis,  384. 
Hyomoschus,  401. 
Hyopotamus,  421. 
ffyotherium,  444. 
Hypertraguliis,  402. 
Hyrax,  518. 

Cape,  520. 

Syrian,  521. 

Tree,  521. 
Hyracoidea,  518. 
Hyracothere,  515. 

Ibex,  244. 

Abyssinian,  250. 

Alpine,  247. 

Arabian,  250. 

Egyptian,  250. 

Himalayan,  247. 

Persian,  239. 

Spanish,  237. 
Ictonyx,  78. 

frenata,  79. 

zorilla,  78. 
Impala,  299. 
Impofo,  267. 
Izard,  262. 


151. 


Kabaoba,  480. 
Kakar,  366. 
Kastura,  395. 
Keitloa,  474. 
Kiang,  509. 
Kinkajou,  44. 
Klipspringer,  306 
Konzi,  320. 
Korigum,  323. 
Korin,  293. 
Kudu,  273. 

Lesser,  274. 
Kulan,  509. 

Lama,  412. 

glama,  416. 

guanacus,  414. 

pacos,  417. 

vicunia,  413. 
Latax,  98. 

lutris,  98. 
Leopard-Seal,  142. 
Leptonychotcs,  143. 

weddelli,  143. 
Liby there,  337. 
Lichi,  304. 
Listriodon    444. 
Lithocranius,  295. 

walleri,  295. 
Litopterna,  561. 
Llama,  412. 
Lobodon,  143. 

carcinophaga,  143. 
Lophiodon,  515. 
Liitra,  90. 

brasiliensis,  95. 

canadensis,  94. 

capensis,  97. 

cincrea,  97. 

felina,  96. 

macrodus,  96. 

maculicollis,  97. 

palasindica,  96. 

paranensis,  96. 

sumatrana,  96. 

vulgaris,  91. 

Madoqua,  310. 
Macrauchcnia,  560. 
Macrorhimts,  146. 

leoninus,  146. 
Mammoth,  543. 
Manatis,  567. 

African,  571. 

American,  571. 

Nailless,  571 
Manatus,  570. 

americanus,  571. 

inunguis,  571. 

sciicgalensis,  571. 
Maral,  348. 
Markhor,  250. 

Astor,  250. 

Baltistan,  250. 

Cabul,  250. 

Pir  Panjal,  250. 

Suliman,  250. 
Martens,  50. 

American,  55. 

Beech,  51. 

Fisher,  56. 

Indian,  57. 


INDEX. 


Martens — continued. 
Pine,  50. 

americanus,  558. 

ccutleyi,  556. 

latidens,  558. 

pi' r i tiioisix,  DD<  » 
Mastodons,  556. 

Broad-Toothed,  558. 

Cautley's,  556. 

North  American,  558. 

Old  World,  558. 
Mcles,  84. 

anacuma,  86. 

canescens,  86. 

chinensis,  86. 

leucunis,  86. 

taxus,  84. 
Mellivora,  81. 

capensis,  82. 

indica,  82. 
Melursus,  26. 

ursinus,  26. 
Mephitis,  74. 

inacrura,  75. 

mephitica,  74 

putorius,  75. 
Miacis,  67. 
Mink,  67. 

European,  67. 

Siberian,  67. 
Moholiu,  480. 
Monachua,  141. 

albiventcr,  141. 

tropicalis,  141. 
Moose,  375. 
Morse,  124. 
Moschus,  395. 

moschiferus,  395. 

sifanicus,  397. 
Mouflon,  225. 
Mule,  513. 
Muntjacs,  365. 

Fea's,  367. 

Hairy-Fronted,  368. 

Indian,  366. 

Reeves's,  368. 

Sclater's,  368. 
Musk-Deer,  395. 
Musk-Ox,  208. 
i,  50. 

alpina,  67. 

ifu/i  fieana,  55. 

cathia,  67. 

<•  i- mi  urn,  64. 

evcrsmanni,  59. 
flaviyula,  57. 

frcnata,  67. 
hemachclana,  67. 
larvata,  59. 
fnH'jieauda,  67. 
lutreola,  67. 
martes,  50. 
nigripes,  60. 
pennant  i,  56. 
putorius,  58. 
sarmaticus,  59. 
sibirica,  67. 

t-isow,  67. 
vulgar  is.  62, 


Mustela — continued. 
zibellina,  54. 

,  46. 
Mydaiis,  88. 
Meliccps,  88. 

Nagor,  303. 
Nakong,  276. 
Ji'iiitn/nigiis,  307. 

campestris,  "07. 

niclanotis,  308. 

mwtiauus,  308. 

moschatus,  307. 

pygmmts,  307. 

scoparia,  307. 
Ncmorhoedus,  258. 

bubalinus,  258. 

crispiis,  259. 

sumatreiisis,  259. 

swinhoei,  259 
Neotragus,  308. 

£jTA.»i,  309. 

saltianus,  308. 
Nesodon   564. 
Nilgai,  278. 

Northern  Sea-Cow,  574. 
Nyala,  275. 

Ogmorkinus,  142. 

leptonyx,  142. 
Ommatophoca,  143. 

rossi,  143. 
Onager,  509. 
Oreotrayus,  306. 

saltator,  306. 
,  267. 

Gamut,  269. 

derbianus,  273. 
Oribi,  307. 
Oryx,  281. 

Fringe-Eared,  283. 
On/x,  281. 

beatrix,  284. 

ictsa,  282. 

i-uJlotis,  283. 

gazella,  281. 

leucoryx,  284. 
Otaria,  106. 

australis,  123. 

cinerea,  123. 

forsteri,  123. 

(jillfspei,  113. 

Jwokeri,  115. 

jubata,  108. 

lobala,  115. 

pusUla,  123. 

stdleri,  110. 

ursina,  115, 
<it<n-iidte,  106. 
Otters,  90. 

African,  97.' 

ISra/ilian,  95. 

Clawless,  97. 

European,  91. 

Extinct,  97. 

Feline,  96. 

Hairy- Nosed,  96. 

North  American,  94. 

Sea,  98. 

Smooth  Indian,  96. 

Spotted-Necked,  97. 


Ovibos,  208. 

moschatus,  208. 
Ovis,  212. 

ammon,  217. 

arics,  227. 

blanfordi,  224. 

canadensis,  213. 

ginnlini,  224. 

hodgsoni,  217. 

jubata,,  218. 

karelini,  220. 

musimon,  226. 

nahura,  231. 

niyrimontana,  208. 

nivicola,  213. 

ophion,  224. 

jao/t,  220. 

tragelaphus,  232. 

vignei,  223. 
Oxen,  160. 
Oxyodotitotherium,  561. 

Pal&omeryx,  386. 
I'alieonictis,  150. 
Palteosyops,  516. 
Palseothere,  515. 
Palas,  299. 

Angola,  300. 

Lesser,  300. 
Panda,  36. 
Pantholops,  296. 

hodgsoni.  296. 
Para,  359. 
Park  Cattle,  163. 
Pasang,  239. 
Peccaries,  442. 

Collared,  443. 

White-Lipped,  443. 
,  305. 

capreola,  305. 
Phacochcerus,  439. 

africaniis,  440. 

jwllasi,  440. 
Phenacodus,  515. 
Pliilantomba,  310. 
/Vioca,  130. 

barbata,  140. 

caspica,  140. 

green  land ica,  130. 

hispida,  137. 

*</><  rim,  140. 

ri/nlina,  136. 
Phocidae,  131. 
Pigs,  420. 

Andainan,  429. 

Bush,  434. 

Celebes,  430. 

Ceram,  430. 

Collared,  429. 

Domestic,  430. 

Extinct,  435. 

Formosan,  429. 

Indian,  426. 

Japan,  429. 

Malayan,  429. 

Masked,  433. 

Papuan,  429. 

Pigmy,  429. 

Senaar,  430. 

Titan,  435. 

True,  425. 

Warty.  429. 


582 


INDEX. 


Pigs — continued. 

White-Whiskered,  429. 
Pine- Marten,  50. 
Plesictis,  67. 
Poebrotherium,  419. 
Paecilogale,  70, 

albinueha,  70. 
Polecats,  58. 

Black-Footed,  60. 

Cape,  70. 

Sarmatian,  60. 
Ponies,  500. 

Primitive  Carnivores,  150. 
Proboscidea,  522. 
Procavia,  518. 

abyssinica,  519. 

arborea,  521. 

brucei,  520. 

capensis,  520, 

dorsalis,  521. 

shoana,  520. 

syriaca,  521. 

valida,  521. 
Pi-ocaviidie,  518. 
Procamelus,  419. 
Procyon,  38. 

cancrivorus,  41. 

Zofor,  39. 
Procyonidse,  35. 
Prongbuck,  324. 
Prorastoma,  576. 
Proterotheres,  561, 
Proterothcriidte,  561. 
Prodremotherium,  402. 
Protohippus,  514. 
Pterodon,  150. 
Pudu,  395. 
Piidjta,  395. 

humilis,  395. 
Pnku,  304. 
Putorius,  50. 

Quagga,  506. 

Raccoons,  35,  38. 

Common,  39. 

Crab-Eating,  41. 
Rangifer,  369. 

grcenlandicus,  373. 

tarandus,  369. 
Ratels,  81. 

Cape,  82. 

Indian,  82. 
Red  Buck,  310. 
Reed  Buck,  302. 
Reindeer,  369. 
Reitbok,  302. 
Rhebok,  305. 

Vaal,  305. 
Rhinoceros,  463, 

antiquitatis,  484. 

bicornis,  474. 

deccanensis,  485. 

etruscus,  485. 

karnuliensis,  485. 

lasiotis,  471. 

leptorhinus,  485. 

megarhinus,  485. 

pachygnathus,  479. 

pal&indicus,  470. 

platyrhinus,  484. 

schleiermacheri,  472. 


Rhinoceros — continued. 

simus,  479. 

sivalensis,  470. 

sondaicus,  469. 

sumatrensis,  470. 

unicornis,  465. 
Rhinoceroses,  463. 

African,  473,  474. 

Asiatic,  465. 

Boreli,  474. 

Broad-Nosed,  484. 

Burchell's,  479. 

Deccan,  485. 

Etruscan,  485. 

Extinct,  483. 

Holmwood's,  483. 

Hornless,  485. 

Indian,  465. 

Javan,  469. 

Kabaoba,  480. 

Karnul,  485. 

Keitloa,  474. 

Kulumani,  474. 

Leptorhine,  485. 

Megarhine,  485. 

Moliohu,  480. 

Schleiermacher's,  472. 

Siwalik,  470. 

Square-Mouthed,  479. 

Sumatran,  470. 

Upetyani,  474. 

White,  479. 

Woolly,  484. 
Rhinocerotidfe,  463. 
Rhytina,  574. 

stellcri,  574. 
River-Hog,  435. 
Roan  Antelope,  285. 
Rocky  Mountain  Goat,  260. 
Roe  Deer,  381. 

Tartarian,  383. 
Ruminants,  158. 
Rupicapm,  261. 

tragus,  261. 

Sable,  54. 

Sable  Antelope,  285. 
Saiga,  297. 
,&a</a,  297. 

tartarica,  297. 
Snmbar,  356. 
Samothere,  337. 
Sand-Badgers,  89. 
Sassabi,  323. 
Sea-Bears,  115. 

Northern,  115. 
Sea-Cow,  Northern,  574. 
Sea-Lions,  108. 

Californian,  113. 

Hooker's,  115. 

Northern,  110. 

Southern,  108-. 
Seals,  102. 

Australian  Hair,  115. 

Baikal,  140. 

Bearded,  140. 

Bladder,  144. 

Californian  Sea-Lion,  113. 

Cape,  123. 

Caspian,  140. 

Common,  136. 

Crab-Eating,  143. 


Seals — continued. 

Crested,  144. 

Eared,  106. 

Earless,  131. 

Elephant,  146. 

Falkland  Island,  123. 

Fur,  106,  115. 

Greenland,  136. 

Grey,  134. 

Hair,  106,  115. 

Harp,  138. 

Hooded,  144. 

Hooker's  Sea-Lion,  115. 

Leopard,  142. 

Monk,  141. 

New  Zealand,  123. 

Northern  Sea-Bear,  124. 

Northern  Sea-Lion,  110. 

Ringed,  139. 

Ross's,  143. 

Saddle-Backed,  138. 

Siberian,  140. 

South  American,  123. 

Southern  Fur,  122. 

Southern  Sea-Lion,  108. 

Weddell's,  143. 

West  Indian,  142. 
Sea-Otter,  98. 
Serows,  2«F>8. 

Burmese,  259. 

Common,  258. 

Japanese,  259. 

Swinhoe's,  259. 
Sha,  223. 
Sheep,  212. 

American,  213. 

Armenian,  224. 

Barbary,  232. 

Bharal,  231. 

Bighorn,  213. 

Cheviot,  229. 

Cretan,  224. 

Cyprian,  224. 

Domestic,  227. 

Dorset,  230. 

Flat-Tailed,  228. 

Heath,  229. 

Irish,  229. 

Kamschatkan,  213,  216. 

Long-Woolled,  231. 

Merino,  230. 

Mongolian.  217. 

Mouflon,  225. 

Moor,  230. 

Norfolk,  229. 

Pamir,  220. 

Scotch,  229. 

Shetland,  229. 

Tibetan,  217. 

Urial,  223. 

Welsh,  229. 
Shou,  348. 
Sing-Sing,  304. 
Sirenians,  567. 

Dugongs,  572. 

Manatis,  570. 

Sea-Cow,  574. 

Tertiary,  575. 
Sititunga,  276. 
Sivathere,  337. 
Sloth-Bear,  26. 
Skunks,  74. 


Skunks — continued. 

Common,  74. 

Lesser,  75. 

Long-Tailed,  75. 

White-Backed,  75. 
Springbok,  290. 
Steinbok,  307. 

Zanzibar,  307. 
Stoat,  64. 

Long-Tailed,  67. 
Strepsiceros,  273. 

imberbis,  274. 

kudu,  273. 
Suidas,  420. 
Sunu,  304. 
Sus,  425. 

africanus,  434. 

andamanensis,  429. 

arvernensis,  436. 

barbatux.  430. 

celeboisis,  430. 

ccramensis,  430. 

cristatus,  426. 

falcmicri,  436. 

indicus,  432. 

Uutomystax,  429. 

papuensis,  429. 

porcus,  435. 

salvanius,  429. 

scrofa,  426. 

senctarensis,  430. 

taevanus,  429. 

lifcm,  435. 

verrucosus,  429. 
Swine,  420. 

Andaman,  429. 

Bush,  434. 

Celebes,  430. 

Ceram,  430. 

Collared,  429. 

Domestic,  430. 

Extinct,  435. 

Formosan,  429. 

Indian,  426.      . 

Japan,  429. 

Malayan,  429. 

Masked,  433. 

Papuan,  429. 

Pigmy,  429. 

Senaar,  430. 

Titan,  435. 

True,  425. 

Warty,  429. 

White-Whiskered,  429. 

Tahr,  254. 


INDEX, 

Takin,  259. 
Tamarao,  206. 
Tupiridse,  457. 
Tapirs,  457. 

American,  459. 

Baird's,  460. 

Dow's,  460. 

Malayan,  459. 

Roulin's,  459. 
Tapirtts,  457. 

americanus,  459. 

bairdi,  460. 

dowi,  460. 

indicus,  459. 

roulini,  459. 
Tarpan,  493. 
Taxidea,  83. 

americana,  83. 
Tayra,  47. 
Tetraceros,  311. 

quadricornis,  311. 
Tillodonts,  566. 
Titanothere,  516. 
Titel,  316. 
Toxodon,  564. 
Toxodmitia,  564. 
Toxodonts,  564. 
Tratjclaplim,  275. 

angasi,  275. 

euryceros,  275. 

grains,  276. 

scriptus,  277. 

spekei,  276. 
Tragulidse,  398. 
Tragulina,  398. 
Tragulus,  399. 

javanicus,  400. 

mcminna,  399. 

nigricans,  401. 

stanleyanus,  400. 
TrichcchidsK,  124. 
Trichechus,  124. 

rosmarus,  124. 
Tur,  235. 

Caucasian,  236. 

Pallas's,  236. 

Severtzow's,  236. 
Tylopoda,  398. 
Typothere,  566. 

Uintatheres,  559. 
Ungulates,  151. 

Even-Toed,  157. 

Odd-Toed,  455. 

Short- Footed,  559. 
Upetyani,  474. 


583 


Urial,  223. 
UraidK,  1. 
Ursus,  4. 

americanus,  18. 

arctos,  9. 

arvernensis,  26. 

cinnamonus,  14. 

crowtheri,  13. 

gcdrosianus,  23. 

horribilis,  14. 

japonic-US,  23. 

malayanus,  24. 

maritimus,  4. 

ornatus,  9.3. 

richardsoni,  14. 

spclietis,  25. 

theobaldi,  26. 

torquatus,  20. 

Vicunia,  413. 


Walrus,  124. 
Wapiti,  349. 
Warri-atu,  256. 
Wart-Hogs,  439. 

^Elian's,  440. 

Pallas's,  440. 
Water-Buck,  303 
Water-Deer,  303. 
Weasels,  46. 

Bridled,  67. 

Common,  62. 

Himalayan,  67. 

Pale,  67. 

South-African,  70. 

Striped,  67. 

Yellow-Bellied,  67. 
Wild  Boars,  426. 

European,  426. 

Indian,  426. 
Wildebeests,  312. 

Blue,  314. 

Brindled,  314. 

White-Tailed,  314. 
Wolverene,  69. 


Yak,  185. 


Zebras,  503. 

Burchell's,  504. 
Grevy's.  505. 
Mountain,  503. 
True,  503. 


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New  natural  history 


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